Просмотр кода страницы Английская Википедия:Ajuran Sultanate

{{Английская Википедия/Панель перехода}}
{{More citations needed|date=April 2023}}
{{Short description|Somali Muslim empire (13th-late 18th century)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2020}}
{{Infobox former country
| native_name            = {{native name|so|Dawladdii Ajuuraan}}<br/>{{native name|ar|دولة الأجورانية}}
| conventional_long_name = Ajuuraan Sultanate
| common_name            = Ajuran Sultanate
| country                = 
| era                    = 
| year_start             = 13th century
| year_end               = Late 18th century
| event1                 = [[Ajuran Empire#Ajuran-Portuguese battles|Ajuran-Portuguese battles]]
| date_event1            = 16th century
| event2                 = [[Ajuran Empire#Oromo incursion|Oromo incursion]]
| date_event2            = Mid-17th century
| flag_p1                = 
| p1                     = Sultanate of Mogadishu
| p2                     = Tunni Sultanate
| s1                     = Sultanate of the Geledi
| s2                     = Hiraab Imamate
| date_start             = 
| date_end               = 
| event_start            = Established
| event_end              = Decline
| image_flag             = Muzzaffar (Mogadishu area) flag according to 1576 Portuguese map.svg
| flag_border            = no
| flag                   = 
| image_coat             = 
| image_map              = Ajuuraan & Adal map.png
| image_map_caption      = The Ajuran Sultanate in the 13th century
| national_motto         = 
| national_anthem        = 
| capital                = {{ubl|[[Mareeg]] (initially)|[[Kelafo|Qelafo]]|[[Merca]]}}
| common_languages       = {{ubl|[[Somali language|Somali]]|[[Arabic language|Arabic]]}}
| government_type        = [[Monarchy]]
| title_leader           = [[Suldaan|Sultan]], [[Imam]]
| stat_year1             = 
| stat_pop1              = 
| stat_area4             = 
| population_density3    = 
| religion               = [[Sunni Islam]]
| currency               = {{ubl|[[Ajuran currency|Ajuran]]|[[Mogadishu currency|Mogadishan]]}}
| today                  = [[Somalia]]<br/>[[Ethiopia]]
| demonym                = 
| area_km2               = 
| area_rank              = 
| GDP_PPP                = 
| GDP_PPP_year           = 
| HDI                    = 
| HDI_year               = 
}}

The '''Ajuran Sultanate''' ({{lang-so|Saldanadda Ajuuraan}}, {{lang-ar|سلطنة الأجورانية}}), also natively referred to as '''Ajuuraan''',<ref name="His 40">{{cite book|last=Njoku|first=Raphael Chijioke|title=The History of Somalia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FlL2vE_qRQ8C&pg=PA40|year=2013|publisher=Greenwood|isbn=978-0-313-37857-7|page=40}}</ref> and often simply '''Ajuran''',<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Ajuran|title=Ajuran &#124; historical state, Africa|website=Encyclopedia Britannica}}</ref> was a [[Somalis|Somali]] [[Empire]] in the [[Middle Ages]] in the [[Horn of Africa]] that dominated the trade in the northern [[Indian ocean]]. They belonged to the [[Somali people|Somali]] [[Muslim]] [[sultanate]]<ref>{{cite book|last=Luling|first=Virginia|title=Somali Sultanate: the Geledi city-state over 150 years|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=s0Y_AQAAIAAJ&pg=PA17|year=2002|publisher=Transaction Publishers|isbn=978-1-874209-98-0|page=17}}</ref><ref>Luc Cambrézy, Populations réfugiées: de l'exil au retour, p.316</ref><ref>{{cite journal |first=Mohamed Haji |last=Mukhtar |title=The Emergence and Role of Political Parties in the Inter-River Region of Somalia from 1947–1960 |journal=[[Ufahamu]] |volume=17 |issue=2 |page=98 |url=http://escholarship.org/uc/item/7h11k656|year=1989 |doi=10.5070/F7172016882 |doi-access=free }}</ref> that ruled over large parts of the [[Horn of Africa]] in the [[Middle Ages]]. Through a strong centralized administration and an aggressive military stance towards invaders, the Ajuran Empire successfully resisted an [[Oromo people|Oromo]] [[#Oromo incursion|incursion]] from the west and a [[Portuguese Empire|Portuguese]] incursion from the east during the Gaal Madow and the [[#Ajuran-Portuguese battles|Ajuran-Portuguese wars]]. Trading routes dating from the ancient and early medieval periods of [[Maritime history of Somalia|Somali maritime enterprise]] were strengthened or re-established, and foreign trade and commerce in the coastal provinces flourished with ships sailing to and coming from many kingdoms and empires in [[East Asia]], [[South Asia]], [[Europe]], the [[Near East]], [[North Africa]] and [[East Africa]].<ref name="Shapes">{{cite book|last=Shelley|first=Fred M.|title=Nation Shapes: The Story behind the World's Borders|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5qlXatHRJtMC&pg=PA358|year=2013|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-61069-106-2|page=358}}</ref>

