Просмотр кода страницы Английская Википедия:Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn

{{Английская Википедия/Панель перехода}}
{{short description|Russian writer, publicist, poet and politician (1918–2008)}}
{{use dmy dates|date=October 2021}}
<!-- This article uses footnote surname clarification. Do NOT add {{family name hatnote}} here. -->
{{Infobox writer<!-- for more information see [[:Template:Infobox writer/doc]] -->
| name = Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn
| native_name = {{lang|ru|Александр Исаевич Солженицын}}
| image = Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn 1974crop.jpg{{!}}border
| alt =
| caption = Solzhenitsyn in 1974
| birth_date = {{birth date|df=yes|1918|12|11}}
| birth_place = [[Kislovodsk]], [[Russian SFSR]]
| death_date = {{death date and age|df=yes|2008|8|3|1918|12|11}}
| death_place = Moscow, Russia
| occupation = {{hlist|Novelist|essayist|historian}}
| citizenship = {{ublist|Russian SFSR (1918–1922)|[[Soviet Union]] (1922–1974)|[[Statelessness|Stateless]] (1974–1990)<ref>[https://www.nytimes.com/1994/05/27/us/solzhenitsyn-flies-home-vowing-moral-involvement-88.html "Solzhenitsyn Flies Home, Vowing Moral Involvement ..."]. ''The New York Times''. 27 May 1994. Retrieved 29 May 2014.</ref>|Soviet Union (1990–1991)|Russia (1991–2008)}}
| alma_mater = [[Rostov State University]]
| spouses = {{plain list|
* {{marriage|Natalia Alekseyevna Reshetovskaya|1940|1952|end=divorced}}
* {{marriage|<!--Natalia Alekseyevna Reshetovskaya-->|1957|1972|end=divorced}}
* {{marriage|Natalia Dmitrievna Svetlova|1973}}
}}
| children = {{hlist|Yermolai|[[Ignat Solzhenitsyn|Ignat]]|Stepan}}
| awards = {{unbulleted list |[[Nobel Prize in Literature]] (1970) |[[Templeton Prize]] (1983) |[[Lomonosov Gold Medal]] (1998) |[[State Prize of the Russian Federation]] (2007) |[[International Botev Prize]] (2008) }}
Order of St. Andrew (Refused the reward)
| signature = Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn signature.svg
| signature_alt =
| website = {{URL|solzhenitsyn.ru}}
}}

'''Aleksandr Isayevich Solzhenitsyn'''{{efn|{{family name explanation|Isayevich|Solzhenitsyn|lang=Eastern Slavic}} His father's given name was Isaakiy, which would normally result in the patronymic ''Isaakievich''; however, the forms ''Isaakovich'' and ''Isayevich'' both appeared in official documents, the latter becoming the accepted version. His first name is often romanized to ''Alexandr'' or ''Alexander''.}}{{efn|{{IPAc-en|UK|ˌ|s|ɒ|l|ʒ|ə|ˈ|n|ɪ|t|s|ɪ|n}} {{respell|SOL|zhə|NIT|sin}},<ref>{{Cite dictionary |url=http://www.lexico.com/definition/Solzhenitsyn,+Alexander |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220411013540/https://www.lexico.com/definition/solzhenitsyn,_alexander |url-status=dead |archive-date=2022-04-11 |title=Solzhenitsyn, Alexander |dictionary=[[Lexico]] UK English Dictionary |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]}}</ref><ref name="collins">{{cite web|url=https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/solzhenitsyn|title=Solzhenitsyn|work=[[Collins English Dictionary]]|publisher=[[HarperCollins]]|access-date=27 August 2019}}</ref><ref name="longman">{{cite web|url=https://www.ldoceonline.com/dictionary/alexander-solzhenitsyn|title=Solzhenitsyn, Alexander|work=[[Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English]]|publisher=[[Longman]]|access-date=27 August 2019}}</ref> {{IPAc-en|US|ˌ|s|oʊ|l|-|,_|-|ˈ|n|iː|t|-}} {{respell|SOHL|-,_-|NEET|-}};<ref name="collins"/><ref name="longman"/><ref>{{Cite American Heritage Dictionary|Solzhenitsyn|access-date=27 August 2019}}</ref> {{lang-rus|links=no|Александр Исаевич Солженицын|p=ɐlʲɪkˈsandr ɪˈsajɪvʲɪtɕ səlʐɨˈnʲitsɨn}}.}} (11 December 1918 – 3 August 2008)<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/literature/1970/solzhenitsyn/biographical/|title=The Nobel Prize in Literature 1970|website=NobelPrize.org}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.slate.com/articles/news_and_politics/fighting_words/2008/08/the_man_who_kept_on_writing.html|title=Alexander Solzhenitsyn, 1918–2008.|author=Christopher Hitchens|date=4 August 2008|work=Slate Magazine}}</ref> was a Russian writer and prominent [[Soviet dissident]] who helped to raise global awareness of [[political repression in the Soviet Union]], especially the [[Gulag]] prison system.

Solzhenitsyn was born into a family that defied the [[USSR anti-religious campaign (1921–1928)|Soviet anti-religious campaign in the 1920s]] and remained devout members of the [[Russian Orthodox Church]]. However, Solzhenitsyn initially lost his faith in Christianity, became an atheist, and embraced [[Marxism–Leninism]]. While serving as a captain in the [[Red Army]] during [[World War II]], Solzhenitsyn was arrested by [[SMERSH]] and sentenced to eight years in the Gulag and then [[Forced settlements in the Soviet Union|internal exile]] for criticizing Soviet leader [[Joseph Stalin]] in a private letter. As a result of his experience in prison and the camps, he gradually became a philosophically minded Eastern Orthodox Christian.

As a result of the [[Khrushchev Thaw]], Solzhenitsyn was released and exonerated. He pursued writing novels about repression in the [[Soviet Union]] and his experiences. He published his first novel, ''[[One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich]]'' in 1962, with approval from Soviet leader [[Nikita Khrushchev]], which was an account of Stalinist repressions. Solzhenitsyn's last work to be published in the Soviet Union was ''[[Matryona's Place]]'' in 1963. Following the removal of Khrushchev from power, the Soviet authorities attempted to discourage Solzhenitsyn from continuing to write. He continued to work on further novels and their publication in other countries including ''[[Cancer Ward]]'' in 1966, ''[[In the First Circle]]'' in 1968, ''[[August 1914 (novel)|August 1914]]'' in 1971, and ''[[The Gulag Archipelago]]'' in 1973, the publication of which outraged Soviet authorities. In 1974, Solzhenitsyn was stripped of his Soviet citizenship and flown to [[West Germany]].<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/literature/1970/solzhenitsyn/article/ |title=How I helped Alexandr Solzhenitsyn smuggle his Nobel Lecture from the USSR|publisher=Nobel Foundation | access-date =5 October 2023}}</ref> In 1976, he moved with his family to the United States, where he continued to write. In 1990, shortly before the [[dissolution of the Soviet Union]], his citizenship was restored, and four years later he returned to Russia, where he remained until his death in 2008.

He was awarded the [[1970 Nobel Prize in Literature]] "for the ethical force with which he has pursued the indispensable traditions of Russian literature",<ref name="Noble">{{cite web|url= http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/literature/laureates/1970/ |title=Nobel Prize in Literature 1970|publisher=Nobel Foundation | access-date =17 October 2008}}</ref> and ''[[The Gulag Archipelago]]'' was a highly influential work that "amounted to a head-on challenge to the Soviet state", and sold tens of millions of copies.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Scammell |first1=Michael |title=The Writer Who Destroyed an Empire |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2018/12/11/opinion/solzhenitsyn-soviet-union-putin.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220101/https://www.nytimes.com/2018/12/11/opinion/solzhenitsyn-soviet-union-putin.html |archive-date=2022-01-01 |url-access=limited |work=The New York Times |date=11 December 2018 |quote=In 1973, still in the Soviet Union, he sent abroad his literary and polemical masterpiece, 'The Gulag Archipelago.' The nonfiction account exposed the enormous crimes that had led to the wholesale incarceration and slaughter of millions of innocent victims, demonstrating that its dimensions were on a par with the Holocaust. Solzhenitsyn's gesture amounted to a head-on challenge to the Soviet state, calling its very legitimacy into question and demanding revolutionary change.}}{{cbignore}}</ref>

== Biography ==

=== Early years ===

Solzhenitsyn was born in [[Kislovodsk]] (now in [[Stavropol Krai]], Russia). His father, Isaakiy Semyonovich Solzhenitsyn, was of Russian descent and his mother, Taisiya Zakharovna (née Shcherbak), was of Ukrainian descent.<ref>{{cite web|url= https://www.segodnya.ua/world/alekcandr-colzhenitsyn-chelovek-i-arkhipelah-120568.html | script-title=ru:Александр Солженицын: человек и архипелаг | language = ru |trans-title=Alexander Solzhenitsyn: A man and Archipelago | place = [[Ukraine|UA]] | publisher = Segodnya | date = 4 August 2008 | access-date = 14 February 2010}}</ref> Taisiya's father had risen from humble beginnings to become a wealthy landowner, acquiring a large estate in the [[Kuban]] region in the northern foothills of the [[Caucasus]]<ref>[[#Scammell|Scammell]], p. 30</ref> and during [[World War I]], Taisiya had gone to Moscow to study. While there she met and married Isaakiy, a young officer in the [[Imperial Russian Army]] of [[Cossacks|Cossack]] origin and fellow native of the Caucasus region. The family background of his parents is vividly brought to life in the opening chapters of ''August 1914'', and in the later ''[[The Red Wheel|Red Wheel]]'' novels.<ref>[[#Scammell|Scammell]], pp. 26–30</ref>

In 1918, Taisiya became pregnant with Aleksandr. On 15 June, shortly after her pregnancy was confirmed, Isaakiy was killed in a hunting accident. Aleksandr was raised by his widowed mother and his aunt in lowly circumstances.  His earliest years coincided with the [[Russian Civil War]]. By 1930 the family property had been turned into a [[kolkhoz|collective farm]]. Later, Solzhenitsyn recalled that his mother had fought for survival and that they had to keep his father's background in the old Imperial Army a secret. His educated mother encouraged his literary and scientific learnings and raised him in the [[Russian Orthodox Church|Russian Orthodox]] faith;<ref>O'Neil, Patrick M. (2004) ''Great world writers: 20th century'', p. 1400. Marshall Cavendish, {{ISBN|978-0-7614-7478-4}}</ref><ref>[[#Scammell|Scammell]], pp. 25–59</ref> she died in 1944 having never remarried.<ref>[[#Scammell|Scammell]], p. 129</ref>

As early as 1936, Solzhenitsyn began developing the characters and concepts for planned epic work on World War I and the [[Russian Revolution]]. This eventually led to the novel ''August 1914''; some of the chapters he wrote then still survive.{{citation needed| date= May 2011}} Solzhenitsyn studied mathematics and physics at [[Southern Federal University|Rostov State University]]. At the same time, he took correspondence courses from the Moscow Institute of Philosophy, Literature and History, which by this time were heavily ideological in scope.  As he himself makes clear, he did not question the state ideology or the superiority of the Soviet Union until he was sentenced to time in the camps.<ref>{{Citation| title = The Gulag Archipelago | chapter = Part II, Chapter 4}}</ref>

=== World War II ===

During the war, Solzhenitsyn served as the commander of a [[Artillery sound ranging|sound-ranging]] battery in the [[Red Army]],<ref>[[#Scammell|Scammell]], p. 119</ref> was involved in major action at the front, and was twice decorated.  He was awarded the [[Order of the Red Star]] on 8 July 1944 for sound-ranging two German [[Artillery battery|artillery batteries]] and adjusting [[Counter-battery fire|counterbattery fire]] onto them, resulting in their destruction.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://pamyat-naroda.ru/heroes/podvig-chelovek_nagrazhdenie19998084/|script-title=ru:Документ о награде :: Солженицын Александр Исаевич, Орден Красной Звезды|website=pamyat-naroda.ru|language=ru|trans-title=Award document : Solzhenitsyn Aleksandr Isayevich, Order of the Red Star|access-date=28 April 2016}}</ref>

A series of writings published late in his life, including the early uncompleted novel ''Love the Revolution!'', chronicle his wartime experience and growing doubts about the moral foundations of the Soviet regime.<ref>{{Citation | last = Solzhenitsyn | first = Aleksandr Isaevich | title = Протеревши глаза: сборник (Proterevshi glaza: sbornik) | language = ru |trans-title=Proterevshi eyes: compilation | place = Moscow | publisher =  Nash dom; L'Age d'Homme | year = 1999}}</ref>

While serving as an artillery officer in [[East Prussia]], Solzhenitsyn witnessed [[Soviet war crimes#Germany|war crimes against local German civilians]] by Soviet military personnel. Of the atrocities, Solzhenitsyn wrote: "You know very well that we've come to Germany to take our revenge" for [[War crimes of the Wehrmacht|Nazi atrocities committed in the Soviet Union]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Hartmann |first1=Christian |title=Operation Barbarossa: Nazi Germany's War in the East, 1941–1945 |date=2013 |publisher=OUP Oxford |isbn=978-0-19-163653-0 |pages=127–128}}</ref> The [[Non-combatant|noncombatants]] and the elderly were robbed of their meager possessions and [[Rape during the occupation of Germany|women and girls were gang-raped]]. A few years later, in the [[Labor camp|forced labor camp]], he memorized a poem titled "[[Prussian Nights]]" about a woman raped to death in [[East Prussia]]. In this poem, which describes the gang-rape of a Polish woman whom the [[Red Army]] soldiers mistakenly thought to be a German,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=De Zayas|first=Alfred M.|date=January 2017|title=Review: Prussian Nights|journal=The Review of Politics|volume=40|issue=1|pages=154–156|jstor=1407101}}</ref> the first-person narrator comments on the events with sarcasm and refers to the responsibility of official Soviet writers like [[Ilya Ehrenburg]].

