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Шаблон:Short description Шаблон:Use Indian English Шаблон:Use dmy dates Шаблон:Infobox spaceflight

Chandrayaan-3 (Шаблон:IPAc-en Шаблон:Respell) is the third mission in the Chandrayaan programme, a series of lunar-exploration missions developed by the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO).[1] The mission consists of a lunar lander named Vikram and a lunar rover named Pragyan, similar to those launched aboard Chandrayaan-2 in 2019.

Chandrayaan-3 was launched from Satish Dhawan Space Centre on 14 July 2023. The spacecraft entered lunar orbit on 5 August, and the lander touched down near the lunar south pole[2] on 23 August at 18:03 IST (12:33 UTC), making India the fourth country to successfully land on the Moon, and the first to do so near the lunar south pole.[3]Шаблон:Efn On 3 September the lander hopped and repositioned itself Шаблон:Cvt from its landing site making the second hop on lunar surface after Surveyor 6.[4][5] After the completion of its mission objectives, it was hoped that the lander and rover would revive for extra tasks, on 22 September 2023, but missed the wake-up call. On September 30, the second lunar night began, eliminating hopes of revival.[6][7] On the other hand, Propulsion module returned to Earth's orbit on 22 November 2023 after exiting lunar orbit via a series of maneuvers starting from 9 October 2023.[8]

History

Шаблон:FurtherШаблон:See alsoOn 22 July 2019, ISRO launched Chandrayaan-2 on board a Launch Vehicle Mark-3 (LVM3) launch vehicle consisting of an orbiter, a lander and a rover.[9] The lander was scheduled to touch down on the lunar surface on 6 September 2019 to deploy the Pragyan rover. The lander lost contact with mission control, deviated from its intended trajectory while attempting to land near the lunar south pole, and crashed.[10][11]

The lunar south pole region holds particular interest for scientific exploration. Studies show large amounts of ice there. Mountainous terrain and unpredictable lighting protect the ice from melting, but they also make landing scientific probes there a challenging undertaking. The ice could contain solid-state compounds that would normally melt under warmer conditions elsewhere on the Moon—compounds which could provide insight into lunar, Earth, and Solar System history. For future crewed missions and outposts, ice could also be a source of drinking water and of hydrogen for fuel and oxygen.[12][13]

The European Space Tracking network (ESTRACK), operated by the European Space Agency (ESA), and Deep Space Network operated by Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) of NASA are supporting the mission.[14] Under a new cross-support arrangement, ESA tracking support could be provided for upcoming ISRO missions such as those of India's first human spaceflight programme, Gaganyaan, and the Aditya-L1 solar research mission. In return, future ESA missions will receive similar support from ISRO's own tracking stations.[15]

For the first time on the lunar surface, a laser beam from NASA's Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter was broadcast on 12 December 2023, and it was reflected back by a tiny NASA retroreflector on board the Vikram lander. The purpose of the experiment was to determine the retroreflector's surface location from the moon's orbit. The Chandrayaan-3 lander's Laser Retroreflector Array (LRA) instrument began acting as a location marker close to the lunar south pole. Through multinational cooperation, the LRA was housed on the Vikram lander. On a hemispherical support framework, it consists of eight corner-cube retroreflectors. This array enables any orbiting spacecraft equipped with appropriate instruments to use lasers ranging from different directions. The 20 gram passive optical equipment is intended to survive for several decades on the lunar surface.[16]

Objectives

ISRO's mission objectives for the Chandrayaan-3 mission are:

  1. Engineering and implementing a lander to land safely and softly on the surface of the Moon.
  2. Observing and demonstrating the rover's driving capabilities on the Moon.
  3. Conducting and observing experiments on the materials available on the lunar surface to better understand the composition of the Moon.[17]

Spacecraft

Design

Chandrayaan-3 comprises three main components: a propulsion module, lander module, and rover.

Propulsion module

The propulsion module carried the lander and rover configuration to a Шаблон:Convert lunar orbit. It was a box-like structure with a large solar panel mounted on one side and a cylindrical mounting structure for the lander (the Intermodular Adapter Cone) on top.[18][19]

A few months after the conclusion of the lander portion of the mission, ISRO officials said that the propulsion module was equipped with two radioisotope heating units (RHU), designed and developed by BARC (Bhabha Atomic Research Centre). RHUs keep spacecraft at their operational temperature using the decay of radioactive material, to generate electricity to power heaters. It is thoughtШаблон:By whom that national security reasons delayed the disclosure to the media. Chandrayaan-3 project director P Veeramuthuvel said ISRO may use nuclear resources to maintain instruments in future rovers. ISRO officials later said the RHUs could not be installed on Chandrayaan-3’s Vikram lander and Pragyan rover because it would have increased their mass. This reduced their maximum lifespan to 14 earth days, or 1 lunar day.[20][21][22] On 4 December 2023, ISRO reported that the propulsion module was reinserted into an orbit around the earth.[8] The primary objective of the reinsertion was to allow earth observations by spectral and polarimetric instruments.[23]