The empire left an extensive [[Somali architecture|architectural legacy]], being one of the major medieval Somali powers engaged in castle and [[fortress]] building. Many of the ruined fortifications dotting the landscapes of southern Somalia today are attributed to the Ajuran Empire's engineers,<ref name="Shs">{{harvp|Cassanelli|1982|page=101}}</ref> including a number of the [[pillar tomb]] fields, [[necropolis]]es and [[ruin|ruined cities]] built in that era. During the Ajuran period, many regions and people in the southern part of the [[Horn of Africa]] converted to [[Islam]] because of the [[theocratic]] nature of the government.<ref name="Cultural">{{cite encyclopedia |editor-last=Ramsamy |editor-first=Edward |volume=2: Africa |title=Cultural Sociology of the Middle East, Asia, and Africa: An Encyclopedia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GtCL2OYsH6wC&pg=PRxxxiv|year=2012|publisher=SAGE Publications|isbn=978-1-4129-8176-7}}</ref> The [[royal family]], the House of Garen, expanded its territories and established its hegemonic rule through a skillful combination of [[warfare]], [[trade|trade linkages]] and [[Military alliance|alliance]]s.<ref name="Crescent" />

In the fifteenth century, for example, the Ajuran Empire was the only [[hydraulic empire]] in Africa. As a water dynasty, the Ajuran state monopolized the [[water resources]] of the [[Shebelle River|Shebelle]] and [[Jubba river]]s.<ref name="Reference">Human-Earth System Dynamics Implications to Civilizations By Rongxing Guo Page 83</ref> Through [[hydraulic engineering]], it constructed many of the [[limestone]] [[Water well|wells]] and [[cistern]]s of the state that remain in use today. The rulers developed new systems for agriculture and taxation, which continued to be used in parts of the [[Horn of Africa]] as late as the 19th century.<ref name="His 40"/> The rule of the later Ajuran rulers caused multiple rebellions to break out in the empire, and at the end of the 17th century, the [[#Decline and successor states|Ajuran state disintegrated]] into several successor kingdoms and states, the most prominent being the [[Geledi Sultanate]].{{sfnp|Njoku|2013|page=41}}

==Location==

[[File:Mogadishu 1576.png|thumb|Mogadishu 1576]]

The Ajuran Empire's sphere of influence in the [[Horn of Africa]] was one of the largest in the region. The empire covered much of southern [[Somalia]] and eastern [[Ethiopia]],<ref name="Shapes"/><ref name="Michigan">{{cite book|title=Northeast African Studies|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8QAOAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA115|volume=11|year=1989|publisher=African Studies Center, Michigan State University|page=115}}</ref> with its domain extending from [[Hobyo]] in the north, to [[Kelafo|Qelafo]] in the west, to [[Kismayo]] in the south.{{sfnp|Cassanelli|1982|p=102}}

==Origins and the House of Garen==
{| border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2" style="float:right; margin:1em 1 1em 1em; border 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse:collapse; width:20.75em; background:#fff; font-size:85%; text-align:center;"
|-
!style="background:#fff;"| 
|-
!style="background:#96DA5E; font-size:110%; line-height:1.2em;"| The House of Gareen<br/> '''''Known members'''''
|-
|
*Ajuran 
*Baydan
*Badbeydan
*Walmuge 
*Sanle 
*Sanle mage
*Toore
*Dhaqsoore
|-
|style="background:#96DA5E;"| 
|-
|}

The House of Garen was the ruling hereditary [[dynasty]] of the Ajuran Empire.<ref>{{cite book |first=I. M. |last=Lewis |title=A Modern History of Somalia: Nation and State in the Horn of Africa |edition=2nd, revised |publisher=Westview Press |year=1988 |page=24 |isbn=978-0-8133-7402-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Nt5yAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA24}}</ref><ref name="Crescent">{{cite book |first=Randall L. |last=Pouwels |title=Horn and Crescent: Cultural Change and Traditional Islam on the East African Coast, 800–1900 |series=African Studies |volume=53 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2006 |page=15 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iyw-_NMk0bgC&pg=PA15 |isbn=978-0-521-52309-7 }}</ref> Its origin lies in the Garen Kingdom that during the 13th century ruled parts of the [[Somali Region]] of [[Ethiopia]]. With the migration of Somalis from the northern half of the Horn region to the southern half, new cultural and religious orders were introduced that influenced the administrative structure of the [[dynasty]], a system of governance which began to evolve into an [[Sharia|Islamic government]]. Through their genealogical [[Barakah|Baraka]], which came from the saint Balad (who was known to have come from outside the Garen Kingdom),<ref name="Dic 35">{{harvp|Mukhtar|2003|page=35}}</ref> the Garen rulers claimed supremacy and religious legitimacy over other groups in the Horn of Africa. Balad's ancestors are said to have come from the historical northern region of [[Barbara (region)|Barbara]].

==Etymology==
The Ajuran Empire traces its name from the Arabic ''إيجار/'ijara'', which means ''rent'' or ''tax''. A name well deserved for the exorbitant tributes paid to the Empire.{{sfnp|Mukhtar|2003|page=35}}

It survives as the name of the [[Ajuran (clan)|Ajuran]] clan today.

==Administration==
{{main|Somali aristocratic and court titles}}
[[File:Marka,Somalia.jpg|thumb|200px|right|The city of [[Merca]] was one of several prominent [[administrative center]]s of the Ajurans.]]

The Ajuran nobility used many of the typical [[Somali aristocratic and court titles]], with the Garen rulers styled [[Somali aristocratic and court titles#Rulers|Imam]]. These leaders were the empire's highest authority, and counted multiple [[Sultan]]s, [[Emir]]s, and [[Monarch|Kings]] as clients or [[vassal]]s. The Garen rulers also had seasonal palaces in [[Mareeg]], [[Kelafo|Qelafo]] and [[Merca]], important cities in the Empire were [[Mogadishu]] and [[Barawa]]. The state religion was [[Islam]], and thus law was based on [[Sharia]].