In ''[[The Gulag Archipelago]]'', Solzhenitsyn wrote, "There is nothing that so assists the awakening of omniscience within us as insistent thoughts about one's own transgressions, errors, mistakes. After the difficult cycles of such ponderings over many years, whenever I mentioned the heartlessness of our highest-ranking bureaucrats, the cruelty of our executioners, I remember myself in my Captain's shoulder boards and the forward march of my battery through East Prussia, enshrouded in fire, and I say: 'So were ''we'' any better?'"<ref>Ericson, p. 266.</ref>

=== Imprisonment ===

In February 1945, while serving in East Prussia, Solzhenitsyn was arrested by [[SMERSH]] for writing derogatory comments in private letters to a friend, Nikolai Vitkevich,<ref name="isbn1-933859-57-1">[[#Ericon2008|Ericson (2008)]] p. 10</ref> about the conduct of the war by [[Joseph Stalin]], whom he called "Khozyain" ("the boss"), and "Balabos" (Yiddish rendering of Hebrew ''baal ha-bayit'' for "master of the house").<ref>[[#Moody|Moody]], p. 6</ref> He also had talks with the same friend about the need for a new organization to replace the Soviet regime.<ref>Solzhenitsyn in Confession – SFU's Summit http://summit.sfu.ca/system/files/iritems1/8379/etd3261.pdf page 26</ref>{{clarify|How did the exchange come to SMERSH attention?|date=February 2020}}

Solzhenitsyn was accused of anti-Soviet propaganda under [[Article 58]], paragraph 10 of the Soviet criminal code, and of "founding a hostile organization" under paragraph 11.<ref>[[#Scammell|Scammell]], pp. 152–54</ref><ref>{{Citation| last1 = Björkegren| first1 = Hans| last2 = Eneberg| first2 = Kaarina| year = 1973
| title = Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn: A Biography| place = Henley-on-Thames| publisher = Aiden Ellis
| isbn = 978-0-85628-005-4| chapter = Introduction}}</ref> Solzhenitsyn was taken to the [[Lubyanka Building|Lubyanka]] prison in Moscow, where he was interrogated. On 9 May 1945, it was announced that Germany had surrendered and all of Moscow broke out in celebrations with fireworks and searchlights illuminating the sky to celebrate the victory in the [[Great Patriotic War]]. From his cell in the Lubyanka, Solzhenitsyn remembered: "Above the muzzle of our window, and from all the other cells of the Lubyanka, and from all the windows of the Moscow prisons, we too, former prisoners of war and former front-line soldiers, watched the Moscow heavens, patterned with fireworks and crisscrossed with beams of searchlights. There was no rejoicing in our cells and no hugs and no kisses for us. That victory was not ours."<ref>Pearce (2011) p. 87</ref> On 7 July 1945, he was sentenced in his absence by [[Special Council of the NKVD]] to an eight-year term in a [[Labor camp|labour camp]]. This was the usual sentence for most crimes under Article 58 at the time.<ref>[[#Moody|Moody]], p. 7</ref>

The first part of Solzhenitsyn's sentence was served in several work camps; the "middle phase", as he later referred to it, was spent in a ''[[sharashka]]'' (a special scientific research facility run by Ministry of State Security), where he met [[Lev Kopelev]], upon whom he based the character of Lev Rubin in his book ''[[The First Circle]]'', published in a self-censored or "distorted" version in the West in 1968 (an English translation of the full version was eventually published by Harper Perennial in October 2009).<ref>{{Citation| last = Solzhenitsyn| first = Aleksandr I.| url = http://www.harpercollins.com/books/9780061479014/In_the_First_Circle/ | title = In the First Circle| publisher = Harper Collins
| isbn = 978-0-06-147901-4| date = 13 October 2009| access-date = 14 February 2010| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20140222125926/http://www.harpercollins.com/books/9780061479014/In_the_First_Circle/| archive-date=22 February 2014| url-status= live}}</ref> In 1950, Solzhenitsyn was sent to a "Special Camp" for political prisoners.  During his imprisonment at the camp in the town of [[Ekibastuz]] in [[Kazakhstan]], he worked as a miner, bricklayer, and foundry foreman. His experiences at Ekibastuz formed the basis for the book ''[[One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich]]''.  One of his fellow political prisoners, [[Ion Moraru]], remembers that Solzhenitsyn spent some of his time at Ekibastuz writing.<ref>{{Citation|url=http://www.romanism.net/tag/sabia-dreptatii |title=Organizatia anti-sovietica "Sabia Dreptatii" |language=ro |trans-title=Anti-Soviet organization "Sword of Justice" |publisher=Romanism |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110809121325/http://romanism.ro/tag/sabia-dreptatii |archive-date=9 August 2011}}</ref> While there, Solzhenitsyn had a tumor removed. His cancer was not diagnosed at the time.

In March 1953, after his sentence ended, Solzhenitsyn was sent to internal exile for life at [[Birlik, Kazakhstan|Birlik]],<ref>According to 9th MGB order of 27 December 1952 № 9 / 2-41731.</ref> a village in [[Baydibek District|Baidibek District]] of [[South Kazakhstan]].<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lgPwzq0M9lkC&q=solzhenitsyn+betpak+dala&pg=PT44|title=Solzhenitsyn: A Soul in Exile|last=Pearce|first=Joseph|publisher=Ignatius Press|year=2011|isbn=978-1-58617-496-5|quote=they were being exiled "in perpetuity" to the district of Kok-Terek}}</ref> His undiagnosed cancer spread until, by the end of the year, he was close to death. In 1954, Solzhenitsyn was permitted to be treated in a hospital in [[Tashkent]], where his tumor went into remission. His experiences there became the basis of his novel ''[[Cancer Ward]]'' and also found an echo in the short story "The Right Hand."

It was during this decade of imprisonment and exile that Solzhenitsyn developed the philosophical and religious positions of his later life, gradually becoming a philosophically minded Eastern Orthodox Christian as a result of his experience in prison and the camps.<ref>{{Citation| title = The Gulag Archipelago | chapter = Part IV}}</ref><ref>{{Citation| first = Daniel J.| last = Mahoney| title = Hero of a Dark Century| newspaper = National Review| date = 1 September 2008| pages = 47–50}}</ref><ref>"Beliefs" in [[#Ericon2008|Ericson (2008)]] pp. 177–205</ref> He repented for some of his actions as a Red Army captain, and in prison compared himself to the perpetrators of the Gulag. His transformation is described at some length in the fourth part of ''[[The Gulag Archipelago]]'' ("The Soul and Barbed Wire"). The narrative poem ''The Trail'' (written without benefit of pen or paper in prison and camps between 1947 and 1952) and the 28 poems composed in prison, forced-labour camp, and exile also provide crucial material for understanding Solzhenitsyn's intellectual and spiritual odyssey during this period. These "early" works, largely unknown in the West, were published for the first time in Russian in 1999 and excerpted in English in 2006.<ref>{{Citation| last = Solzhenitsyn| year = 1999 | title = Протеревши глаза: сборник (Proterevshi glaza: sbornik) |trans-title=Proterevshi eyes compilation | place = Moscow| publisher = Nash dom—L'age d'Homme}}</ref><ref>[[#Ericson2009|Ericson (2009)]]</ref>

=== Marriages and children ===

On 7 April 1940, while at the university, Solzhenitsyn married Natalia Alekseevna Reshetovskaya.<ref>{{Citation | last = Terras | first = Victor | year = 1985 | title = Handbook of Russian Literature | page = 436 | publisher = Yale University Press | isbn = 978-0-300-04868-1}}</ref> They had just over a year of married life before he went into the army, then to the Gulag. They divorced in 1952, a year before his release because the wives of Gulag prisoners faced the loss of work or residence permits. After the end of his internal exile, they remarried in 1957,<ref>[[#Scammell|Scammell]], p. 366</ref> divorcing a second time in 1972. Reshetovskaya wrote negatively of Solzhenitsyn in her memoirs, accusing him of having affairs, and said of the relationship that "[Solzhenitsyn]'s despotism ... would crush my independence and would not permit my personality to develop."<ref>{{cite news|last=Rourke|first=Mary|date=6 June 2003|url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-2003-jun-06-me-reshetovskaya6-story.html|title=Natalya Reshetovskaya, 84; Twice Married to Alexander Solzhenitsyn|work=Los Angeles Times|access-date=13 August 2021}}</ref> In her 1974 memoir, ''Sanya: My Life with Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn'', she wrote that she was "perplexed" that the West had accepted ''The Gulag Archipelago'' as "the solemn, ultimate truth", saying its significance had been "overestimated and wrongly appraised". Pointing out that the book's subtitle is "An Experiment in Literary Investigation", she said that her husband did not regard the work as "historical research, or scientific research". She contended that it was, rather, a collection of "camp folklore", containing "raw material" which her husband was planning to use in his future productions.

In 1973, Solzhenitsyn married his second wife, Natalia Dmitrievna Svetlova, a [[mathematician]] who had a son, Dmitri Turin, from a brief prior marriage.<ref>{{Citation | last = Cook | first = Bernard A | title = Europe Since 1945: An Encyclopedia | page = 1161 | publisher = Taylor & Francis | year = 2001 | isbn = 978-0-8153-4058-4}}</ref> He and Svetlova (born 1939) had three sons: Yermolai (1970), [[Ignat Solzhenitsyn|Ignat]] (1972), and Stepan (1973).<ref>Aikman, David. ''Great Souls: Six Who Changed a Century'', pp. 172–73. Lexington Books, 2003, {{ISBN|978-0-7391-0438-5}}.</ref> Dmitri Turin died on 18 March 1994, aged 32, at his home in New York City.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://apnews.com/article/3410c0d3634abaa21e042cb3dc031fd9|title=Solzhenitsyn's Stepson Dmitri Turin Dies at Age 32|website=AP News|agency=Associated Press|date=23 March 1994|accessdate=28 November 2021}}</ref>

=== After prison ===

After [[Khrushchev's Secret Speech]] in 1956, Solzhenitsyn was freed from exile and [[Rehabilitation (Soviet)|exonerated]]. Following his return from exile, Solzhenitsyn was, while teaching at a secondary school during the day, spending his nights secretly engaged in writing. In his [[Nobel Prize]] acceptance speech he wrote that "during all the years until 1961, not only was I convinced I should never see a single line of mine in print in my lifetime, but, also, I scarcely dared allow any of my close acquaintances to read anything I had written because I feared this would become known."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://nobelprize.org/literature/laureates/1970/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20041204155242/http://nobelprize.org/literature/laureates/1970/ |url-status=dead |archive-date= 4 December 2004 |year=1970 |title=Laureates |work=Literature |publisher=Nobel prize |access-date=14 February 2010 }}</ref>

In 1960, aged 42, Solzhenitsyn approached [[Aleksandr Tvardovsky]], a poet and the chief editor of the ''Novy Mir'' magazine, with the manuscript of ''[[One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich]]''. It was published in edited form in 1962, with the explicit approval of [[Nikita Khrushchev]], who defended it at the presidium of the Politburo hearing on whether to allow its publication, and added: "There's a [[Stalinism|Stalinist]] in each of you; there's even a Stalinist in me. We must root out this evil."<ref>{{Citation | last = Benno | first = Peter | year = 1965 | chapter = The Political Aspect | editor1-first = Max | editor1-last = Hayward | editor2-first = Edward L | editor2-last = Crowley | title = Soviet Literature in the 1960s | place = London | page = 191}}</ref> The book quickly sold out and became an instant hit.<ref name=Wachtel2013>{{cite journal|last=Wachtel|first=Andrew|year=2013|title=''One Day''—Fifty years later|journal=Slavic Review|volume=72|issue=1|pages=102–117|doi=10.5612/slavicreview.72.1.0102|jstor=10.5612/slavicreview.72.1.0102|s2cid=164632244}}{{limited access}}</ref> In the 1960s, while Solzhenitsyn was publicly known to be writing ''Cancer Ward'', he was simultaneously writing ''The Gulag Archipelago''. During Khrushchev's tenure, ''One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich'' was studied in schools in the Soviet Union, as were three more short works of Solzhenitsyn's, including his short story "[[Matryona's Place|Matryona's Home]]", published in 1963. These would be the last of his works published in the Soviet Union until 1990.

''[[One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich]]'' brought the Soviet system of prison labour to the attention of the West.  It caused as much of a sensation in the Soviet Union as it did in the West—not only by its striking realism and candour, but also because it was the first major piece of [[Russian literature|Soviet literature]] since the 1920s on a politically charged theme, written by a non-party member, indeed a man who had been to Siberia for "libelous speech" about the leaders, and yet its publication had been officially permitted. In this sense, the publication of Solzhenitsyn's story was an almost unheard of instance of free, unrestrained discussion of politics through literature. However, after Khrushchev had been ousted from power in 1964, the time for such raw, exposing works came to an end.<ref name=Wachtel2013 />

=== Later years in the Soviet Union ===
{{quote box | width = 22em | align = right
| quote = Every time when we speak about Solzhenitsyn as the enemy of the Soviet regime, this just happens to coincide with some important [international] events and we postpone the decision.
| source = — [[Andrei Kirilenko (politician)|Andrei Kirilenko]], a [[Politburo of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union|Politburo]] member
}}
Solzhenitsyn made an unsuccessful attempt, with the help of Tvardovsky, to have his novel ''Cancer Ward'' legally published in the Soviet Union. This required the approval of the [[USSR Union of Writers|Union of Writers]]. Though some there appreciated it, the work was ultimately denied publication unless it was to be revised and cleaned of suspect statements and [[Anti-Sovietism|anti-Soviet]] insinuations.<ref>{{Citation | title = The Oak and the Calf| title-link = The Oak and the Calf}}</ref>

After Khrushchev's removal in 1964, the cultural climate again became more repressive. Publishing of Solzhenitsyn's work quickly stopped; as a writer, he became a [[non-person]], and, by 1965, the [[KGB]] had seized some of his papers, including the manuscript of [[In the First Circle|''In The First Circle'']]. Meanwhile, Solzhenitsyn continued to secretly and feverishly work on the most well-known of his writings, ''The Gulag Archipelago''. The seizing of his novel manuscript first made him desperate and frightened, but gradually he realized that it had set him free from the pretenses and trappings of being an "officially acclaimed" writer, a status which had become familiar but which was becoming increasingly irrelevant.