Vikram lander

The Vikram lander was responsible for the soft landing on the Moon. It is also box-shaped, with four landing legs and four landing thrusters capable of producing 800 newtons of thrust each. It carried the rover and has various scientific instruments to perform on-site analysis.[24][25] The lander has four variable-thrust engines with slew rate changing capabilities, unlike Chandrayaan-2's lander, which had five, with the fifth one being centrally mounted and capable only of fixed thrust. One of the main reasons for Chandrayaan-2's landing failure was altitude increase during the camera coasting phase. This was removed by allowing the lander to control altitude and thrust during all phases of descent. Altitude correction rate was increased from Chandrayaan-2's 10°/s to 25°/s with Chandrayaan-3. Additionally, the Chandrayaan-3 lander is equipped with a laser Doppler velocimeter (LDV) to allow measuring altitude in three directions.[26][27] The impact legs were made stronger compared to Chandrayaan-2 and instrumentation redundancy was improved. It targeted a more precise Шаблон:Cvt landing region based on images provided by the Orbiter High-Resolution Camera (OHRC) onboard Chandrayaan-2's orbiter. ISRO improved the structural rigidity, increased polling in instruments, increased data frequency and transmission, and added additional multiple contingency systems to improve lander survivability in the event of failure during descent and landing.[28][27]

Rover

The Pragyan rover is a six-wheeled vehicle with a mass of Шаблон:Convert. It is Шаблон:Convert in size.[29] The rover is expected to take multiple measurements to support research into the composition of the lunar surface, the presence of water ice in the lunar soil, the history of lunar impacts, and the evolution of the Moon's atmosphere.[30][2]

Payloads

On lander

On rover

On the propulsion module

  • Spectro-polarimetry of Habitable Planet Earth (SHAPE) will study spectral and polarimetric measurements of Earth from the lunar orbit in the near-infrared (NIR) wavelength range (1–1.7 μm).[18][19] Findings of SHAPE might aid in future exoplanet research and search for extraterrestrial life.[32]

Mission profile

Шаблон:Multiple image

Launch

Файл:LVM3 M4, Chandrayaan-3 - Launch vehicle lifting off from the Second Launch Pad (SLP) of SDSC-SHAR, Sriharikota 03.webp
LVM3 M4, Chandrayaan-3 – Launch vehicle lifting off from the second launch pad of SDSC-SHAR, Sriharikota

Chandrayaan-3 was launched aboard an LVM3-M4 rocket on 14 July 2023, at 09:05 UTC from Satish Dhawan Space Centre Second Launch Pad in Sriharikota, Andhra Pradesh, India, entering an Earth parking orbit with a perigee of Шаблон:Convert and an apogee of Шаблон:Convert. On 15 November 2023, the Cryogenic Upper Stage (C25) of the rocket (NORAD ID: 57321) made an uncontrolled re-entry into the Earth’s atmosphere around 9:12 UTC. The impact point is predicted over the North Pacific Ocean and the final ground track did not pass over India.[33] [34][35]

Orbit

After a series of Earth bound manoeuvres that placed Chandrayaan-3 in a trans-lunar injection orbit,[36][37][38] ISRO performed a lunar-orbit insertion (LOI) on 5 August, successfully placing the Chandrayaan-3 spacecraft into an orbit around the Moon. The LOI operation was carried out from the ISRO Telemetry, Tracking, and Command Network (ISTRAC) in Bengaluru.[39][40]

On 17 August, the Vikram lander separated from the propulsion module to begin landing operations.[41]

Landing

Файл:Image of Chandrayaan-3 Lander captured by OHRC camera aboard Chandrayaan-2 Orbiter.webp
Image of Chandrayaan-3 Lander as captured by OHRC camera aboard Chandrayaan-2 Orbiter
Файл:Chandrayaan-3 – Image of Vikram lander on lunar surface taken by Pragyan rover navcam at 1104 IST, 30 August 2023 from 15 meters away (without text).webp
Chandrayaan-3 Lander on the Moon imaged by rover Pragyan 15 meters away
Файл:Pragyan rover deployed on the moon.webp
Pragyan roll out

On 23 August 2023, as the lander approached the low point of its orbit, its four engines fired as a braking manoeuvre at Шаблон:Convert above the Moon's surface. After 11.5 minutes, the lander was 7.2 km (4.5 miles) above the surface; it maintained this altitude for about 10 seconds, then stabilized itself using eight smaller thrusters and rotated from a horizontal to a vertical position while continuing its descent.