#[[Imam]] – Head of the State<ref name="Dic 35"/>
#[[Emir]] – Commander of the [[#Military|armed forces and navy]]
#[[Na'ib]]s – Viceroys<ref name="Dic 35"/>
#[[Vizier|Wazir]]s – tax and revenue collectors
#[[Qadi]]s – [[Chief Judge]]s

==Nomadic citizens and farming communities==
[[File:Juba river downstream Jamaame.jpg|thumb|160px|The [[Jubba River]]]]
[[File:Afgoye, Somalia.JPG|thumb|right|225px|Farms of [[Afgooye]]]]

Through their control of the region's wells, the Garen rulers effectively held a monopoly over their [[nomadic]] subjects as they were the only [[hydraulic empire]] in Africa during their reign. Large wells made out of [[limestone]] were constructed throughout the state, which attracted [[Somali people|Somali]] and [[Oromo people|Oromo]] nomads with their livestock. The centralized regulations of the wells made it easier for the nomads to settle disputes by taking their queries to government officials who would act as mediators. Long distance caravan trade, a long-time practice in the Horn of Africa, continued unchanged in Ajuran times. Today, numerous ruined and abandoned towns throughout the interior of Somalia and the Horn of Africa are evidence of a once-booming inland trade network dating from the medieval period.{{sfnp|Cassanelli|1982|p=149}}

With the centralized supervision of the Ajuran, farms in [[Afgooye]], [[Kismayo]] and other areas in the [[Jubba Valley|Jubba]] and [[Shebelle Valley|Shabelle]] valleys increased their productivity. A system of irrigation ditches known locally as ''Kelliyo'' fed directly from the [[Shebelle River|Shebelle]] and [[Jubba river]]s into the plantations where [[sorghum]], [[maize]], beans, grain and cotton were grown during the ''gu'' ([[Spring (season)|Spring]] in Somali) and ''xagaa'' ([[Summer]] in Somali) seasons of the [[Somali calendar]]. This irrigation system was supported by numerous [[Levee|dikes]] and dams. To determine the average size of a farm, a land measurement system was also invented with ''moos'', ''taraab'' and ''guldeed'' being the terms used.

==Taxation==
{{main|Mogadishu currency}}
[[File:Horizontal Mogadishan Coins version.JPG|right|thumb|290px|[[Mogadishu currency|Mogadishan currency]]]]
[[File:Gondereshe2008.jpg|thumb|185px|[[Architecture of Somalia|Stone city]] of [[Gondershe]]]]

The State collected [[tribute]] from the farmers in the form of harvested products like [[durra]], sorghum and bun, and from the nomads, cattle, camels and goats. The collecting of tribute was done by a [[Vizier|wazir]]. Luxury goods imported from foreign lands were also presented as gifts to the Garen rulers by the coastal [[sultan]]s of the state.

A political device that was implemented by the Garen rulers in their realm was a form of ''[[ius primae noctis]]'',<ref>The Shaping of Somali Society: Reconstructing the History of a Pastoral People, 1600-1900 - Page 95</ref> which enabled them to create marriages that enforced their [[Hegemony|hegemonic]] rule over all the important groups of the empire. The rulers would also claim a large portion of the bride's wealth, which at the time was 100 camels.

For trade, the Ajuran Empire minted its own [[Ajuran currency]].<ref name="Stgi"/> It also utilized the [[Mogadishu currency|Mogadishan currency]] originally minted by the [[Sultanate of Mogadishu]], which later became incorporated into the Ajuran Empire.<ref name="Cites">{{cite book |first=Bruce |last=Stanley |chapter=Mogadishu |editor-last1=Dumper |editor-first1=Michael |editor-last2=Stanley |editor-first2=Bruce E. |title=Cities of the Middle East and North Africa: A Historical Encyclopedia|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3SapTk5iGDkC&pg=PA253|year=2007|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-57607-919-5|page=253}}</ref> Mogadishan coins have been found as far away as the present-day country of the [[United Arab Emirates]] in the [[Middle East]].<ref name="Ncaaroth">{{cite book|last=Chittick|first=H. Neville|title=An Archaeological Reconnaissance in the Horn: The British-Somali Expedition, 1975|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=URyTnQEACAAJ&pg=PA117|year=1976|publisher=British Institute in Eastern Africa|pages=117–133}}</ref>
{{Clear}}

==Urban and maritime centers==
[[File:MogadishuMillerAtlas.png|thumb|250px|right|The walled city of [[Mogadishu]] on the 16th century [[Miller Atlas]].]]