After the KGB had confiscated Solzhenitsyn's materials in Moscow, in the years 1965 to 1967, the preparatory drafts of ''[[The Gulag Archipelago]]'' were turned into finished typescript in hiding at his friends' homes in [[Soviet Estonia]]. Solzhenitsyn had befriended [[Arnold Susi]], a lawyer and former Minister of Education of [[Estonia]] in a [[Lubyanka Building]] prison cell. After completion, Solzhenitsyn's original handwritten script was kept hidden from the [[KGB]] in Estonia by Arnold Susi's daughter [[Heli Susi]] until the collapse of the Soviet Union.<ref>{{cite book|title=Art of the Baltics: The Struggle for Freedom of Artistic Expression Under the Soviets, 1945–1991|last1 =Rosenfeld|first1 =Alla| first2=Norton T | last2 = Dodge|year= 2001 | publisher = Rutgers University Press|isbn=978-0-8135-3042-0|pages=55, 134 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=r73fmcC5itkC}}</ref><ref>{{cite book| title = Invisible Allies| last = Solzhenitsyn| first = Aleksandr I| year = 1995| publisher = Basic Books| isbn = 978-1-887178-42-6| pages = 46–64| chapter = The Estonians| chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=5yYBZ35HPo4C}}{{Dead link|date=August 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>

In 1969, Solzhenitsyn was expelled from the Union of Writers. In 1970, he was awarded the [[Nobel Prize in Literature]]. He could not receive the prize personally in [[Stockholm]] at that time, since he was afraid he would not be let back into the Soviet Union. Instead, it was suggested he should receive the prize in a special ceremony at the Swedish embassy in Moscow.  The Swedish government refused to accept this solution because such a ceremony and the ensuing media coverage might upset the Soviet Union and damage Swedish-Soviet relations. Instead, Solzhenitsyn received his prize at the 1974 ceremony after he had been expelled from the Soviet Union. In 1973, another manuscript written by Solzhenitsyn was confiscated by the KGB after his friend Elizaveta Voronyanskaya was questioned non-stop for five days until she revealed its location, according to a statement by Solzhenitsyn to Western reporters on September 6, 1973. According to Solzhenitsyn, "When she returned home, she hanged herself."<ref>"Woman Kills Self After Telling Police of Solzhenitsyn's Script", ''Los Angeles Times'', by Murray Seeger, September 6, 1973, p.I-1</ref>

''The Gulag Archipelago'' was composed from 1958 to 1967, and has sold over thirty million copies in thirty-five languages. It was a three-volume, seven-part work on the Soviet prison camp system, which drew from Solzhenitsyn's experiences and the testimony of 256<ref>{{citation | title = The Gulag Archipelago | chapter = Ekaterinburg: U-Faktoriia}}</ref> former prisoners and Solzhenitsyn's own research into the history of the Russian penal system.  It discusses the system's origins from the founding of the Communist regime, with [[Vladimir Lenin]] having responsibility, detailing interrogation procedures, prisoner transports, prison camp culture, prisoner uprisings and revolts such as the [[Kengir uprising]], and the practice of internal [[exile]]. [[Soviet and Communist studies]] historian and archival researcher [[Stephen G. Wheatcroft]] wrote that the book was essentially a "literary and political work", and "never claimed to place the camps in a historical or social-scientific quantitative perspective" but that in the case of qualitative estimates, Solzhenitsyn gave his high estimate as he wanted to challenge the Soviet authorities to show that "the scale of the camps was less than this."<ref>{{cite journal|last=Wheatcroft|first=Stephen|author-link=Stephen G. Wheatcroft|year=1996|title=The Scale and Nature of German and Soviet Repression and Mass Killings, 1930–45|url=http://sovietinfo.tripod.com/WCR-German_Soviet.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://sovietinfo.tripod.com/WCR-German_Soviet.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live|journal=Europe-Asia Studies|volume=48|issue=8|pages=1330|doi=10.1080/09668139608412415|jstor=152781|quote=When Solzhenitsyn wrote and distributed his Gulag Archipelago it had enormous political significance and greatly increased popular understanding of part of the repression system. But this was a literary and political work; it never claimed to place the camps in a historical or social-scientific quantitative perspective, Solzhenitsyn cited a figure of 12–15 million in the camps. But this was a figure that he hurled at the authorities as a challenge for them to show that the scale of the camps was less than this.}}</ref> Historian [[J. Arch Getty]] wrote of Solzhenitsyn's methodology that "such documentation is methodically unacceptable in other fields of history",<ref>Getty, A. Origins of the Great Purges. Cambridge, N. Y.: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1985, p. 211</ref> which gives priority to vague hearsay and leads towards selective bias.<ref>Getty, J. Arch (1981). ''Origins of the Great Purges''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 211.</ref> According to journalist [[Anne Applebaum]], who has made extensive research on the Gulag, ''The Gulag Archipelago'''s rich and varied authorial voice, its unique weaving together of personal testimony, philosophical analysis, and historical investigation, and its unrelenting indictment of Communist ideology made it one of the most influential books of the 20th century.<ref>{{cite book | first = Anne | last = Applebaum | year = 2007 | contribution = Foreword | publisher = Harper | series = Perennial Modern Classics | title = The Gulag Archipelago}}</ref>

[[File:RIAN archive 6624 Alexander Solzhenitsyn and Mstislav Rostropovich.jpg|thumb|Solzhenitsyn (right) and his long-time friend [[Mstislav Rostropovich]] (left) at the celebration of Solzhenitsyn's 80th birthday]]
On 8 August 1971, the KGB allegedly attempted to assassinate Solzhenitsyn using an unknown chemical agent (most likely [[ricin]]) with an experimental gel-based delivery method.<ref>{{cite book |title = The First Directorate |last = Kalugin |first = Oleg |year = 1994 |publisher = Diane |page = [https://archive.org/details/firstdirectorate00kalu/page/180 180] |isbn = 978-0-312-11426-8 |url = https://archive.org/details/firstdirectorate00kalu/page/180 }}</ref><ref>{{cite tech report | last = Carus | first = Seth | year = 1998 | title= Bioterrorism and Biocrimes | url = https://fas.org/irp/threat/cbw/carus.pdf | publisher = Federation of American Scientists |page=84 | format = PDF}}</ref> The attempt left him seriously ill but he survived.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Toxic Politics: The Secret History of the Kremlin's Poison Laboratory—from the Special Cabinet to the Death of Litvinenko |last=Vaksberg |first=Arkadiĭ|date=2011|publisher=Praeger|isbn=978-0-313-38747-0|location=Santa Barbara, Calif|pages=130–131}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book| edition = Rev. and updated| publisher = Ignatius Press| isbn = 978-1-58617-496-5| last = Pearce| first = Joseph| title = Solzhenitsyn: A Soul in Exile| location = San Francisco| date = 2011|page=57}}</ref>

Although ''The Gulag Archipelago'' was not published in the Soviet Union, it was extensively criticized by the Party-controlled Soviet press. An editorial in ''[[Pravda]]'' on 14 January 1974 accused Solzhenitsyn of supporting "Hitlerites" and making "excuses for the crimes of the [[Committee for the Liberation of the Peoples of Russia|Vlasovites]] and [[Banderite|Bandera gangs]]." According to the editorial, Solzhenitsyn was "choking with pathological hatred for the country where he was born and grew up, for the socialist system, and for Soviet people."<ref>{{Citation | title = Current Digest of the Soviet Press | volume = 26 | number = 2 | year = 1974 | page = 2}}</ref>

During this period, he was sheltered by the cellist [[Mstislav Rostropovich]], who suffered considerably for his support of Solzhenitsyn and was eventually forced into exile himself.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Morrison|first=S.|date=1 February 2010|title=Rostropovich's Recollections|journal=Music and Letters|language=en|volume=91|issue=1|pages=83–90|doi=10.1093/ml/gcp066|s2cid=191621525|issn=0027-4224}}</ref>

=== Expulsion from the Soviet Union ===

In a discussion of its options in dealing with Solzhenitsyn, the members of the Politburo considered his arrest and imprisonment and his expulsion to a capitalist country willing to take him.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://bukovskyarchive.wordpress.com/2016/07/05/7-january-1974-pb/ |title=The Bukovsky Archives, 7 January 1974. |access-date=6 July 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161004224648/https://bukovskyarchive.wordpress.com/2016/07/05/7-january-1974-pb/ |archive-date=4 October 2016 |url-status=dead  }}</ref> Guided by KGB chief [[Yuri Andropov]], and following a statement from West German Chancellor [[Willy Brandt]] that Solzhenitsyn could live and work freely in [[West Germany]], it was decided to deport the writer directly to that country.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://bukovskyarchive.wordpress.com/2016/07/05/7-february-1974-350-a-ov/ |title=The Bukovsky Archives, 7 February 1974, 350 A/ov. |access-date=6 July 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161004224816/https://bukovskyarchive.wordpress.com/2016/07/05/7-february-1974-350-a-ov/ |archive-date=4 October 2016 |url-status=dead  }}</ref>

=== In the West ===

[[File:De schrijver staat de pers te woord, rechts naast hem Heinrich Böll, Bestanddeelnr 927-0020.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|Solzhenitsyn with [[Heinrich Böll]] in {{Interlanguage link|Langenbroich|de}}, West Germany, 1974]]

On 12 February 1974, Solzhenitsyn was arrested and deported the next day from the Soviet Union to [[Frankfurt]], West Germany and stripped of his Soviet citizenship.<ref name="NYT20080804" /> The KGB had found the manuscript for the first part of ''The Gulag Archipelago''. U.S. military attaché [[William Odom]] managed to smuggle out a large portion of Solzhenitsyn's archive, including the author's membership card for the [[Writers' Union]] and his [[World War II|Second World War]] military citations. Solzhenitsyn paid tribute to Odom's role in his memoir ''Invisible Allies'' (1995).

In West Germany, Solzhenitsyn lived in [[Heinrich Böll]]'s house in {{Interlanguage link|Langenbroich|de}}. He then moved to [[Zürich]], Switzerland before [[Stanford University]] invited him to stay in the United States to "facilitate your work, and to accommodate you and your family". He stayed at the [[Hoover Tower]], part of the [[Hoover Institution]], before moving to [[Cavendish, Vermont|Cavendish]], Vermont, in 1976. He was given an honorary literary degree from [[Harvard University]] in 1978 and on 8 June 1978 he gave a commencement address, condemning, among other things, the press, the lack of spirituality and traditional values, and the [[anthropocentrism]] of Western culture.<ref name=harvard>{{Citation|url=http://www.nationalreview.com/document/document060603.asp |title=A World Split Apart |series=Harvard Class Day Exercises |date=8 June 1978 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030608093915/http://www.nationalreview.com/document/document060603.asp |archive-date=8 June 2003 }}</ref>  Solzhenitsyn also received an honorary degree from the College of the Holy Cross in 1984.

On 19 September 1974, [[Yuri Andropov]] approved a large-scale operation to discredit Solzhenitsyn and his family and cut his communications with [[Soviet dissidents]]. The plan was jointly approved by [[Vladimir Kryuchkov]], [[Philipp Bobkov]], and Grigorenko (heads of First, Second and Fifth KGB Directorates).<ref name="Andrew">{{Citation | author1-link = Christopher Andrew (historian)| last1 = Andrew | first1 = Christopher | author2-link = Vasili Mitrokhin| last2 = Mitrokhin | first2 = Vasili | year = 2000 | title = The Mitrokhin Archive: The KGB in Europe and the West | publisher = Gardners Books | isbn = 978-0-14-028487-4 | pages = 416–19}}</ref> The [[Ambassadorial residence|residencies]] in [[Geneva]], [[London]], [[Paris]], [[Rome]] and other European cities participated in the operation. Among other active measures, at least three [[StB]] agents became translators and secretaries of Solzhenitsyn (one of them translated the poem ''[[Prussian Nights]]''), keeping the KGB informed regarding all contacts by Solzhenitsyn.<ref name="Andrew" />

The KGB also sponsored a series of hostile books about Solzhenitsyn, most notably a "memoir published under the name of his first wife, Natalia Reshetovskaya, but probably mostly composed by Service A", according to historian [[Christopher Andrew (historian)|Christopher Andrew]].<ref name= Andrew /> Andropov also gave an order to create "an atmosphere of distrust and suspicion between Pauk{{Efn | KGB gave Solzhenitsyn the code name ''Pauk'', which means "spider" in Russian.}} and the people around him" by feeding him rumors that the people around him were KGB agents, and deceiving him at every opportunity.  Among other things, he continually received envelopes with photographs of car crashes, brain surgery and other disturbing imagery. After the KGB harassment in [[Zürich]], Solzhenitsyn settled in [[Cavendish, Vermont|Cavendish]], Vermont, reduced communications with others.  His influence and [[moral authority]] for the West diminished as he became increasingly isolated and critical of Western individualism. KGB and [[Communist Party of the Soviet Union|CPSU]] experts finally concluded that he alienated American listeners by his "reactionary views and intransigent criticism of the US way of life", so no further [[active measures]] would be required.<ref name = Andrew />

Over the next 17 years, Solzhenitsyn worked on his dramatized history of the [[Russian Revolution of 1917]], ''[[The Red Wheel]]''. By 1992, four sections had been completed and he had also written several shorter works.

Solzhenitsyn's warnings about the dangers of Communist aggression and the weakening of the moral fiber of the West were generally well received in Western conservative circles (e.g. Ford administration staffers [[Dick Cheney]] and [[Donald Rumsfeld]] advocated on Solzhenitsyn's behalf for him to speak directly to President [[Gerald Ford]] about the Soviet threat),<ref>{{cite book| last1 =Mann | first1 = James | last2 = Mann | first2 = Jim | title= Rise of the Vulcans: The History of Bush's War Cabinet|url=https://archive.org/details/riseofvulcanshis00mann| url-access =registration |year=2004|publisher=Penguin |isbn = 978-0-14-303489-6 | pages= [https://archive.org/details/riseofvulcanshis00mann/page/64 64]–66}}</ref> prior to and alongside the tougher foreign policy pursued by US President [[Ronald Reagan]]. At the same time, [[Liberalism|liberals]] and [[secularism|secularists]] became increasingly critical of what they perceived as his reactionary preference for [[Russian nationalism]] and the [[Russian Orthodox religion]].