It then used two of its four engines to slow its descent to roughly Шаблон:Convert; it hovered there for about 30 seconds and located an optimal landing spot before continuing downward and touching down at 12:33 UTC.[24][42]

Stages of Chandrayaan-3 deployment and flight
Stage and sequence Date/
time (UTC) 		LAM burn time Orbit Orbital period References
Earth orbit: Launch 14 July 2023 Шаблон:N/A Шаблон:Convert Шаблон:N/A
Earth bound maneuvers: 1 15 July 2023 Шаблон:N/A Шаблон:Convert Шаблон:N/A [43][44]
Earth bound maneuvers: 2 17 July 2023 Шаблон:N/A Шаблон:Convert Шаблон:N/A [43][45]
Earth bound maneuvers: 3 18 July 2023 Шаблон:N/A Шаблон:Convert Шаблон:N/A [46]
Earth bound maneuvers: 4 20 July 2023 Шаблон:N/A Шаблон:Convert Шаблон:N/A [43][47]
Earth bound maneuvers: 5 25 July 2023 Шаблон:N/A Шаблон:Convert Шаблон:N/A [48]
Trans-lunar injection 31 July 2023 Шаблон:N/A Шаблон:Convert Шаблон:N/A [49]
Lunar bound maneuvers:1 (Lunar orbit insertion) 5 August 2023 Шаблон:Convert Шаблон:Convert Approx. Шаблон:Convert [50]
Lunar bound maneuvers: 2 6 August 2023 Шаблон:N/A Шаблон:Convert Шаблон:N/A [51]
Lunar bound maneuvers:3 9 August 2023 Шаблон:N/A Шаблон:Convert Шаблон:N/A [52]
Lunar bound maneuvers:4 14 August 2023 Шаблон:N/A Шаблон:Convert Шаблон:N/A [53]
Lunar bound maneuvers:5 16 August 2023 Шаблон:N/A Шаблон:Convert Шаблон:N/A [54]
Lander deorbit maneuvers: 1 18 August 2023 Шаблон:N/A Шаблон:Convert Шаблон:N/A [55]
Lander deorbit maneuvers: 2 19 August 2023 Шаблон:Convert Шаблон:Convert Шаблон:N/A [56]
Landing Шаблон:Nowrap TBC Шаблон:N/a Шаблон:N/a [57]
Rover deployment 23 August 2023 Шаблон:N/a Шаблон:N/a Шаблон:N/a [57]

Surface operations

Файл:The lunar crater that the Pragyan rover of Chandrayaan-3 encountered on 27th August 2023, as seen by the Navgation Camera.png
A Шаблон:Convert crater, as photographed by the Navigation camera on board the rover

On 3 September, the rover was put into sleep mode after it had completed all of its assignments. Its batteries were charged and receiver left on, according to ISRO, in preparation for the impending lunar night.[58] "The rover's payloads are turned off and the data it collected has been transmitted to Earth via the lander", the statement said. Chandrayaan-3's lander and rover were expected to operate only for one lunar daylight period, or 14 Earth days, and the on-board electronics were not designed to withstand the Шаблон:Convert nighttime temperatures on the Moon.[59] On 22 September, the lander and rover missed their wake-up calls,[60][61] and by 28 September neither had responded, diminishing hopes for further surface operations.[62]

Hop experiment

Vikram fired its engines for a brief 'hop' on the lunar surface on 3 September, ascending Шаблон:Cvt off the lunar surface and translating a similar distance laterally across the surface.[63] The test demonstrated capabilities to be used in potential future sample return missions. The instruments and rover deployment ramp were retracted for the hop and redeployed afterwards.[64][65][66]

Propulsion module reinserted to orbit around Earth

Файл:Ch3 Propulsion Module Detour 1.png
Lunar bound maneuvering of Propulsion Module
Файл:Ch3 Propulsion Module Detour 2.png
Trans-Earth injection (TEI) maneuver and quadra lunar flyby
Файл:Ch3 Propulsion Module Detour 3.png
Lunar SOI exiting and first Earth bound perigee crossing

The propulsion module of Chandrayaan-3 was moved out of lunar orbit to an orbit around Earth.[23][67] Although the plan was to operate SHAPE for three months in lunar orbit, it was decided to utilise over 100Шаблон:Nbspkg of fuel left in the PM after one month of operation to derive additional information for future lunar missions, and determine strategies for sample return missions and gravity-assisted flyby missions. ISRO's flight dynamics team had developed software to be validated through these return maneuvers.