The urban centers of [[Merca]], [[Mogadishu]], [[Barawa]], and their respective ports became profitable trade outlets for commodities originating from the interior of the State. The farming communities of the hinterland brought their products to the coastal cities, where they were sold to local merchants who maintained a lucrative foreign commerce with ships sailing to and coming from [[Arabia]], [[India]], [[Venetian Republic|Venice]],<ref>Journal of African History pg.50 by John Donnelly Fage and Roland Anthony Oliver{{Full citation needed|date=October 2016}}</ref> [[Persia]], [[Egypt]], [[Portugal]], and as far away as [[China]]. [[Vasco Da Gama]], who passed by Mogadishu in the 15th century, noted that it was a large city with houses of four or five storeys high and big palaces in its centre and many mosques with cylindrical minarets.<ref>Da Gama's First Voyage pg.88{{Full citation needed|date=October 2016}}</ref> In the 16th century, [[Duarte Barbosa]] noted that many ships from the Kingdom of [[History of Gujarat#Muslim Period|Cambaya]] sailed to Mogadishu with cloths and spices for which they in return received [[gold]], [[wax]] and [[ivory]]. Barbosa also highlighted the abundance of meat, wheat, barley, horses, and fruit on the coastal markets, which generated enormous wealth for the merchants.<ref>East Africa and its Invaders pg.38{{Full citation needed|date=October 2016}}</ref> Mogadishu, the center of a thriving weaving industry known as ''toob benadir'' (specialized for the markets in Egypt and [[Syria]]),<ref>{{cite journal |title=Gujarat and the Trade of East Africa, c. 1500–1800 |first=Edward A. |last=Alpers |journal=The International Journal of African Historical Studies |volume=9 |issue=1 |date=1976 |page=35 |doi=10.2307/217389 |jstor=217389}}</ref> together with Merca and Barawa also served as transit stops for [[Swahili people|Swahili]] merchants from [[Mombasa]] and [[Malindi]] and for the gold trade from [[Kilwa Kisiwani|Kilwa]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Harris|first=Nigel|title=The Return of Cosmopolitan Capital: Globalization, the State and War|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=S3oyoVIIlMQC&pg=PA22|year=2003|publisher=I.B.Tauris|isbn=978-1-86064-786-4|page=22}}</ref> Jewish merchants from the [[Ormus|Hormuz]] also brought their Indian textile and fruit to the Somali coast in exchange for [[grain]] and wood.<ref>{{cite book|last=Barendse|first=Rene J.|title=The Arabian Seas: The Indian Ocean World of the Seventeenth Century: The Indian Ocean World of the Seventeenth Century|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=G3ClDAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1|year=2002|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-1-317-45835-7}}</ref>

Trading relations were established with [[Malacca]] in the 15th century,{{sfnp|Alpers|1976|page=30}} with cloth, [[ambergris]] and [[porcelain]] being the main commodities of the trade.<ref>Chinese Porcelain Marks from Coastal Sites in Kenya: aspects of trade in the Indian Ocean, XIV-XIX centuries. Oxford: British Archaeological Reports, 1978 pg 2</ref> In addition, giraffes, zebras and incense were exported to the [[Ming Dynasty|Ming Empire]] of China, making Somali merchants leaders in the commerce between Asia and Africa.<ref>East Africa and its Invaders pg.37</ref> and influencing the [[Mandarin Chinese|Chinese language]] on Somali in the process. [[Hindu]] merchants from [[Surat]] and Southeast African merchants from [[Pate Island|Pate]] seeking to bypass both the Portuguese blockade and [[Omani]] interference used the Somali ports of Merca and Barawa (which were out of the two powers' jurisdiction) to conduct their trade in safety and without interference.<ref>Gujarat and the Trade of East Africa pg.45</ref>

==Economy==
{{main|Maritime history of Somalia}}
[[File:Zecchino Antonio Venier 1382.jpg|thumb|right|220px|[[Mogadishu]] imported valuable gold [[Sequin (coin)|Sequin coins]] from the [[Venetian Empire]] in Europe.]]

The Ajuran Empire relied on agriculture and trade for most of its income. Major agricultural towns were located on the [[Shebelle River|Shebelle]] and [[Jubba river]]s, including [[Kismayo]] and [[Afgooye]]. Situated at the junction of some of the busiest medieval trade routes, the Ajuran and its clients were active participants in the East African [[Gold|gold trade]], the [[Silk road|Silk Road commerce]], [[Indian Ocean trade|trade in the Indian Ocean]], and commercial enterprise as far as [[East Asia]].

The Ajuran Empire also minted its own [[Ajuran currency]]. Many ancient [[bronze]] coins inscribed with the names of Ajuran Sultans have been found in the coastal Benadir province, in addition to pieces from Muslim rulers of [[Southern Arabia]] and [[Persia]].<ref name="Stgi">{{cite book|last1=Ali|first1=Ismail Mohamed|title=Somalia Today: General Information|date=1970|publisher=Ministry of Information and National Guidance, Somali Democratic Republic|page=206|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tMVAAAAAYAAJ|access-date=7 November 2014}}</ref> additionally, [[Mogadishu currency|Mogadishan coins]] have been found as far as the [[United Arab Emirates]] in the [[Middle East]]. Trading routes dating from the ancient and early medieval periods of [[Maritime history of Somalia|Somali maritime enterprise]] were strengthened or re-established, and foreign trade and commerce in the coastal provinces flourished with ships sailing to and coming from a myriad of kingdoms and empires in [[East Asia]], [[South Asia]], [[Europe]], the [[Near East]], [[North Africa]] and the [[Horn of Africa]].<ref name="Shapes"/> Through the use of commercial vessels, compasses, multiple port cities, light houses and other technology, the merchants of the Ajuran Empire did brisk business with traders from the following states:

{| class="wikitable"
! Trading countries in Asia !! Imports !! Exports
|-----
|[[Ming Empire]]|| [[celadon|celadon wares]] and their currency|| [[horse]]s, [[Fauna of Africa|exotic animals]], and [[ivory]]
|-----
|[[Mughal Empire]]|| [[cloth]] and [[spices]]|| [[gold]], [[wax]] and [[wood]]
|-----
|[[Malacca Sultanate]]|| [[ambergris]] and [[porcelain]]||[[cloth]] and [[gold]]
|-----
|[[Maldives|Maldive Islands]]|| [[cowries]] || [[musk]] and [[sheep]]
|-----
|[[Kingdom of Jaffna]]|| [[cinnamon]] and their currency|| [[cloth]]
|-----
! Trading countries in the [[Near East]]  || ||
|-----
|[[Ottoman Empire]]|| [[muskets]] and [[cannons]]|| [[textiles]]
|-----
|[[Safavid Persian Empire]]|| [[textiles]] and [[fruit]]|| [[grain]] and [[wood]]
|-----
! Trading countries in [[Europe]] || ||
|-----
|[[Portuguese Empire]]|| [[gold]]|| [[cloth]]
|-----
|[[Venetian Republic|Venetian Empire]]|| [[sequin (coin)|sequins]]|| –
|-----
|[[Dutch Empire]]|| – || –
|-----
! Trading countries in [[Africa]] || ||
|-----
|[[Mamluk Sultanate (Cairo)]]|| – ||[[cloth]]
|-----
|[[Adal Sultanate]]|| – ||  –
|-----
|[[Ethiopian Empire]]|| – || –
|-----
|[[Swahili Coast]]|| – || –
|-----
|[[Kingdom of Mutapa|Monomopata]]|| [[gold]] and [[ivory]] || [[spices]] and [[cloth]]
|-----
|[[History of Ethiopia#Gondarine period|Gonderine Ethiopian Empire]]|| [[gold]] and [[cattle]] || [[cloth]]
|-----
|[[Merina Kingdom]]|| – || –
|}

==Diplomacy==
[[File:ShenDuGiraffePainting.jpg|thumb|190px|The [[Ajuran Empire]] maintained commercial ties with the [[Ming dynasty]] and other kingdoms.]]

With their maritime pursuits and history, the Empire established trading and diplomatic ties across the old world, especially in Asia, from being a close ally to the grand power of the [[Ottomans]] to having cordial ties to the mighty [[Ming Dynasty]] and even having their merchants following the greatest maritime expedition in their history as far as [[Java]] and [[Vietnam]].
 
The ruler of the [[Somali people|Somali]] Ajuran Empire sent ambassadors to [[China]] to establish diplomatic ties, creating the first ever recorded African community in China and the most notable [[Somali people|Somali]] ambassador in medieval China was [[Sa'id of Mogadishu]] who was the first African man to set foot in [[China]] in recorded history. In return, Emperor Yongle, the third emperor of the [[Ming Dynasty]] (1368–1644), dispatched one of the largest fleets in history to trade with the Somali nation. The fleet, under the leadership of the famed Hui Muslim [[Zheng He]], arrived at [[Mogadishu]] while the city was at its peak in economic and social vibrancy. Along with [[gold]], [[frankincense]] and [[fabric]]s, Zheng brought back the first ever African wildlife to China, which included [[hippo]]s, [[giraffe]]s and [[gazelle]]s.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Wilson, Samuel M. |volume=101 |issue=13 |date=December 1992  |journal=Natural History |url=http://muweb.millersville.edu/~columbus/data/art/WILSON09.ART |title=The Emperor's Giraffe |access-date=14 April 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081202235051/http://muweb.millersville.edu/~columbus/data/art/WILSON09.ART |archive-date=2 December 2008 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news| url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2010/jul/25/kenya-china | work=The Guardian | first=Xan | last=Rice | title=Chinese archaeologists' African quest for sunken ship of Ming admiral | date=25 July 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite news| url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-11531398 | work=BBC News | title=Could a rusty coin re-write Chinese-African history? | date=18 October 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://people.chinese.cn/whcs/zhenghe/article/p2-5en.html |title=Zheng He'S Voyages to the Western Oceans 郑和下西洋 |publisher=People.chinese.cn |access-date=17 August 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130430165012/http://people.chinese.cn/whcs/zhenghe/article/p2-5en.html |archive-date=30 April 2013 }}</ref>

==Major cities==
[[File:Barawa.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Medieval city of [[Barawa]]]]

The Ajuran Empire was an influential Somali kingdom that held sway over several cities and towns in central and southern Somalia during the Middle Ages. With the [[#Decline and successor states|fall of the Sultanate]], a number of these settlements continued to prosper, eventually becoming [[List of Somali cities by population|major cities]] in present-day Somalia. A few of these cities and towns were eventually abandoned or destroyed:

;Capital
*[[Mareeg]] (initially) (town in the [[Galguduud]] region of Somalia)
*[[Kelafo|Qelafo]] (town in the [[Somali Region]] of [[Ethiopia]])
*[[Merca]] (port city in the [[Lower Shebelle]] region of Somalia)

;Port cities:
*[[Mogadishu]] (harbor city and current capital of Somalia)
*[[Hobyo]] (harbor city in the [[Mudug]] region of Somalia
*[[Kismayo]] (port city in the [[Lower Juba]] region of Somalia)
*[[Barawa]] (port town in the [[Lower Shebelle]] region of Somalia)
*[[Warsheikh]] (port town in the [[Middle Shebelle]] region of Somalia)