Solzhenitsyn also harshly criticised what he saw as the ugliness and spiritual vapidity of the dominant [[popular culture|pop culture]] of the modern West, including television and much of popular music: "...the human soul longs for things higher, warmer, and purer than those offered by today's mass living habits... by TV stupor and by intolerable music." Despite his criticism of the "weakness" of the West, Solzhenitsyn always made clear that he admired the political liberty which was one of the enduring strengths of Western democratic societies. In a major speech delivered to the International Academy of Philosophy in [[Liechtenstein]] on 14 September 1993, Solzhenitsyn implored the West not to "lose sight of its own values, its historically unique stability of civic life under the rule of law—a hard-won stability which grants independence and space to every private citizen."<ref>[[#Ericson2009|Ericson (2009)]] p. 599</ref>

In a series of writings, speeches, and interviews after his return to his native Russia in 1994, Solzhenitsyn spoke about his admiration for the local [[Self-governance|self-government]] he had witnessed first hand in [[Switzerland]] and [[New England]].<ref>"Russia in Collapse" in [[#Ericson2009|Ericson (2009)]] pp. 480–1</ref><ref>"The Cavendish Farewell" in [[#Ericson2009|Ericson (2009)]] pp. 606–07</ref> He "praised 'the sensible and sure process of [[grassroots democracy]], in which the local population solves most of its problems on its own, not waiting for the decisions of higher authorities.'"<ref>{{Citation | author-link = Bill Kauffman | last = Kauffman | first = William 'Bill' | date = 19 December 2005 | url = http://www.amconmag.com/article/2005/dec/19/00016/ | title = Free Vermont | newspaper = [[The American Conservative]] | access-date = 26 January 2011 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20101026132450/http://www.amconmag.com/article/2005/dec/19/00016/ | archive-date = 26 October 2010 | url-status = dead }}</ref> Solzhenitsyn's patriotism was inward-looking. He called for Russia to "renounce all mad fantasies of foreign conquest and begin the peaceful long, long long period of recuperation," as he put it in a 1979 BBC interview with Latvian-born BBC journalist Janis Sapiets.<ref>{{Citation | last = Solzhenitsyn | first = Aleksandr I | title = East and West | place = New York | publisher = Harper | series = Perennial Library | year = 1980 | page = 182}}</ref>

=== Return to Russia ===

[[File:A solzhenitsin.JPG|thumb|Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn looks out from a train, in [[Vladivostok]], summer 1994, before departing on a journey across Russia. Solzhenitsyn returned to Russia after nearly 20 years in exile.]]

In 1990, his Soviet citizenship was restored, and, in 1994, he returned to Russia with his wife, Natalia, who had become a United States citizen. Their sons stayed behind in the United States (later, his eldest son Yermolai returned to Russia). From then until his death, he lived with his wife in a [[dacha]] in Troitse-Lykovo in west Moscow between the dachas once occupied by Soviet leaders [[Mikhail Suslov]] and [[Konstantin Chernenko]]. A staunch believer in traditional [[Culture of Russia|Russian culture]], Solzhenitsyn expressed his disillusionment with post-Soviet Russia in works such as ''Rebuilding Russia'', and called for the establishment of a strong [[presidential republic]] balanced by vigorous institutions of local self-government. The latter would remain his major political theme.<ref>{{Citation | last = Solzhenitsyn | first = Aleksandr Isaevich | title = Rebuilding Russia | place = New York | publisher = Farrar, Straus & Giroux | year = 1991}}</ref> Solzhenitsyn also published eight two-part short stories, a series of contemplative "miniatures" or prose poems, and a literary memoir on his years in the West ''The Grain Between the Millstones'', translated and released as two works by the [[University of Notre Dame]] as part of the [[Kennan Institute]]'s Solzhenitsyn Initiative.<ref>{{cite web |title=Large Works & Novels > Between Two Millstones |url=https://www.solzhenitsyncenter.org/his-writings/large-works-and-novels/between-two-millstones |website=SolzhenitsynCenter.org/ |publisher=The Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn Center |access-date=3 October 2020}}</ref> The first, ''Between Two Millstones, Book 1: Sketches of Exile (1974–1978)'', was translated by Peter Constantine and published in October 2018, the second, ''Book 2: Exile in America (1978–1994)'' translated by Clare Kitson and Melanie Moore and published in October 2020.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Solzhenitsyn |first1=Aleksandr |title=Solzhenitsyn's Journey from Oppression to Independence |work=The Wall Street Journal |issue=3 October 2020 }}</ref>

Once back in Russia, Solzhenitsyn hosted a television [[talk show]] program.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1995/04/14/world/now-on-moscow-tv-heeere-s-aleksandr.html|title=Now on Moscow TV, Heeere's Aleksandr!|date=14 April 1995|work=The New York Times}}</ref> Its eventual format was Solzhenitsyn delivering a 15-minute [[monologue]] twice a month; it was discontinued in 1995.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://articles.latimes.com/1995-09-26/news/mn-50166_1_talk-show|title=Russian TV Pulls the Plug on Solzhenitsyn's Biting Talk Show|work=Los Angeles Times|date=26 September 1995 }}</ref> Solzhenitsyn became a supporter of [[Vladimir Putin]], who said he shared Solzhenitsyn's critical view towards the [[Russian Revolution]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=t1H_BgAAQBAJ&q=solzhenitsyn,+nationalist,+putin&pg=PA254|title=Alexander Solzhenitsyn: Cold War Icon, Gulag Author, Russian Nationalist?: A Study of His Western Reception|last=Kriza|first=Elisa|date=1 October 2014|publisher=Columbia University Press|isbn=978-3-8382-6689-3|pages=205–210|language=en}}</ref>

All of Solzhenitsyn's sons became U.S. citizens.<ref>Jin, Ha (2008) ''The Writer as Migrant'', University of Chicago Press, p. 10, {{ISBN|978-0-226-39988-1}}.</ref> One, [[Ignat Solzhenitsyn|Ignat]], is a [[pianist]] and conductor.<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.princeton.edu/music/news/archive/index.xml?id=4041 |title= Ignat Solzhenitsyn to Appear With Princeton University Orchestra | publisher =The Trustees of Princeton University|date=8 May 2013}}</ref> Another Solzhenitsyn son, Yermolai, works for the Moscow office of [[McKinsey & Company]], a management consultancy firm, where he is a senior partner.<ref>{{cite web|title=Yermolai Solzhenitzin|url=https://www.mckinsey.com/our-people/yermolai-solzhenitsyn|website=mckinsey.com|access-date=11 April 2018}}</ref>

=== Death ===

[[File:Funeral of Alexander Solzhenitsyn-3.jpg|thumb|Russian President [[Dmitry Medvedev]] and many Russian public figures attended Solzhenitsyn's funeral ceremony, 6 August 2008.]]

Solzhenitsyn died of [[heart failure]] near Moscow on 3 August 2008, at the age of 89.<ref name="NYT20080804">{{cite news| url = https://www.nytimes.com/2008/08/04/books/04solzhenitsyn.html | title= Solzhenitsyn, Literary Giant Who Defied Soviets, Dies at 89|last1 =Kaufman|first1 =Michael T | last2= Barnard | first2 = Anne|date= 4 August 2008 | work=The New York Times|page=1|access-date=11 February 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/7540038.stm |title= Alexander Solzhenitsyn dies at 89|publisher= BBC | work = News |date=3 August 2008 |access-date=3 August 2008}}</ref> A burial service was held at [[Donskoy Monastery]], Moscow, on 6 August 2008.{{cn|date=February 2023}} He was buried the same day in the monastery, in a spot he had chosen.<ref>{{cite news|url= http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/7544265.stm| title = Solzhenitsyn is buried in Moscow| work = News | publisher=BBC|date=6 August 2008|access-date=6 August 2008 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20090115143356/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/7544265.stm| archive-date=15 January 2009| url-status = live}}</ref> Russian and world leaders paid tribute to Solzhenitsyn following his death.{{cn|date=February 2023}}

== Views on history and politics ==

=== On Christianity, Tsarism, and Russian nationalism ===
{{Conservatism in Russia|Intellectuals}}
According to William Harrison, Solzhenitsyn was an "arch-[[reactionary]]", who argued that the Soviet State "suppressed" traditional Russian and [[Culture of Ukraine|Ukrainian culture]], called for the creation of a [[All-Russian nation|united Slavic state encompassing Russia, Ukraine, and Belarus]], and who was a fierce opponent of [[Ukrainian nationalism|Ukrainian independence]]. It is well documented that his negative views on Ukrainian independence became more radical over the years.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Kriza |first1=Elisa |title=Alexander Solzhenitsyn: Cold War Icon, Gulag Author, Russian Nationalist? |date=2014 |publisher=ibidem Press |location=Stuttgart |isbn=9783838205892 |pages=200–201}}</ref> Harrison also alleged that Solzhenitsyn held [[Pan-Slavism|Pan-Slavist]] and [[Monarchism|monarchist]] views. According to Harrison, "His historical writing is imbued with a hankering after an idealized [[Tsarist]] era when, seemingly, everything was rosy. He sought refuge in a dreamy past, where, he believed, a united Slavic state (the Russian empire) built on Orthodox foundations had provided an ideological alternative to western individualistic liberalism."<ref>{{Cite news|last=Harrison|first=William|date=4 August 2008|title=William Harrison: Solzhenitsyn was an arch-reactionary|language=en-GB|work=The Guardian|url=https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2008/aug/04/solzhenitsyn.russia|access-date=8 July 2020|issn=0261-3077}}</ref>

Solzhenitsyn also repeatedly denounced Tsar [[Alexis of Russia]] and [[Patriarch Nikon of Moscow]] for causing the [[Raskol|Great Schism of 1666]], which Solzhenitsyn said both divided and weakened the Russian Orthodox Church at a time when unity was desperately needed. Solzhenitsyn also attacked both the Tsar and the [[Patriarch]] for using [[excommunication]], Siberian exile, imprisonment, torture, and even [[burning at the stake]] against the [[Old Believers]], who rejected the liturgical changes which caused the Schism.

Solzhenitsyn also argued that the Dechristianization of Russian culture, which he considered most responsible for the [[Bolshevik Revolution]], began in 1666, became much worse during the Reign of Tsar [[Peter the Great]], and accelerated into an epidemic during [[The Enlightenment]], the [[Romantic era]], and the [[Silver Age of Russian Poetry|Silver Age]].

Expanding upon this theme, Solzhenitsyn once declared, "Over a half century ago, while I was still a child, I recall hearing a number of old people offer the following explanation for the great disasters that had befallen Russia: 'Men have forgotten God; that's why all this has happened. Since then I have spent well-nigh 50 years working on the history of our revolution; in the process I have read hundreds of books, collected hundreds of personal testimonies, and have already contributed eight volumes of my own toward the effort of clearing away the rubble left by that upheaval. But if I were asked today to formulate as concisely as possible the main cause of the ruinous revolution that swallowed up some 60 million of our people, I could not put it more accurately than to repeat: 'Men have forgotten God; that's why all this has happened.'"<ref>Ericson, Edward E. Jr. (October 1985) "Solzhenitsyn – Voice from the Gulag,"</ref>

In an interview with [[Joseph Pearce]], however, Solzhenitsyn commented, "[The [[Old Believers]] were] treated amazingly unjustly because some very insignificant, trifling differences in ritual which were promoted with poor judgment and without much sound basis. Because of these small differences, they were persecuted in very many cruel ways, they were suppressed, they were exiled. From the perspective of historical justice, I sympathise with them and I am on their side, but this in no way ties in with what I have just said about the fact that religion in order to keep up with mankind must adapt its forms toward modern culture. In other words, do I agree with the Old Believers that religion should freeze and not move at all? Not at all!"<ref>Joseph Pearce (2011), ''Solzhenitsyn: A Soul in Exile'', [[Ignatius Press]]. Page 329–330.</ref>

When asked by Pearce for his opinions about the division within the [[Roman Catholic Church]] over the [[Second Vatican Council]] and the [[Mass of Paul VI]], Solzhenitsyn replied, "A question peculiar to the [[Russian Orthodox Church]] is, should we continue to use [[Old Church Slavonic]], or should we start to introduce more of the contemporary [[Russian language]] into the service? I understand the fears of both those in the Orthodox and in the [[Catholic Church]], the wariness, the hesitation, and the fear that this is lowering the Church to the modern condition, the modern surroundings. I understand this, but alas, I fear that if religion does not allow itself to change, it will be impossible to return the world to religion because the world is incapable on its own of rising as high as the old demands of religion. Religion needs to come and meet it somewhat."<ref>Joseph Pearce (2011), ''Solzhenitsyn: A Soul in Exile'', [[Ignatius Press]]. Page 330.</ref>

Surprised to hear Solzhenitsyn, "so often perceived as an arch-[[Traditionalist Catholicism|traditionalist]], apparently coming down on the side of the reformers", Pearce then asked Solzhenitsyn what he thought of the division caused within the [[Anglican Communion]] by the [[Ordination of women in the Anglican Communion|decision to ordain female priests]].<ref>Joseph Pearce (2011), ''Solzhenitsyn: A Soul in Exile'', [[Ignatius Press]]. Pages 330-331.</ref>

Solzhenitsyn replied, "Certainly there are many firm boundaries that should not be changed. When I speak of some sort of correlation between the cultural norms of the present, it is really only a small part of the whole thing." Solzhenitsyn then added, "Certainly, I do not believe that women priests is the way to go!"<ref name="Joseph Pearce 2011 Page 331">Joseph Pearce (2011), ''Solzhenitsyn: A Soul in Exile'', [[Ignatius Press]]. Page 331.</ref>

=== On Russia and the Jews ===

[[File:Frenkel2.jpg|thumb|[[Naftaly Frenkel]] (far right) and head of Gulag [[Matvei Berman]] (center) at the [[White Sea–Baltic Canal]] works, July 1932]]

In his 1974 essay "Repentance and Self-Limitation in the Life of Nations", Solzhenitsyn urged "Russian Gentiles" and [[Jews]] alike to take moral responsibility for the "renegades" from both communities who enthusiastically embraced [[atheism]] and [[Marxism–Leninism]] and participated in the [[Red Terror]] and many other acts of torture and mass murder following the [[October Revolution]]. Solzhenitsyn argued that both Russian Gentiles and Jews should be prepared to treat the atrocities committed by Jewish and Gentile [[Bolsheviks]] as though they were the acts of their own family members, before their consciences and before God. Solzhenitsyn said that if we deny all responsibility for the crimes of our national kin, "the very concept of a people loses all meaning."<ref>[[#Ericson2009|Ericson (2009)]] pp. 527–55</ref>