Propulsion module return operations[68]
Date Manoeuvre/event Orbit
Apogee (km) Perigee (km) Period (hours)
Initial lunar orbit 150 Шаблон:N/A 2.1
9 October 2023 Lunar-bound maneuver 1 5112 Шаблон:N/A 7.2
13 October 2023 Trans-Earth Injection (TEI) ≈380,000 ≈180,000 Шаблон:N/A
18 October 2023 Lunar flyby 1 Шаблон:N/A Шаблон:N/A Шаблон:N/A
24 October 2023 Lunar flyby 2 Шаблон:N/A Шаблон:N/A Шаблон:N/A
2 November 2023 Lunar flyby 3 Шаблон:N/A Шаблон:N/A Шаблон:N/A
07 November 2023 Lunar flyby 4 Шаблон:N/A Шаблон:N/A Шаблон:N/A
10 November 2023 Lunar SOI Departure Шаблон:N/A Шаблон:N/A Шаблон:N/A
22 November 2023 First Perigee Crossing Шаблон:N/A ≈154,000 Шаблон:N/A
Final Earth orbit (variable) ≥115,000 ≈300

The propulsion module is currently orbiting Earth with a perigee and apogee altitude that vary during its trajectory and the predicted minimum perigee altitude is Шаблон:Convert, with an orbital period of nearly 13 days with 27 degree inclination. The SHAPE payload is operated whenever Earth is in its field of view, as well during special events such as the 28 October 2023 solar eclipse. The SHAPE payload operations are planned to continue further.[68]

Шаблон:Multiple image

Mission life

  • Propulsion module: Carries lander and rover to Шаблон:Convert orbit, with operation of experimental payload for up to six months.[69]
  • Lander module: one lunar daylight period (14 Earth days).[69]
  • Rover module: one lunar daylight period (14 Earth days).[69]

Team

Funding

In December 2019, ISRO requested the initial funding of the project, amounting to Шаблон:INRConvert, out of which Шаблон:INRConvert would be for meeting expenditure towards machinery, equipment, and other capital expenditure, while the remaining Шаблон:INRConvert was sought for operating expenditure.[76] Amit Sharma, CEO of an ISRO vendor, said, "With local sourcing of equipment and design elements, we are able to reduce the price considerably."[77]

Confirming the existence of the project, ISRO's former chairman K. Sivan stated that the estimated cost would be around Шаблон:INRConvert.[78][79][80]

Results

The Associated Press, while commenting on the success of the mission, said, "The successful mission showcases India's rising standing as a technology and space powerhouse and dovetails with Prime Minister Narendra Modi's desire to project an image of an ascendant country asserting its place among the global elite."[81] About results on water existence, "There was no word on the outcome of the rover searches for signs of frozen water on the lunar surface (...)"[81].

Temperature variation

ISRO also released data from the observations made by ChaSTE (Chandra's Surface Thermophysical Experiment), one of the four instruments present on the lander module. ChaSTE was designed to study the heat conductivity of the Moon's surface and measure the differences in temperatures at different points on and below the surface, with the overall objective of creating a thermal profile of the Moon.

Файл:The graph of temperature variation across the lunar topsoil at a point in the solar polar region, as measured by the ChaSTE instrument.png
The graph of temperature variation across the lunar topsoil at a point in the solar polar region, as measured by the ChaSTE instrument

ISRO scientist BH Darukesha said the high range of Шаблон:Convert temperature near the surface was "not expected".[82]

Detection of sulfur

On 29 August, ISRO reported that the laser-induced breakdown spectroscope (LIBS) instrument on board the Pragyan rover has "unambiguously" confirmed the presence of sulfur in the lunar surface near the south pole, through "first-ever in-situ measurements".[83][84] The presence of sulfur on the Moon has been known before;[85] however, it was detected for the first time at the south pole by the rover.[86]

Noah Petro, a project scientist at NASA, while speaking to the BBC, stated that while sulfur has been known to be in the lunar regolith from Apollo program samples, he described PragyanШаблон:'s findings as a "tremendous accomplishment".[87]

Apart from sulfur, the rover also detected other elements including aluminium (Al), calcium (Ca), iron (Fe), chromium (Cr), titanium (Ti), manganese (Mn), silicon (Si), and oxygen (O).[88] The agency said it is also searching for hydrogen (H).[89][90]

Файл:Ch3 1st libs plot 2.png
Pragyan rover detected elements present on the Moon.