;Other cities:
*[[Afgooye]] (town in the [[Lower Shebelle]] region of Somalia)
*[[Baidoa]] (a city in the [[Bay, Somalia|Bay]] region of Somalia)
*[[Gondershe]] (abandoned, but now a popular tourist attraction site)
*[[Hannassa]] (abandoned)
*[[Ras Bar Balla]] (abandoned)

==Culture==
{{main|Somali architecture}}
[[File:Somali Stone.jpg|thumb|right|145px|14th century [[Wadaad's writing|Somali-Arabo]] [[stone tablet]]]]

The Ajurans developed a very rich culture with various forms of [[Culture of Somalia|Somali culture]] such as [[Somalian architecture|architecture]], astronomy, festivals, music and [[Somalian art|art]] evolving and flourishing during this period. The majority of the inhabitants were ethnic [[Somali people|Somali]], but there were also [[Yemen]]i, [[Persian people|Persian]], and [[Turkish people|Turkish]] minorities. The vast majority of the population adhered to [[Sunni]] [[Islam]] with a [[Shia]] minority (mostly those of Persian descent) {{citation needed|date=June 2020}}. Somali was the most commonly used language of government and social life while [[Arabic language|Arabic]] was most prominently used for [[Madrasa|religious studies]].

[[File:Somali Mogadishan Figurehead.JPG|thumb|left|100px|
Example of an historic Somali [[Figurehead (object)|figurehead]] from Mogadishu]]

The Somali [[martial art]] [[Istunka]], also known as Dabshid, was born during their reign. An annual tournament is held every year for it in [[Afgooye]].{{sfnp|Mukhtar|2003|page=28}} Carving, known in Somali as ''qoris'', was practiced in the coastal cities of the state. Many wealthy urbanites in the medieval period regularly employed the finest wood and marble carvers in Somalia to work on their interiors and houses. The carvings on the [[mihrab]]s and [[Column|pillar]]s of ancient Somali [[mosque]]s are some of the oldest on the continent, with [[Fakr ad-Din Mosque|Masjid Fakhr al-Din]] being the 7th oldest mosque in Africa.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://archnet.org/library/sites/one-site.tcl?site_id=7810 |title=Fakhr al-Din Mosque |access-date=19 August 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070607173848/http://archnet.org/library/sites/one-site.tcl?site_id=7810 |archive-date=7 June 2007 }} ArchNet – Masjid Fakhr al-Din</ref> Artistic carving was considered the craft of men similar to how the Somali textile industry was mainly a women's business. Amongst the [[nomad]]s, carving, especially [[woodwork]], was widespread and could be found on the most basic objects such as spoons, combs and bowls, but it also included more complex structures such as the portable nomadic tent, the ''aqal''.<ref>Culture and customs of Somalia By Mohamed Diriye Abdullahi pg 97</ref>

During its tenure, the Empire left an extensive [[Somali architecture|architectural legacy]], being one of the major medieval Somali powers engaged in castle and [[fortress]] building. Many of the ruined fortifications dotting the landscapes of southern Somalia today are attributed to the Ajuran Empire's engineers.<ref name="Shs"/> These structures include a number of pillar tomb fields, [[necropolis]]es, castles, fortresses and ruined cities built in that era.<ref name="His 40"/> In the Marca area, various pillar tombs exist, which local tradition holds were built in the 16th century, when the Ajuran Empire's [[Somali aristocratic and court titles|naa'ibs]] governed the district.{{sfnp|Cassanelli|1982|p=97}}
{{Clear}}

==Muslim migration==
[[File:Night Halt Zaman Louvre MAO1226.jpg|thumb|right|169px|Many [[Arab]] and [[Persians|Persian]] families would call the Ajuran realm their home.]]

The late 15th and 17th centuries saw the arrival of Muslim families from [[Arabia]], [[Persia]], [[India]] and [[Spain]] to the Ajuran realm of territories, the majority of whom settled in the coastal provinces. Some migrated because of the instability in their respective regions,{{sfnp|Luling|2002|p=18}} as was the case with the [[Hadhrami people|Hadhrami]] families from the [[Yemen]] and the Muslims from Spain fleeing the [[Spanish Inquisition|Inquisition]].<ref>The origins and development of Mogadishu pg. 34 by Ahmed Dueleh Jama</ref> Others came to conduct business or for religious purposes. Due to their strong tradition in religious learning, the new Muslim communities also enjoyed high status among the Somali ruling elite and commoners.{{sfnp|Luling|2002|p=18}}

===Bale===
[[File:Sheikh Hussein.jpg|thumb|right|200px|The tomb of Sheikh Hussein]]

The most famous Somali scholar of Islam from the Ajuraan period is [[Sheikh Hussein (saint)|Sheikh Hussein]], who was born in [[Merca]], one of the power jurisdiction and cultural centers of the Ajuran Empire.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=C.|first1=O. G. S.|last2=de Almeida|first2=Manuel|last3=Bahrey|last4=Beckingham|first4=C. F.|last5=Huntingford|first5=George Wynn Brereton|date=June 1955|title=Some Records of Ethiopia, 1593–1646: Being Extracts from 'The History of High Ethiopia or Abassia' by Manoel de Almeida, Together with Bahrey's 'History of the Galla'|journal=The Geographical Journal|volume=121|issue=2|pages=220|doi=10.2307/1791718|issn=0016-7398|jstor=1791718}}</ref> He is credited with converting the [[Sidama people|Sidamo]] people living in the area of what is now the [[Bale Province, Ethiopia]] to [[Islam]]. He is also credited with establishing the [[Sultanate of Bale]]. Despite the Bale Sultanate not being directly under Ajuran rule, the two kingdoms were deeply connected and Bale was heavily influenced by Ajuran.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kitagawa|first=Joseph M.|date=March 1953|title=Contemporary Ethiopia. By David A. Talbot. New York: Philosophical Library. 1952. xxi+267 pages. – Islam in Ethiopia. By J. Spencer Trimingham. London: Geoffrey Cumberlege, Oxford University Press, 1952. iv+299 pages.|journal=Church History|volume=22|issue=1|pages=55–56|doi=10.2307/3161117|issn=0009-6407|jstor=3161117|s2cid=162230535 }}</ref>