In a review of Solzhenitsyn's novel ''August 1914'' in ''[[The New York Times]]'' on 13 November 1985, [[Jewish American]] historian [[Richard Pipes]] wrote: "Every culture has its own brand of [[anti-Semitism]]. In Solzhenitsyn's case, it's not racial. It has nothing to do with blood. He's certainly not a racist; the question is fundamentally religious and cultural. He bears some resemblance to [[Fyodor Dostoyevsky]], who was a fervent Christian and patriot and a rabid anti-Semite. Solzhenitsyn is unquestionably in the grip of the Russian extreme right's view of the Revolution, which is that it was [[Jewish Bolshevism|the doing of the Jews]]".<ref>[[#Thomas|Thomas]] p. 490</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Grenier |first=Richard |date=13 November 1985 |title=Solzhenitsyn and anti-Semitism: a new debate |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1985/11/13/books/solzhenitsyn-and-anti-semitism-a-new-debate.html |work=The New York Times |location=New York |access-date=6 October 2019 }}</ref> Award-winning Jewish novelist and [[the Holocaust|Holocaust]] survivor [[Elie Wiesel]] disagreed and wrote that Solzhenitsyn was "too intelligent, too honest, too courageous, too great a writer" to be an anti-Semite.<ref>[[#Thomas|Thomas]] p. 491</ref> In his 1998 book ''Russia in Collapse'', Solzhenitsyn criticized the Russian far-right's obsession with anti-Semitic and anti-Masonic [[conspiracy theory|conspiracy theories]].<ref>[[#Ericson2009|Ericson (2009)]] p. 496.</ref>

In 2001, Solzhenitsyn published a two-volume work on the history of Russian-Jewish relations (''[[Two Hundred Years Together]]'' 2001, 2002).<ref>{{cite news | url = https://www.theguardian.com/world/2003/jan/25/russia.books | title = Solzhenitsyn breaks last taboo of the revolution | first = Nick Paton | last = Walsh | newspaper = [[The Guardian]] | date = 25 January 2003}}</ref> The book triggered renewed accusations of anti-Semitism.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa3763/is_200609/ai_n18622003 |title=Dimensional Spaces in Alexander Solzhenitsyn's ''Two Hundred Years Together'' |work=Canadian Slavonic Papers |date=2 June 2009 |access-date=14 February 2010 |first=Zinaida |last=Gimpelevich |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100805141955/http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa3763/is_200609/ai_n18622003/ |archive-date= 5 August 2010 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url = http://berkovich-zametki.com/2006/Zametki/Nomer6/VOstrovsky1.htm | title = В Островский (V Ostrovsky) | language = ru |trans-title=In Ostrovsky |publisher= Berkovich zametki |access-date= 14 February 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web| last = Khanan | first = Vladimir | title = 22 | url = http://www.sunround.com/club/22/133_chanan.htm | script-title=ru:И в Израиле – с Наклоном | language = ru |trans-title=And in Israel – with Naklonom |publisher= Sun round | access-date=14 February 2010}}</ref><ref name=young /> In the book, he repeated his call for Russian Gentiles and Jews to share responsibility for everything that happened in the Soviet Union.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Lustiger |first=Arno |date=7 October 2003 |title=Alexander Solschenizyn versucht sich an der Geschichte der Juden in der Sowjetunion: Reue wäre der sauberste Weg |trans-title=Alexander Solzhenitsyn attempts a history of the Jews in the Soviet Union: Repentance would be the simplest way |url=https://www.berliner-zeitung.de/alexander-solschenizyn-versucht-sich-an-der-geschichte-der-juden-in-der-sowjetunion-reue-waere-der-sauberste-weg-li.6483 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200926042812/https://www.berliner-zeitung.de/alexander-solschenizyn-versucht-sich-an-der-geschichte-der-juden-in-der-sowjetunion-reue-waere-der-sauberste-weg-li.6483 |archive-date=2020-09-26 |access-date=2021-11-09 |website=Berliner Zeitung |language=de}}</ref> He also downplayed the number of victims of an 1882 pogrom despite current evidence, and failed to mention the [[Beilis affair]], a 1911 trial in [[Kyiv|Kiev]] where a Jew was accused of [[Blood libel|ritually murdering Christian children]].<ref name="schmid">{{Cite news |last=Schmid |first=Ulrich M. |date=2001-08-11 |title=Solschenizyn über das Verhältnis zwischen Russen und Juden: Schwierige Nachbarschaft |trans-title=Solzhenitsyn on Russian-Jewish Relations: Troubled Neighbors |url=https://www.nzz.ch/article7K87E-1.463769 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160107223858/https://www.nzz.ch/article7K87E-1.463769 |archive-date=2016-01-07 |access-date=2021-11-09 |website=Neue Zürcher Zeitung}}</ref> He was also criticized for relying on outdated scholarship, ignoring current western scholarship, and for selectively quoting to strengthen his preconceptions, such as that the Soviet Union often treated Jews better than non-Jewish Russians.<ref name="schmid" /><ref name="siegl">{{Cite web |last=Siegl |first=Elfie |date=2003-05-12 |title=Alexander Solschenizyn: Zweihundert Jahre zusammen - Die russisch-jüdische Geschichte |trans-title=Alexander Solzhenitsyn: Two Hundred Years Together - Russian-Jewish History |url=https://www.deutschlandfunk.de/alexander-solschenizyn-zweihundert-jahre-zusammen-die.730.de.html?dram:article_id=102032 |access-date=2021-11-09 |website=Deutschlandfunk |language=de-DE}}</ref> Similarities between ''Two Hundred Years Together'' and an anti-Semitic essay titled "Jews in the USSR and in the Future Russia", attributed to Solzhenitsyn, have led to the inference that he stands behind the anti-Semitic passages. Solzhenitsyn himself explained that the essay consists of manuscripts stolen from him by the [[KGB]], and then carefully edited to appear anti-Semitic, before being published, 40 years before, without his consent.<ref name=young>{{cite news|url=http://www.reason.com/news/show/29113.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081218001702/http://www.reason.com/news/show/29113.html|title=Traditional Prejudices: The anti-Semitism of Alexander Solzhenitsyn.|first=Cathy|last=Young|date=May 2004|archive-date=18 December 2008 }} Traditional Prejudices. The anti-Semitism of Alexander Solzhenitsyn ''[[Reason Magazine]]'' May 2004.</ref><ref>Cathy Young: [http://www.reason.com/news/show/29241.html Reply to Daniel J. Mahoney] in ''Reason Magazine'', August–September 2004.</ref> According to the historian [[Semyon Reznik]], textological analyses have proven Solzhenitsyn's authorship.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.vestnik.com/issues/2003/0611/win/reznik.htm|title=Семён Резник: Лебедь Белая И Шесть Пудов Еврейского Жира[Win&#93;|publisher=Vestnik.com|access-date=14 February 2010}}</ref>

=== Criticism of communism ===

[[File:The monument to Solzhenitsyn in Moscow 2.jpg|thumb|409x409px|Monument to Alexander Solzhenitsyn in Moscow]]
[[File:Brodnica sołżenicyn.jpg|thumb|A monument dedicated to Solzhenitsyn in [[Brodnica]] in Poland]]
Solzhenitsyn emphasized the significantly more oppressive character of the Soviet [[police state]], in comparison to the [[Russian Empire]] of the [[House of Romanov]]. He asserted that Imperial Russia did not censor literature or the media to the extremely systematic style as the Soviet-era [[Glavlit]],<ref>[http://www.beaconforfreedom.org/about_database/russia.html "A brief history of censorship in Russia in 19th and 20th century"] ''Beacon for Freedom'' {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110216181044/http://www.beaconforfreedom.org/about_database/russia.html |date=16 February 2011 }}</ref> that Tsarist era political prisoners were not forced into [[katorga|labor camps]] to even remotely the same degree,<ref>{{Citation | last = Gentes | first = Andrew | year = 2005 | chapter-url = http://espace.library.uq.edu.au/eserv/UQ:8015/katorga.pdf | chapter = Katorga: Penal Labor and Tsarist Siberia | title = The Siberian Saga: A History of Russia's Wild East | editor-first = Eva-Maria | editor-last = Stolberg | place = Frankfurt am Main | publisher = Peter Lang }}</ref> and that the number of [[political prisoner]]s and [[Special settlements in the Soviet Union|internal exiles]] under the Romanovs were only one ten-thousandth of the numbers of both following the [[October Revolution]]. He noted that the Tsar's [[secret police]], the [[Okhrana]], was only present in the three largest cities, and not at all in the [[Imperial Russian Army]].{{Citation needed|date = July 2011}}

[[File:RR5110-0156R 2 рубля 2018 100 лет Солженицыну.png|thumb|200x200px|A commemorative Russian coin of 2 rubles with the image of Alexander Solzhenitsyn]]

Shortly before his return to Russia, Solzhenitsyn delivered a speech in [[Les Lucs-sur-Boulogne]] to commemorate the 200th anniversary of the [[Vendée Uprising]]. During his speech, Solzhenitsyn compared Lenin's [[Bolshevik]]s with the [[Jacobin Club]] during the [[French Revolution]]. He also compared the Vendean rebels with the Russian, Ukrainian, and Cossack peasants who rebelled against the Bolsheviks, saying that both were destroyed mercilessly by revolutionary despotism. He commented that, while the French [[Reign of Terror]] ended with the [[Thermidorian reaction]] and the toppling of the Jacobins and the execution of [[Maximilien Robespierre]], its Soviet equivalent continued to accelerate until the [[Khrushchev thaw]] of the 1950s.<ref>''The Solzhenitsyn Reader: New and Essential Writings 1947–2005'', (2008), [[ISI Books]]. pp. 602–05.</ref>

According to Solzhenitsyn, Russians were not the ruling nation in the Soviet Union. He believed that all the traditional culture of all ethnic groups were equally oppressed in favor of atheism and Marxist–Leninism. Traditional Russian culture was even more repressed than any other culture in the Soviet Union, since the regime was more afraid of peasant uprisings by ethnic Russians than among any other Soviet ethnic group. Therefore, Solzhenitsyn argued, moderate and non-colonialist [[Russian nationalism]] and the [[Russian Orthodox Church]], once cleansed of [[Caesaropapism]], should not be regarded as a threat to the civilization of the West but rather as it's ally.<ref>{{cite journal | title= Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn and Russian Nationalism |first= David G | last= Rowley | journal = Journal of Contemporary History |volume=32 |issue=3 |year=1997 |pages=321–37 |jstor= 260964 | doi=10.1177/002200949703200303|s2cid= 161761611 }}</ref>

Solzhenitsyn made a speaking tour after [[Francisco Franco]]'s death, and "told liberals not to push too hard for changes because Spain had more freedoms now than the Soviet Union had ever known." As reported by ''[[The New York Times]]'', he "blamed Communism for the death of 110 million Russians and derided those in Spain who complained of dictatorship."<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1976/03/22/archives/solzhenitsyn-bids-spain-use-caution.html|title=Solzhenitsyn Bids Spain Use Caution|work=The New York Times|date=22 March 1976|access-date=13 August 2021|issn=0362-4331}}</ref> Solzhenitsyn recalled: "I had to explain to the [[Spanish people|people of Spain]] in the most concise possible terms what it meant to have been subjugated by an ideology as we in the Soviet Union had been, and give the Spanish to understand what a terrible fate they escaped in 1939". This was because Solzhenitsyn saw at least some parallels between the [[Spanish Civil War]] between the [[Nationalist faction (Spanish Civil War)|Nationalists]] and the [[Republican faction (Spanish Civil War)|Republicans]] and the [[Russian Civil War]] between the [[anti-communist]] [[White Movement|White Army]] and the Communist [[Red Army]]. While this was neither a popular or commonly held view at that time and [[Winston Lord]], a protégé of the then United States Secretary of State [[Henry Kissinger]], called Solzhenitsyn, "just about a fascist",<ref>{{cite news|last=Caldwell|first=Chrsitopher|date=10 January 2019|url=https://www.nationalreview.com/magazine/2019/01/28/aleksandr-solzhenitsyn-book-review/|title=Solzhenitsyn in Exile|work=National Review|access-date=13 August 2021}}</ref> and Elisa Kriza alleged thar Solzhenitsyn held "benevolent views" on [[Francoist Spain]] because it was a pro-Christian government, and his Christian worldview operated ideologically.<ref>{{cite book|last=Kriza|first=Elisa|year=2014|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=t1H_BgAAQBAJ|title=Alexander Solzhenitsyn: Cold War Icon, Gulag Author, Russian Nationalist?: A Study of His Western Reception|publisher=Columbia University Press|page=235|isbn=978-3-8382-6689-3}}</ref> In ''The Little Grain Managed to Land Between Two Millstones'', the Nationalist uprising against the [[Second Spanish Republic]] is "held up as a model of a proper Christian response", to [[religious persecution]] by the [[Far Left]], such as the [[Red Terror (Spain)|Spanish Red Terror]] by the Republican forces. According to Peter Brooke, however, Solzhenitsyn in reality approached the position argued by Christian Dmitri Panin, with whom he had a fall out in exile, namely that evil "must be confronted by force, and the centralised, spiritually independent Roman Catholic Church is better placed to do it than Orthodoxy with its otherworldliness and tradition of [[Caesaropapism|subservience to the State]]."<ref>{{cite magazine|last=MacNeice|first=Louis|date=Summer 2010|url=https://drb.ie/articles/what-came-up-was-goosegrass/|title=What Came Up Was Goosegrass|magazine=Dublin Review of Books|access-date=13 August 2021}}</ref>

In "Rebuilding Russia", an essay first published in 1990 in ''[[Komsomolskaya Pravda]]'', Solzhenitsyn urged the Soviet Union to grant independence to all the non-Slav [[Republics of the Soviet Union|republics]], which he claimed were sapping the Russian nation and he called for the creation of a new Slavic state bringing together [[Russia]], [[Ukraine]], [[Belarus]], and parts of [[Kazakhstan]] that he considered to be [[Russified]].<ref name= RFLSolUKma>{{Citation | url = http://www.rferl.org/content/Solzhenitsyn_Leaves_Troubled_Legacy_Across_Former_Soviet_Union/1188876.html | title = Solzhenitsyn Leaves Troubled Legacy Across Former Soviet Union | newspaper = [[Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty]] | date = 6 August 2008}}</ref> Regarding Ukraine he wrote “All the talk of a separate Ukrainian people existing since something like the ninth century and possessing its own non-Russian language is recently invented falsehood” and "we all sprang from precious Kiev".<ref>{{cite news |title=What Putin's Favorite Guru Tells Us About His Next Target |url=https://www.politico.com/magazine/story/2015/02/vladimir-putin-guru-solzhenitsyn-115088/ |agency=[[Politico]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Conradi |first1=Peter |title=Who Lost Russia? From the Collapse of the USSR to Putin's War on Ukraine |date=2017}}</ref>

=== On post-Soviet Russia ===

[[File:Vladimir Putin with Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn-1.jpg|thumb|Solzhenitsyn with [[Vladimir Putin]] in 2007]]

In some of his later political writings, such as ''Rebuilding Russia'' (1990) and ''Russia in Collapse'' (1998), Solzhenitsyn criticized the [[Russian oligarchs|oligarchic excesses]] of the new Russian democracy, while opposing any nostalgia for Soviet Communism. He defended moderate and self-critical patriotism (as opposed to [[Extremist nationalism in Russia|extreme nationalism]]). He also urged for local self-government similar to what he had seen in [[New England]] town meetings and in the cantons of [[Switzerland]]. He also expressed concern for the fate of the 25 million ethnic Russians in the "[[near abroad]]" of the former Soviet Union.