Plasma measurement

On 31 August, ISRO released plasma density data from the RAMBHA Instrument aboard the Vikram lander. Initial assessments reported relatively low plasma densities above the lunar surface varying from 5 to 30 million electrons per m3. The evaluation pertains to early stages of the lunar day. The probe aims to explore the changes in the near-surface plasma environment throughout the duration of the lunar day.[91]

Seismic measurements

On the same day, ISRO released data from the ILSA payload on the lander, providing vibration measurements of the rover movement on 25 August, and a presumed natural event on 26 August. The cause of the latter event is a subject of investigation,[92] it is suspected to be a moonquake.[90]

Domestic reactions

Chandrayaan-3's landing live stream on ISRO's official YouTube channel received eight million concurrent viewers,[93] which is the highest in YouTube's history for a live video.[94][95]

Congratulating the ISRO team behind the successful Chandrayaan-3 mission at ISRO Telemetry, Tracking and Command Network in Bengaluru, Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi announced that the touchdown point of the Vikram lander would henceforth be known as Shiv Shakti point.[96] He further declared 23 August, the day the Vikram lander landed on the Moon, as National Space Day.[97][98]

ISRO chief S. Somanath proclaimed "India is on the Moon" after the successful touchdown.[99] "We learnt a lot from our failure and corrected it. It's now 14 days of work and we have to conduct experiments," he told India Today.[100]

P Veeramuthuvel, the project director of the mission said, "It's a great moment of happiness. On behalf of the team it gives me immense satisfaction on achieving this goal as the Project Director of the mission. The entire mission operations right from launch till landing happened flawlessly as per the timeline".[101] S. Mohana Kumar, the mission director, said that Chandrayaan-3 was a "team effort".[102]

Meanwhile, former ISRO chief K Sivan, under whose tenure the Chandrayaan-2 was launched said, "We are really excited to see this grand success. For this, we have been waiting for the last four years. This success is sweet news for us and for the entire nation."[103]

Rahul Gandhi, the leader of the opposition, also celebrated Chandrayaan-3's success, calling it a result of "tremendous ingenuity and hard work" by the country's scientific community. "Since 1962, India's space program has continued to scale new heights and inspire generations of young dreamers," he posted on X.[104]

Delhi chief minister Arvind Kejriwal congratulated the scientists of ISRO on the successful landing and termed it a "historic" moment. He wrote "This is historical. It's a significant achievement for the country. It's a matter of pride for all of us. The success of Chandrayaan-3 is a result of the hard work of all citizens, ISRO scientists, engineers, and employees. Congratulations to everyone involved. Bharat Mata ki jai."[105]

DY Chandrachud, the chief justice of India hailed the landing as "a milestone in the onward march of our nation" and congratulated the ISRO team.[106]

International reactions

Josef Aschbacher, director general of the European Space Agency, said: "Incredible! Congratulations to ISRO, Chandrayaan-3, and to all the people of India!! What a way to demonstrate new technologies AND achieve India's first soft landing on another celestial body. Well done, I am thoroughly impressed."[107][108][109]

Abdulla Shahid, the foreign minister of Maldives, wrote "As a South Asian nation, and neighbour, we are proud of the successful landing of Chandrayaan 3 near the moon's south pole. This is a success for all of humanity! Opening new avenues for new areas of exploration."[108]

Bill Nelson, the administrator of NASA wrote "Congratulations ISRO on your successful Chandrayaan-3 lunar South Pole landing and congratulations to India on being the 4th country to successfully soft-land a spacecraft on the Moon. We’re glad to be your partner on this mission".[110][109]

Cyril Ramaphosa, the president of South Africa said "This for us, as the BRICS family, is a momentous occasion and we rejoice with you. We join you in the joy of this great achievement."[107]

The Kremlin quoted Russian president Vladimir Putin's message to Indian president Droupadi Murmu and Modi, "Please, accept my heartfelt congratulations on the occasion of the successful landing of the Indian space station Chandrayaan-3 on the Moon near its South Pole. This is a big step forward in space exploration and certainly a testament to the impressive progress made by India in the area of science and technology”.[111]

Nepal prime minister Pushpa Kamal Dahal said "I congratulate Prime Minister Shri Narendra Modi ji and ISRO team of India on successful landing of Chandrayan-3 in the surface of the moon today and unleashing of a historic achievement in science and space technology."[108]

See also

Notes

Шаблон:Reflist

References

Шаблон:Reflist

External links

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  108. ↑ 108,0 108,1 108,2 Шаблон:Cite web
  109. ↑ 109,0 109,1 Шаблон:Cite web
  110. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  111. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
Источник — http://wikihandbk.com/ruwiki/index.php?title=Английская_Википедия:Chandrayaan-3&oldid=13852619