His tomb lies in the town of [[Sheikh Hussein]] in what is the most sacred place in the country for Ethiopian Muslims mostly [[Oromo people|Oromo]] Muslims.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HGnyk8Pg9NgC&pg=PA155|title=Islamic History and Culture in Southern Ethiopia: Collected Essays|last1=Braukamper|first1=Ulrich|last2=Braukämper|first2=Ulrich|date=2002|publisher=LIT Verlag Münster|isbn=978-3-8258-5671-7|page=155}}</ref>

==Military==
[[File:Ancient-Almnara.jpg|thumb|160px|Almnara Somalia defensive tower]]
[[File:Mogadishan ship.JPG|200px|thumb|right|[[Physical model|Model]] of a medieval [[Mogadishu|Mogadishan]] [[ship]]]]

The Ajuran State had a standing army with which the Garen imams and the governors ruled and protected their subjects. The bulk of the army consisted of [[mamluke]] soldiers,{{sfnp|Cassanelli|1982|p=90}} who did not have any loyalties to the traditional Somali clan system, thereby making them more reliable. The soldiers were recruited from the inter-riverine area; other recruits came from the surrounding nomadic region. [[Arab]], [[Persian people|Persian]] and [[Turkish people|Turkish]] mercenaries were at times employed as well.{{sfnp|Cassanelli|1982|p=104}}<ref>{{cite book|last=Welch|first=Sidney R.|title=Portuguese rule and Spanish crown in South Africa, 1581–1640|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=K3Q_AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA29|year=1950|publisher=Juta|isbn=978-0-8426-1588-4}}</ref>

In the early Ajuran period, the army's weapons consisted of traditional Somali weapons such as [[sword]]s, [[dagger]]s, [[spear]]s, [[battle axe|battle axes]], and [[bow (weapon)|bows]]. The Empire received assistance from its close ally the [[Ottoman Empire]], and with the import of [[firearms]] through the Muzzaffar port of [[Mogadishu]], the army began acquiring [[muskets]] and [[cannons]]. The Ottomans would also remain a key ally during the [[#Ajuran-Portuguese battles|Ajuran-Portuguese wars]]. Horses used for military purposes were also raised in the interior, and numerous stone fortifications were erected to provide shelter for the army in the coastal districts.{{sfnp|Cassanelli|1982|p=92}} In each province, the soldiers were under the supervision of a military commander known as an [[emir]],{{sfnp|Cassanelli|1982|p=90}} and the coastal areas and the [[Indian ocean]] trade were protected by a [[navy]].{{sfnp|Welch|1950|p=25}}
{{Clear}}

==Ajuran-Portuguese battles ==
{{Main|Ottoman–Portuguese confrontations}}
[[File:Ottoman fleet Indian Ocean 16th century.jpg|thumb|140px|The Ottomans regularly aided the Ajurans in their struggles with the Portuguese in the [[Indian Ocean]].]]
[[File:Hanno.cunha.jpg|thumb|180px|right|During the [[Battle of Barawa]], ''[[Tristão da Cunha]]'' was wounded and requested to be [[knight]]ed by [[Afonso de Albuquerque|Albuquerque]].<ref>Maritime Discovery: A History of Nautical Exploration from the Earliest Times pg 198</ref>]]

The [[Europe]]an [[Age of discovery]] brought Europe's then [[superpower]] the [[Portuguese empire]] to the coast of East Africa, which enjoyed a flourishing trade with foreign nations. The wealthy southeastern city-states of [[Kilwa Kisiwani|Kilwa]], [[Mombasa]], [[Malindi]], [[Pate Island|Pate]] and [[Lamu]] were all systematically sacked and plundered by the Portuguese. [[Tristão da Cunha]] then set his eyes on Ajuran territory, where the [[Battle of Barawa]] was fought. After a long period of engagement, the Portuguese soldiers burned the city and looted it. Fierce resistance by the local populace and soldiers resulted in the failure of the Portuguese to permanently occupy the city, and the inhabitants who had fled to the interior eventually returned and rebuilt the city. After [[Barawa]], Tristão set sail for [[Mogadishu]], the richest city on the East African coast. Word had spread of what had happened in Barawa, and a large troop mobilization took place. Many horsemen, soldiers and battleships in defense positions were guarding the city. Nevertheless, Tristão opted to storm and attempt to conquer the city, although every officer and soldier in his army opposed this, fearing certain defeat if they were to engage their opponents in battle. Tristão heeded their advice and sailed for [[Socotra]] instead.<ref>The History of the Portuguese, During the Reign of Emmanuel pg.287</ref> After the battle the city of Barawa quickly recovered from the attack.<ref>The book of Duarte Barbosa – Page 30</ref>