In an interview with [[Joseph Pearce]], Solzhenitsyn was asked whether he felt that the [[Distributism|socioeconomic theories]] of [[E.F. Schumacher]] were, "the key to society rediscovering its sanity". He replied, "I do believe that it would be the key, but I don't think this will happen, because people succumb to fashion, and they suffer from inertia and it is hard to them to come round to a different point of view."<ref name="Joseph Pearce 2011 Page 331"/>

Solzhenitsyn refused to accept Russia's highest honor, the [[Order of St. Andrew]], in 1998. Solzhenitsyn later said: "In 1998, it was the country's low point, with people in misery; ... [[Boris Yeltsin|Yeltsin]] decreed I be honored the highest state order. I replied that I was unable to receive an award from a government that had led Russia into such dire straits."<ref name="Solzhenitsyn 2007"/> In a 2003 interview with Joseph Pearce, Solzhenitsyn said: "We are exiting from communism in a most unfortunate and awkward way. It would have been difficult to design a path out of communism worse than the one that has been followed."<ref>Interview published in [http://www.catholiceducation.org/en/culture/art/an-interview-with-alexander-solzhenitsyn.html ''St. Austin Review'' 2 no. 2 (February 2003)]</ref>

In a 2007 interview with ''[[Der Spiegel]]'', Solzhenitsyn expressed disappointment that the "conflation of 'Soviet' and 'Russian'", against which he spoke so often in the 1970s, had not passed away in the West, in the [[Eastern Bloc|ex-socialist countries]], or in the [[Post-Soviet states|former Soviet republics]]. He commented, "The elder political generation in communist countries is not ready for repentance, while the new generation is only too happy to voice grievances and level accusations, with present-day Moscow [as] a convenient target. They behave as if they heroically liberated themselves and lead a new life now, while Moscow has remained communist. Nevertheless, I dare [to] hope that this unhealthy phase will soon be over, that all the peoples who have lived through communism will understand that communism is to blame for the bitter pages of their history."<ref name="Solzhenitsyn 2007">{{Citation | url = http://www.spiegel.de/international/world/spiegel-interview-with-alexander-solzhenitsyn-i-am-not-afraid-of-death-a-496211.html | type = interview | first = Aleksandr I | last = Solzhenitsyn | title = I Am Not Afraid of Death | newspaper = [[Der Spiegel]] | issue = 30 | year = 2007}}</ref>

In 2008, Solzhenitsyn praised Putin, saying Russia was rediscovering what it meant to be Russian. Solzhenitsyn also praised the Russian president [[Dmitry Medvedev]] as a "nice young man" who was capable of taking on the challenges Russia was facing.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2010/dec/02/wikileaks-cables-solzhenitsyn-vladimir-putin|title=WikiLeaks cables: Solzhenitsyn praise for Vladimir Putin|first=Luke|last=Harding|newspaper=The Guardian |date=2 December 2010|via=www.theguardian.com}}</ref>

=== Criticism of the West ===

Once in the [[United States]], Solzhenitsyn sharply criticized the West.<ref>[https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/1978/06/09/solzhenitsyn-says-west-is-failing-as-model-for-world/69e9fb6c-60d6-41f3-9022-606631a60e35/?noredirect=on Solzhenitsyn Says West Is Failing as Model for World], by Lee Lescaze 9 June 1978, ''[[The Washington Post]]''</ref>

Solzhenitsyn criticized the [[Allies of World War II|Allies]] for not opening a new front against [[Nazi Germany]] in the west earlier in World War II. This resulted in Soviet domination and control of the nations of [[Eastern Europe]]. Solzhenitsyn claimed the Western democracies apparently cared little about how many died in the East, as long as they could end the war quickly and painlessly for themselves in the West.

Delivering the commencement address at [[Harvard University]] in 1978, he called the United States "Dechristianized" and mired in boorish [[consumerism]]. The [[American people]], he said, speaking in Russian through a translator, were also suffering from a "decline in courage" and a "lack of manliness." Few were willing to die for their ideals, he said. He also condemned the [[Counterculture of the 1960s|1960s counterculture]] for forcing the [[United States Federal Government|United States federal government]] to accept a "hasty" capitulation in the [[Vietnam War]].

In a reference to the Communist governments in [[Southeast Asia]]'s use of [[Re-education camp (Vietnam)|re-education camps]], [[politicide]], [[human rights abuses]], and [[Cambodian genocide|genocide]] following the [[Fall of Saigon]], Solzhenitsyn said: "But members of the [[Peace movement#United States|U.S. antiwar movement]] wound up being involved in the betrayal of Far Eastern nations, in a [[Cambodian genocide|genocide]] and in the suffering today imposed on 30 million people there. Do those convinced pacifists hear the moans coming from there?"<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1978/06/13/archives/the-editorial-notebook-the-decline-of-the-west.html|title=The Editorial Notebook The Decline of the West|newspaper=The New York Times|date=13 June 1978}}</ref>

He also accused the Western news media of left-wing bias, of violating the privacy of celebrities, and of filling up the "immortal souls" of their readers with celebrity gossip and other "vain talk". He also said that the West erred in thinking that the whole world should embrace this as model. While faulting Soviet society for rejecting basic [[human rights]] and the [[rule of law]], he also critiqued the West for being too [[legalism (Western philosophy)|legalistic]]: "A society which is based on the letter of the law and never reaches any higher is taking very scarce advantage of the high level of human possibilities." Solzhenitsyn also argued that the West erred in "denying [Russian culture's] [[Autonomy|autonomous]] character and therefore never understood it".<ref name=harvard />

Solzhenitsyn criticized the [[2003 invasion of Iraq]] and accused the United States of the "occupation" of [[Kosovo]], [[Afghanistan]] and [[Iraq]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Solzhenitsyn: a life of dissent |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/europe/solzhenitsyn-a-life-of-dissent-884590.html |work=The Independent |date=4 August 2008}}</ref>

Solzhenitsyn was critical of [[Enlargement of NATO|NATO's eastward expansion]] towards Russia's borders.<ref name="bbc"/> In 2006, Solzhenitsyn accused [[NATO]] of trying to bring Russia under its control; he claimed this was visible because of its "ideological support for the '[[colour revolutions]]' and the paradoxical forcing of North Atlantic interests on Central Asia".<ref name="bbc">{{Citation | url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/4953690.stm | title = Solzhenitsyn warns of Nato plot | newspaper = [[BBC News]] | date = 28 April 2006}}</ref> In a 2006 interview with ''[[Der Spiegel]]'' he stated "This was especially painful in the case of Ukraine, a country whose closeness to Russia is defined by literally millions of family ties among our peoples, relatives living on different sides of the national border.  At one fell stroke, these families could be torn apart by a new dividing line, the border of a military bloc."<ref name="Solzhenitsyn 2007" />

=== On the Holodomor ===
Solzhenitsyn gave a speech to [[AFL–CIO]] in [[Washington, D.C.|Washington, D.C]]., on 30 June 1975 in which he mentioned how the system created by the [[Bolsheviks]] in 1917 caused dozens of problems in the Soviet Union.<ref name="Seventy five">{{cite web|url=https://archive.org/details/SolzhenitsynTheVoiceOfFreedom|title=Solzhenitsyn: The Voice of Freedom |author=Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn|work=AFL–CIO|date=30 June 1975|access-date=22 June 2016}}</ref> He described how this system was responsible for the [[Holodomor]]: "It was a system which, in time of peace, artificially created a famine, causing 6 million people to die in the Ukraine in 1932 and 1933." Solzhenitsyn added, "they died on the very edge of Europe. And Europe didn't even notice it. The world didn't even notice it—6 million people!"<ref name="Seventy five"/>

Shortly before his death, Solzhenitsyn opined in an interview published 2 April 2008 in ''[[Izvestia]]'' that, while the famine in Ukraine was both artificial and caused by the state, it was no different from the [[Russian famine of 1921–1922]]. Solzhenitsyn expressed the belief that both famines were caused by systematic armed robbery of the harvests from both Russian and Ukrainian peasants by Bolshevik units, which were under orders from the [[Politburo]] to bring back food for the starving urban population centers while refusing for ideological reasons to permit any private sale of food supplies in the cities or to give any payment to the peasants in return for the food that was seized.<ref name="Solzh"/> Solzhenitsyn further alleged that the theory that the Holodomor was a genocide which only victimized the Ukrainian people was created decades later by believers in an [[Russophobia|anti-Russian]] form of [[extreme nationalism|extreme Ukrainian nationalism]]. Solzhenitsyn also cautioned that the ultranationalists' claims risked being accepted without question in the West due to widespread ignorance and misunderstanding there of both Russian and Ukrainian history.<ref name="Solzh">{{cite news|first=Alexander|last=Solzhenitsyn|author-link=Alexander Solzhenitsyn|url=http://www.izvestia.ru/opinions/article3114723/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080405034053/http://www.izvestia.ru/opinions/article3114723|archive-date=5 April 2008|script-title=ru:Поссорить родные народы??|work=[[Izvestia]]|language=ru|date=2 April 2008|access-date=27 November 2011}}</ref>

== Legacy ==

The Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn Center in [[Worcester, Massachusetts]] promotes the author and hosts the official [[English language|English-language]] website dedicated to him.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.solzhenitsyncenter.org |title=The Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn Center |website=www.solzhenitsyncenter.org}}</ref>

===Television documentaries on Solzhenitsyn===
In October 1983, French literary journalist [[Bernard Pivot]] made an hour-long television interview with Solzhenitsyn at his rural home in [[Vermont]], US. Solzhenitsyn discussed his writing, the evolution of his language and style, his family and his outlook on the future—and stated his wish to return to Russia in his lifetime, not just to see his books eventually printed there.<ref name=Pearce>{{cite book |last=Pearce |first =Joseph |title=Solzhenitsyn: A Soul in Exile |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lgPwzq0M9lkC&pg=PT79 |publisher=HarperCollins|date =2000 |page=79 |isbn=978-1-58617-496-5}}</ref><ref>[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fqz2_8gqoB8 Apostrophes: Alexandre Soljenitsyne répond à Bernard Pivot | Archive INA] Ina Talk Shows</ref> Earlier the same year, Solzhenitsyn was interviewed on separate occasions by two British journalists, [[Bernard Levin]] and [[Malcolm Muggeridge]].<ref name=Pearce/>

In 1998, Russian filmmaker [[Alexander Sokurov]] made a four-part television documentary, ''Besedy s Solzhenitsynym'' (''[[The Dialogues with Solzhenitsyn]]''). The [[Documentary film|documentary]] was shot in Solzhenitsyn's home depicting his everyday life and his reflections on Russian history and literature.<ref name="Савельев">{{cite book|last=Савельев |first=Дмитрий |chapter=Узловая элегия |editor-last=Аркус |editor-first=Л |title=Сокуров: Части речи: Сборник |trans-title=Sokurov: Part of Speech: Collection |volume=2 |publisher=Сеанс |place=Санкт-Петербург |year=2006 |chapter-url=http://russiancinema.ru/template.php?dept_id=15&e_dept_id=2&e_movie_id=6834 |isbn=978-5-901586-10-5 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111004152559/http://russiancinema.ru/template.php?dept_id=15&e_dept_id=2&e_movie_id=6834 |archive-date=4 October 2011 }}</ref>

In December 2009, the Russian channel ''[[Rossiya K]]'' broadcast the French television documentary ''L'Histoire Secrète de l'Archipel du Goulag'' (''The Secret History of the Gulag Archipelago'')<ref name="Rossiya K">{{cite web|script-title=ru:Тайная история "Архипелага ГУЛАГ". Премьера фильма|language=ru|trans-title=The Secret History of 'The Gulag Archipelago'. Movie Première|url=http://tvkultura.ru/brand/show/brand_id/32856|publisher=[[Rossiya K]]|access-date=23 June 2013|date=12 December 2009|archive-date=19 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200919031642/https://tvkultura.ru/brand/show/brand_id/32856/|url-status=dead}}</ref> made by Jean Crépu and [[Nicolas Miletitch]]<ref name="Nicolaev">{{cite news|last=Nicolaev|first=Marina|title=Ultimul interviu Aleksandr Soljeniţîn: 'L'histoire secrète de L'Archipel du Gulag | language = ro |trans-title=Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn's last interview: ‘The Secret History of the Goulag Archipel |url= http://www.poezie.ro/index.php/article/13908962/ | access-date=23 August 2011 | newspaper= Poezie|date = 10 October 2009}}</ref> and translated into Russian under the title ''Taynaya Istoriya "Arkhipelaga Gulag"'' (Тайная история "Архипелага ГУЛАГ"). The documentary covers events related to creation and publication of ''[[The Gulag Archipelago]]''.<ref name="Rossiya K" /><ref>{{cite web|url=http://video.yandex.ru/users/fancyfly/view/39/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111007060320/http://video.yandex.ru/users/fancyfly/view/39/ |url-status=dead |archive-date=7 October 2011 |script-title=ru:Тайная история "Архипелага ГУЛАГ" |language=ru |trans-title=The Secret History of 'The Gulag Archipelago' |place=[[Russia|UR]] |publisher=Yandex |access-date=23 August 2012 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.blinkx.com/watch-video/secret-history-the-gulag-archipelago/u8LgZxdriv5U0f5gcCZeuw |title=Video Secret History: The Gulag Archipelago |publisher=Blinkx |access-date=23 August 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120605001157/http://www.blinkx.com/watch-video/secret-history-the-gulag-archipelago/u8LgZxdriv5U0f5gcCZeuw |archive-date=5 June 2012 }}</ref>

== Published works and speeches ==

{{Main|Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn bibliography}}
{{refbegin|26em}}
* {{Cite book|last=Solzhenitsyn|first=Aleksandr Isaevich|title=A Storm in the Mountains}}
* {{Cite book|last=Solzhenitsyn|first=Aleksandr Isaevich|author-mask=3|year=1962|title=One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich|type=novella|title-link=One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich}}
* {{Cite book|last=Solzhenitsyn|first=Aleksandr Isaevich|author-mask=3|year=1963|title=An Incident at Krechetovka Station|type=novella|title-link=An Incident at Krechetovka Station}}
* {{Cite book|last=Solzhenitsyn|first=Aleksandr Isaevich|author-mask=3|year=1963|title=Matryona's Place|type=novella|title-link=Matryona's Place}}
* {{Cite book|last=Solzhenitsyn|first=Aleksandr Isaevich|author-mask=3|year=1963|title=For the Good of the Cause|type=novella|title-link=For the Good of the Cause}}
* {{Cite book|last=Solzhenitsyn|first=Aleksandr Isaevich|author-mask=3|year=1968|title=The First Circle|type=novel|others=[[Henry Carlisle]], [[Olga Carlisle]] (translators)|title-link=The First Circle}}
* {{Cite book|last=Solzhenitsyn|first=Aleksandr Isaevich|author-mask=3|year=1968|title=Cancer Ward|type=novel|title-link=Cancer Ward}}
* {{Cite book|last=Solzhenitsyn|first=Aleksandr Isaevich|author-mask=3|year=1969|title=The Love-Girl and the Innocent|type=play|title-link=The Love-Girl and the Innocent}} Also known as ''The Prisoner and the Camp Hooker'' or ''The Tenderfoot and the Tart''.
* {{cite web|last=Solzhenitsyn|first=Aleksandr Isaevich|author-mask=3|year=1970|title=Laureate lecture|publisher=[[Swedish academy]]|url=https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/literature/1970/solzhenitsyn/facts/|series=Nobel prize|access-date=19 March 2019|format=delivered in writing and not actually given as a lecture}}
* {{Cite book|last=Solzhenitsyn|first=Aleksandr Isaevich|author-mask=3|year=1971|title=August 1914|type=historical novel|title-link=August 1914 (novel)}} The beginning of a history of the birth of the USSR. Centers on the disastrous loss in the [[Battle of Tannenberg (1914)|Battle of Tannenberg]] in August 1914, and the ineptitude of the military leadership. Other works, similarly titled, follow the story: see ''[[The Red Wheel]]'' (overall title).
* {{Cite book|last=Solzhenitsyn|first=Aleksandr Isaevich|author-mask=3|date=1973–1978|title=The Gulag Archipelago|others=[[Henry Carlisle]], [[Olga Carlisle]] (tr.)|title-link=The Gulag Archipelago}} (3 vols.), not a memoir, but a history of the entire process of developing and administering a [[police state]] in the Soviet Union.
* {{Cite book|last=Solzhenitsyn|first=Aleksandr Isaevich|author-mask=3|year=1951|title=Prussian Nights|publication-date=1974|type=poetry|title-link=Prussian Nights}}.
* {{Citation |last=Solzhenitsyn |first=Aleksandr Isaevich |author-mask=3 |date=10 December 1974 |title=Nobel Banquet |type=speech |place=City Hall, Stockholm}}.<ref>{{cite web|url= http://nobelprize.org/literature/laureates/1970/solzhenitsyn-speech74-e.html |first=Aleksandr I |last=Solzhenitsyn |author-mask=Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn |title=Banquet Speech |publisher=Nobel prize |date=10 December 1974 |access-date=23 August 2012}}</ref>
* {{Cite book|last=Solzhenitsyn|first=Aleksandr Isaevich|author-mask=3|title=A Letter to the Soviet leaders|publisher=Collins: Harvill Press|year=1974|isbn=978-0-06-013913-1|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/lettertosovietle00solz}}
* {{Cite book|last=Solzhenitsyn|first=Aleksandr Isaevich|author-mask=3|year=1975|title=The Oak and the Calf|title-link=The Oak and the Calf}}
* {{Cite book|last=Solzhenitsyn|first=Aleksandr Isaevich|author-mask=3|year=1975|title=Solzhenitsyn: The Voice of Freedom|type=Translation of 2 speeches, the first given in Washington, D.C., on 30 June 1975, the second in New York City on 9 July 1975 to the [[AFL–CIO]]|url=https://archive.org/details/SolzhenitsynTheVoiceOfFreedom/|publisher=Washington: [[American Federation of Labor and Congress of Industrial Organizations]]}}
* {{Cite book|last=Solzhenitsyn|first=Aleksandr Isaevich|author-mask=3|year=1976a|title=Lenin in Zürich}}; separate publication of chapters on [[Vladimir Lenin]], none of them published before this point, from ''[[The Red Wheel]]''. The first of them was later incorporated into the 1984 edition of the expanded ''August 1914'' (though it had been written at the same time as the original version of the novel){{Sfn|Solzhenitsyn|1976a|loc=preface}} and the rest in ''November 1916'' and ''March 1917''.
* {{Cite book|last=Solzhenitsyn|first=Aleksandr Isaevich|author-mask=3|date=1976b|title=Warning to the West|type=5 speeches; 3 to the Americans in 1975 and 2 to the British in 1976}}
* {{cite web|last=Solzhenitsyn|first=Aleksandr Isaevich|author-mask=3|date=8 June 1978|title=Harvard Commencement Address|url=https://www.solzhenitsyncenter.org/a-world-split-apart|access-date=18 June 2021|website=Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn Center → Articles, Essays, and Speeches}}
* {{Cite book|last=Solzhenitsyn|first=Aleksandr Isaevich|author-mask=3|year=1983|title=Pluralists|type=political pamphlet}}
* {{Cite book|last=Solzhenitsyn|first=Aleksandr Isaevich|author-mask=3|year=1980|title=The Mortal Danger: Misconceptions about Soviet Russia and the Threat to America}}
* {{Cite book|last=Solzhenitsyn|first=Aleksandr Isaevich|author-mask=3|year=1983b|title=November 1916|type=novel|series=[[The Red Wheel]]}}
* {{Cite book|last=Solzhenitsyn|first=Aleksandr Isaevich|author-mask=3|year=1983c|title=Victory Celebration}}
* {{Cite book|last=Solzhenitsyn|first=Aleksandr Isaevich|author-mask=3|year=1983d|title=Prisoners}}
* {{Cite book|last=Solzhenitsyn|first=Aleksandr Isaevich|author-mask=3|date=10 May 1983|title=Godlessness, the First Step to the Gulag|publisher=Templeton Prize|type=address|place=London}}
* {{Cite book|last=Solzhenitsyn|first=Aleksandr Isaevich|author-mask=3|year=1984|title=August 1914|type=novel|edition=much-expanded}}
* {{Cite book|last=Solzhenitsyn|first=Aleksandr Isaevich|author-mask=3|year=1990|title=Rebuilding Russia}}
* {{Cite book|last=Solzhenitsyn|first=Aleksandr Isaevich|author-mask=3|year=1990|title=March 1917}}
* {{Cite book|last=Solzhenitsyn|first=Aleksandr Isaevich|author-mask=3|title=April 1917|year=c. 1991}}
* {{Cite book|last=Solzhenitsyn|first=Aleksandr Isaevich|author-mask=3|year=1995|title=The Russian Question}}
* {{cite book|last=Solzhenitsyn|first=Aleksandr Isaevich|author-mask=3|year=1997|title=Invisible Allies|publisher=Basic Books|isbn=978-1-887178-42-6|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5yYBZ35HPo4C}}{{Dead link|date=August 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}
* {{Cite book|last=Solzhenitsyn|first=Aleksandr Isaevich|author-mask=3|year=1998|trans-title=Russia under Avalanche|script-title=ru:Россия в обвале|type=political pamphlet|url=http://www.geocities.com/solzh/Solzh/v_obvale_toc.html|title=|publisher=Yahoo|format=Geo cities|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090828010202/http://www.geocities.com/solzh/Solzh/v_obvale_toc.html|archive-date=28 August 2009|url-status=dead|language=ru}}
* {{Cite book|last=Solzhenitsyn|first=Aleksandr Isaevich|author-mask=3|year=2003|title=Two Hundred Years Together|title-link=Two Hundred Years Together}} on Russian-Jewish relations since 1772, aroused ambiguous public response.<ref name = guardian>{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2003/jan/25/russia.books|place = London |work= The Guardian | title = Solzhenitsyn breaks last taboo of the revolution| date = 25 January 2003}}</ref><ref>{{Citation | url = http://www.orthodoxytoday.org/articles/ChukovskayaSolzhenitsyn.htm | type = interview | last = Solzhenitsyn | first = Aleksandr I | title = 200 Years Together | editor-first = Lydia | editor-last = Chukovskaya | newspaper = Orthodoxy Today | date = 1–7 January 2003 | access-date = 13 March 2004 | archive-date = 5 March 2005 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20050305171122/http://www.orthodoxytoday.org/articles/ChukovskayaSolzhenitsyn.htm | url-status = dead }}</ref>
* {{Cite book|last=Solzhenitsyn|first=Aleksandr Isaevich|author-mask=3|date=2011|title=Apricot Jam: and Other Stories|others=[[Kenneth Lantz]], [[Stephan Solzhenitsyn]] (tr.)|publisher=Counterpoint|location=Berkeley, CA|title-link=Apricot Jam: and Other Stories}}
{{refend}}

==See also==
* [[Gulag#Literature|Literature covering the Gulag system]]
* [[List of refugees]]
* [[Ivan Bunin]]
* [[Czesław Miłosz]]
* [[Đoàn Văn Toại]]
* [[Wei Jingsheng]]
* [[Yevgeny Zamyatin]]

== Notes ==
{{Notelist}}

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== Sources ==

{{external media| float = right| video1 = [https://www.c-span.org/video/?101066-1/alexander-solzhenitsyn Presentation by D. M. Thomas on ''Alexander Solzhenitsyn: A Century in His Life'']. [[C-SPAN]]. 19 February 1998}}
* {{cite book | ref = Ericson2008| last1 = Ericson | first1 = Edward E. Jr. | last2 = Klimoff | first2 = Alexis | year = 2008| title =The Soul and Barbed Wire: An Introduction to Solzhenitsyn|publisher= ISI books| isbn = 978-1-933859-57-6}}
* {{cite book | ref = Ericson2009 | editor1-last = Ericson | editor1-first = Edward E, Jr | editor2-last = Mahoney | editor2-first = Daniel J | year = 2009 |title= The Solzhenitsyn Reader: New and Essential Writings, 1947–2005 | publisher =ISI Books}}
* Kriza, Elisa (2014) ''Alexander Solzhenitsyn: Cold War Icon, Gulag Author, Russian Nationalist? A Study of the Western Reception of his Literary Writings, Historical Interpretations, and Political Ideas''. Stuttgart: Ibidem Press. {{ISBN|978-3-8382-0589-2}}
* {{cite book | ref = Moody| last = Moody | first = Christopher|title= Solzhenitsyn|place= Edinburgh|publisher = Oliver & Boyd |year= 1973|isbn= 978-0-05-002600-7}}
* {{cite book | ref = Scammell| last =Scammell | first = Michael|title=Solzhenitsyn: A Biography|place= London | publisher = Paladin|year= 1986|isbn=978-0-586-08538-7}}
* {{cite book| ref= Thomas| last= Thomas| first= D.M.| year= 1998| title= Alexander Solzhenitsyn: A Century in his Life| place= New York| publisher= St. Martin's Press| isbn= 978-0-312-18036-2| url= https://archive.org/details/alexandersolzhen00thom}}

== Further reading ==
{{Refbegin |2}}

=== Biographies ===
* {{cite book | last1 = Burg | first1 =David | first2 = George | last2 = Feifer | title= Solzhenitsyn: A Biography | location=New York | publisher =Stein & Day | year= 1972}}
* {{cite book | last1 = Glottser | first1 =Vladimir | first2 = Elena | last2 = Chukovskaia | title= Слово пробивает себе дорогу: Сборник статей и документов об А. И. Солженицыне (Slovo probivaet sebe dorogu: Sbornik statei i dokumentov ob A. I. Solzhenitsyne), 1962–1974 | language = ru |trans-title=The word finds its way: Collection of articles and documents on AI Solzhenitsyn | location = Moscow | publisher = Russkii put' | year = 1998}}
* {{cite book | last1 = Korotkov | first1 = AV | first2 = SA | last2 = Melchin | first3 = AS | last3 = Stepanov | year =1994 | title = Кремлевский самосуд: Секретные документы Политбюро о писателе А. Солженицыне (Kremlevskii samosud: Sekretnye dokumenty Politburo o pisatele A. Solzhenitsyne) | language = ru |trans-title=Kremlin lynching: Secret documents of the Politburo of the writer Alexander Solzhenitsyn | location =Moscow | publisher=Rodina}}
* {{cite book | last1 = Korotkov | first1 = AV | first2 = SA | last2 = Melchin | first3 = AS | last3 = Stepanov | author-mask = 3 | year = 1995 | title = The Solzhenitsyn Files | editor-first =Michael | editor-last = Scammell | others = [[Catherine A. Fitzpatrick]] (tr.) | location=Chicago | publisher=Edition q}}
* {{cite book | editor-last = Labedz | editor-first = Leopold | editor-link = Leopold Labedz | title = Solzhenitsyn: A Documentary Record | url = https://archive.org/details/solzhenitsyndocu00labe | url-access = registration | location=Bloomington | publisher =Indiana University | year= 1973| isbn = 9780253201645 }}
* {{cite book | last = Ledovskikh | first =Nikolai | author-link = Nikolai Ledovskikh | language = ru | title = Возвращение в Матренин дом, или Один день' Александра Исаевича (Vozvrashchenie v Matrenin dom, ili Odin den' Aleksandra Isaevicha) |trans-title=Return to Matrenin house, or One Day' Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn | location = Riazan' | publisher = Poverennyi | year= 2003}}
* Ostrovsky Alexander (2004). [http://warrax.net/2019/08/solzhenitsyn_proshanie_s_mifom.pdf Солженицын: прощание с мифом (Solzhenitsyn: Farewell to the myth)] – Moscow: «Yauza», Presscom. {{ISBN|978-5-98083-023-6}}
* {{cite book | last = Pearce | first =Joseph | title=Solzhenitsyn: A Soul in Exile | location=Grand Rapids, [[Michigan|MI]] | publisher=Baker Books | year= 2001}}
* {{cite book | last = Reshetovskaia | first =Natal'ia Alekseevna | title= В споре со временем (V spore so vremenem) | language = ru |trans-title=In a dispute over time | location = Moscow | publisher = Agentsvo pechati Novosti | year = 1975}}
* {{cite book | last = Reshetovskaia | first =Natal'ia Alekseevna | author-mask = 3 | title=Sanya: My Husband Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn | others= Elena Ivanoff transl | location = Indianapolis | publisher = Bobbs-Merrill | year = 1975}}