[[File:Medieval Mombasa.jpg|thumb|170px|right|In 1698, the [[Portuguese Empire|Portuguese]] in [[Siege of Fort Jesus|Mombasa]] surrendered to a joint [[Somali people|Somali]]-[[Oman]]i force.<ref>Tanzania notes and records: the journal of the Tanzania Society pg 76</ref>]]
Over the next several decades Somali-[[Portugal|Portuguese]] tensions remained high and the increased contact between Somali [[sailors]] and [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] [[Privateer|corsairs]] worried the Portuguese who sent a punitive expedition against Mogadishu under João de Sepúlveda, which was unsuccessful.<ref>The Portuguese period in East Africa – p. 112</ref> Ottoman-Somali cooperation against the Portuguese in the [[Indian Ocean]] reached a high point in the 1580s when Ajuran clients of the Somali coastal cities began to sympathize with the [[Arabs]] and [[Swahili people|Swahilis]] under Portuguese rule and sent an envoy to the Turkish corsair Mir Ali Bey for a joint expedition against the Portuguese. He agreed and was joined by a Somali [[Naval fleet|fleet]], which began attacking Portuguese colonies in [[Swahili Coast|Southeast Africa]].{{sfnp|Welch|1950|p=25}}

The Somali-Omani offensive managed to drive out the Portuguese from several important cities such as [[Pate Island|Pate]], [[Mombasa]] and [[Kilwa Kisiwani|Kilwa]]. However, the Portuguese governor sent envoys to [[Portuguese India]] requesting a large Portuguese fleet. This request was answered and it reversed the previous offensive of the Muslims into one of defense. The Portuguese armada managed to re-take most of the lost cities and began punishing their leaders, but they refrained from attacking Mogadishu, securing the city's autonomy in the Indian Ocean.<ref name="Cites"/><ref>Four centuries of Swahili verse: a literary history and anthology – p. 11</ref> The Ottoman Empire would remain an economic partner of the Somalis.<ref name="Shapes"/> Throughout the 16th and 17th centuries successive Somali Sultans defied the Portuguese economic monopoly in the [[Indian Ocean]] by employing a new coinage which followed the Ottoman pattern, thus proclaiming an attitude of economic independence in regard to the Portuguese.<ref>COINS FROM MOGADISHU, c. 1300 to c. 1700 by G. S. P. Freeman-Grenville pg 36</ref>

==Ajuran-Oromo battles==
{{main|Oromo migrations}}
[[File:Somali Enterprise.JPG|thumb|right|190px|[[Maritime history of Somalia|Somali maritime enterprise]] took a significant hit after the collapse of the Ajuran Empire. However, other [[Somali people|Somali]] polities such as the Dawaro Sultanate, Warsangali Sultanate, the [[Geledi Sultanate]], the [[Majeerteen Sultanate]], the [[Dervish state]] and the [[Sultanate of Hobyo]] ensured its continuity.]]

In the mid-17th century, the [[Oromo people|Oromo]] Nation began expanding from its homeland towards the southern Somali coast at the time when the Ajuran was at the height of its power.{{sfnp|Cassanelli|1982|p=114}}<ref>Cerulli, Somalia 1: 65–67</ref> The Garen rulers conducted several military expeditions known as the ''Gaal Madow'' wars against the Oromo warriors, converting those that were captured to [[Islam]].

==Decline and successor states==
The Ajuran Empire slowly declined in power at the end of the 17th century, which paved the way for the ascendance of new Somali powers. The most prominent setbacks against the state were the dethronement of the [[Muzaffarids (Somalia)|Muzaffar clients]] in [[Mogadishu]] and other coastal cities by the [[Abgaal]] [[imam]] who then established the [[Hiraab Imamate ]] taking residence in Mogadishu,{{sfnp|Lewis|1988|page=37}} and the defeat of the [[Silcis|Silis Kingdom]] by a former Ajuran general, [[Ibrahim Adeer]], in the interior of the state who then established the [[Gobroon dynasty]].
[[File:Unrest in Mogadishu.png|thumb|Abstract painting of Muqdisho during unrest]]
Taxation and the practice of primae noctis were the main catalysts for the revolts against Ajuran rulers. The loss of port cities and fertile farms meant that much needed sources of revenue were lost to the rebels.

==See also==
{{History of Somalia}}
*[[History of Somalia]]
*[[List of Muslim states and dynasties]]
*[[List of Sunni dynasties]]
*[[Ajuran Sultanate]]
{{clear}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

===Sources cited===
* {{cite book|last=Mukhtar|first=Mohamed Haji|title=Historical Dictionary of Somalia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DPwOsOcNy5YC|year=2003|publisher=Scarecrow Press|isbn=978-0-8108-6604-1}}
* {{cite book |first=Lee V. |last=Cassanelli |title=The Shaping of Somali Society: Reconstructing the History of a Pastoral People, 1600–1900 |publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press |year=1982 |isbn=978-0-8122-7832-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mlhyAAAAMAAJ}}
{{Somalia topics |state=collapsed}}

{{Medieval Horn of Africa}}

[[Category:Ajuran Sultanate| ]]
[[Category:States and territories established in the 13th century]]
[[Category:States and territories disestablished in the 17th century]]
[[Category:Former sultanates in the medieval Horn of Africa]]
[[Category:13th-century establishments in Africa]]
[[Category:17th-century disestablishments in Africa]]
[[Category:Medieval Somalia]]
[[Category:Ethiopian noble families]]
[[Category:Early Modern history of Somalia]]
[[Category:Former empires]]
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