=== Reference works ===
* {{cite book | last1 = Askol'dov | first1 =Sergei Alekseevich | first2 = Petr Berngardovich | last2 = Struve |display-authors=etal | language = ru | title= Из глубины: Сборник статей о русской революции (Iz glubiny: Sbornik statei o russkoi revoliutsii) |trans-title=From the depths: Collection of articles on the Russian Revolution | location =Moscow | publisher = Russkaia mysl' | year= 1918}}
* {{cite book | last1 = Askol'dov | first1 = Sergei Alekseevich | first2 = Petr Berngardovich | last2 = Struve | others = William F. Woehrlin (tr.) | author-mask = 3 | editor-first = William F | editor-last = Woehrlin | title = De Profundis |trans-title=Out of the Depths | location=Irvine, [[California|CA]] | publisher = C Schlacks, Jr | year = 1986}}
* {{cite book | last = Barker | first =Francis | title=Solzhenitsyn: Politics and Form | location=New York | publisher =Holmes & Meier | year= 1977}}
* {{cite book | last1 = Berdiaev | first1 = Nikolai A | first2 = SN | last2 = Bulgakov | first3 = MO | last3 = Gershenzon |display-authors=etal. | language = ru | title = Вехи: Сборник статей о русской интеллигенции (Vekhi: Sbornik statei o russkoi intelligentsii) |trans-title=Milestones: Collection of articles on the Russian intelligentsia | location=Moscow | publisher=Kushnerev | year= 1909}}
* {{cite book | last1 = Berdiaev | first1 =Nikolai A | first2 = SN | last2 = Bulgakov | first3 = MO | last3 = Gershenzon |display-authors=etal. | author-mask = 3 | editor1-first =Boris | editor1-last = Shragin | editor2-first = Albert | editor2-last = Todd | others= Marian Schwartz transl | title=Landmarks: A Collection of Essays on the Russian Intelligentsia | location=New York | publisher=Karz Howard | year= 1977}}
* {{cite book | editor-last = Bloom | editor-first = Harold | title= Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn, Modern Critical Views | location=Philadelphia | publisher=Chelsea House | year= 2001}}
* {{Citation | last = Brown | first = Edward J | chapter = Solzhenitsyn and the Epic of the Camps | title = Russian Literature Since the Revolution | place = Cambridge, [[Massachusetts|MA]] | publisher = Harvard University | year = 1982 | pages = 251–91}}.
* {{Citation | last = Daprà | first = Veronika | title = AI Solzhenitsyn: The Political Writings | publisher = Università degli Studi di Venezia| year = 1991}}; Prof. Vittorio Strada, Dott. Julija Dobrovol'skaja.
* {{cite book | last = Ericson | title=Solzhenitsyn: The Moral Vision | url = https://archive.org/details/solzhenitsynmora0000eric | url-access = registration | first =Edward E jr | location = Grand Rapids, [[Michigan|MI]] | publisher=Eerdmans | year= 1980| isbn=9780802835277 }}
* {{cite book | last = Ericson | title=Solzhenitsyn and the Modern World | first =Edward E jr | location = Washington, DC | publisher=Regnery Gateway | year= 1993 | author-mask = 3}}
* {{cite book | editor-last = Feuer | editor-first = Kathryn | title=Solzhenitsyn: A Collection of Critical Essays | url = https://archive.org/details/solzhenitsyncoll00feue | url-access = registration | location=Englewood Cliffs, NJ | publisher=Prentice-Hall | year= 1976| isbn = 9780138226275 }}
* {{cite book | last = Golubkov | first =MM | title=Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn | location=Moscow | publisher=MGU | year = 1999}}
* {{cite book | last = Klimoff | first =Alexis | title=One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich: A Critical Companion | location=Evanston, [[Illinois|IL]] | publisher=Northwestern University Press | year= 1997}}
* {{cite book | last = Kodjak | first = Andrej | title=Alexander Solzhenitsyn | url = https://archive.org/details/alexandersolzhen00kodj | location=Boston | publisher = Twayne | year= 1978| isbn = 9780805763201 }}
* {{cite book | last = Krasnov | first = Vladislav | title= Solzhenitsyn and Dostoevsky: A Study in the Polyphonic Novel | url = https://archive.org/details/solzhenitsyndost00vlad | url-access = registration | location=Athens, [[Georgia (U.S. state)|GA]] | publisher=University of Georgia Press | year= 1979| isbn = 9780820304724 }}
* {{cite book | last = Kopelev | first =Lev | author-link=Lev Kopelev | others= [[Antonina W. Bouis]] transl | title =Ease My Sorrows: A Memoir | url = https://archive.org/details/easemysorrowsmem00kope | url-access = registration | location=New York | publisher=Random House | year= 1983| isbn =9780394527840 }}
* Anatoly Livry, « Soljénitsyne et la République régicide », Les Lettres et Les Arts, Cahiers suisses de critique littéraire et artistiques, Association de la revue Les Lettres et les Arts, Suisse, Vicques, 2011, pp.&nbsp;70–72. http://anatoly-livry.e-monsite.com/medias/files/soljenitsine-livry-1.pdf
* {{Citation | last = Lydon | first = Michael | chapter = Alexander Solzhenitsyn | title = Real Writing: Word Models of the Modern World | place = New York | publisher = Patrick Press | year = 2001 | pages = 183–251}}.
* {{Citation | last = Mahoney | first = Daniel J | title = Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn: The Ascent From Ideology | publisher = Rowman & Littlefield | year = 2001}}.
* {{Citation | last = Mahoney | first = Daniel J | title = Solzhenitsyn on Russia's 'Jewish Question | newspaper = Society |date=November–December 2002 | pages = 104–09 | author-mask = 3}}.
* {{Citation | last = Mathewson | first = Rufus W jr | chapter = Solzhenitsyn | title = The Positive Hero in Russian Literature | place = Stanford, [[California|CA]] | publisher = Stanford University Press | year = 1975 | pages  = 279–340}}
* {{Citation | last = McCarthy | first = Mary | title = The Tolstoy Connection | newspaper = Saturday Review | date = 16 September 1972 | pages = 79–96}}
* {{Citation | work = Modern Fiction Studies | title = Special Solzhenitsyn issue | volume = 23 |date=Spring 1977}}.
* {{cite book | last = Nivat | first =Georges | title=Soljénitsyne | language = fr |trans-title=Solzhenitsyn | location=Paris | publisher=Seuil | year = 1980}}
* {{Citation | last = Nivat | first = Georges | title = Le phénomène Soljénitsyne | language = fr |trans-title=The Solzhenitsyn phenomenon | publisher = Fayard | year = 2009 | author-mask = 3}}
* {{cite book | editor1 = Nivat | editor2-first = Michel | editor2-last = Aucouturier | title=Soljénitsyne | language = fr |trans-title=Solzhenitsyn | location =Paris | publisher=L'Herne | year= 1971}}
* {{cite book | last = Panin | first =Dimitri | others= John Moore transl | title=The Notebooks of Sologdin | url = https://archive.org/details/notebooksofsolog00pani | url-access = registration | location = New York | publisher=Harcourt Brace Jovanovich | year= 1976| isbn =9780151669950 }}
* {{Citation | last = Pogadaev | first = Victor A | title = Solzhenitsyn: Tanpa Karyanya Sejarah Abad 20 Tak Terbayangkan | language = id |trans-title=Solzhenitsyn: Without History of the 20th Century His work Unimaginable | newspaper = Pentas | volume = 3 | issue = 4 |date=October–December 2008 | place = Kuala Lumpur | pages = 60–63}}.
* {{cite book | last = Pontuso | first =James F | year = 1990 | title = Solzhenitsyn's Political Thought | location = Charlottesville | publisher =University of Virginia Press}}
* {{Citation | last = Pontuso | first = James F | year = 2004 | title = Assault on Ideology: Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn's Political Thought | edition = 2nd | place = Lanham, MD | publisher = Lexington Books | author-mask = 3 | isbn = 978-0-7391-0594-8}}.
* {{cite book | last = Porter | first =Robert | title=Solzhenitsyn's One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich | location =London | publisher=Bristol Classical | year= 1997}}
* {{Cite magazine |last1=Remnick |first1=David |author-link=David Remnick |title=The Exile Returns |magazine=[[The New Yorker]] |volume=69 |issue=50 |pages=64–83 |date=14 February 1994 |url=https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/1994/02/14/the-exile-returns }}
* {{cite book | last = Rothberg | first =Abraham | title=Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn: The Major Novels | url = https://archive.org/details/aleksandrsolzhen0000roth | url-access = registration | location = Ithaca, NY | publisher=Cornell University | year= 1971| isbn =9780801406683 }}
* {{cite book | last = Shneerson | first =Mariia | title= Александр Солженицын: Очерки творчества (Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn: Ocherki tvorchestva) | language = ru |trans-title=Alexander Solzhenitsyn: Essays on Art | location = Frankfurt & Moscow | publisher=Posev | year= 1984}}
* {{cite book | last = Shturman | first = Dora | title= Городу и миру: О публицистике АИ Солженицына (Gorodu i miru: O publitsistike AI Solzhenitsyna) | language = ru |trans-title=Urbi et Orbi: About journalism. AI Solzhenitsyn | location =Paris & New York | publisher=Tret'ia volna | year= 1988}}
* {{cite book | last1 = Solzhenitsyn | first1 = Aleksandr |display-authors=etal. | title = Solzhenitsyn at Harvard: The Address, Twelve Early Responses, and Six Later Reflections | url = https://archive.org/details/solzhenitsynatha00berm | url-access = registration | editor-first = Ronald | editor-last = Berman | location= Washington, DC | publisher= Ethics & Public Policy Center | year = 1980}}
* {{cite book | last = Solzhenitsyn | first =Aleksandr I | author-mask = 3 | title = Critical Essays and Documentary Materials | editor1-last = Dunlop | editor1-first = John B | editor2-first = Richard | editor2-last = Haugh | editor3-first = Alexis | editor3-last = Klimoff | location=New York & London | publisher= Collier Macmillan | year= 1975}}
* {{cite book | last = Solzhenitsyn | first = Aleksandr I | author-mask = 3 | title = In Exile: Critical Essays and Documentary Materials | url = https://archive.org/details/solzhenitsyninex00dunl_0 | url-access = registration | editor1-last = Dunlop | editor1-first = John B | editor2-first = Richard | editor2-last = Haugh | editor3-first = Michael | editor3-last = Nicholson | location=Stanford | publisher = Hoover Institution | year = 1985| isbn = 9780817980511 }}
* {{Citation | last = Toker | first = Leona | chapter = The Gulag Archipelago and The Gulag Fiction of Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn | title = Return from the Archipelago: Narrative of Gulag Survivors | place = Bloomington | publisher = Indiana University Press | year = 2000 | pages = 101–21, 188–209}}
* {{Citation | last = Tolczyk | first = Dariusz | chapter = A Sliver in the Throat of Power | title = See No Evil: Literary Cover-Ups and Discoveries of the Soviet Camp Experience | place = New Haven, [[Connecticut|CT]] & London | publisher = Yale University Press | year = 1999 | pages = 253–310}}
* {{Citation | title = Transactions | publisher = The Association of Russian-American Scholars in the USA | volume = 29 | year = 1998}}.
* {{cite book | last = Urmanov | first = AV | title= Творчество Александра Солженицына: Учебное пособие (Tvorchestvo Aleksandra Solzhenitsyna: Uchebnoe posobie) | language = ru |trans-title=Creativity Alexander Solzhenitsyn: A Tutorial | location=Moscow | publisher=Flinta/Nauka | year= 2003}}
* {{Citation | editor-last = Urmanov | editor-first = AV | title = Один деньь Ивана Денисовича АИ Солженицына. Художественный мир. Поэтика. Культурный контекст (Odin den' Ivana Denisovicha. AI Solzhenitsyna: Khudozhestvennyy mir. Poetika. Kul'turnyy kontekst) | language = ru |trans-title=One den of Ivan Denisovich. AI Solzhenitsyn: Art world. Poetics. Cultural context | place = Blagoveshchensk | publisher = BGPU | year = 2003}}.
* {{cite web | last = Tretyakov | first= Vitaly | title = Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn: 'Saving the Nation Is the Utmost Priority for the State' | publisher = The Moscow News | date= 2 May 2006 | url = http://english.mn.ru/english/issue.php?2006-15-35 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20060527214210/http://english.mn.ru/english/issue.php?2006-15-35 | archive-date= 27 May 2006}}

{{Refend}}

== External links ==
{{Wikiquote}}
{{Commons category|Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn}}
* {{in lang|ru}} {{official website|http://www.solzhenitsyn.ru/}}
* [http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/literature/laureates/1970/ The Nobel Prize in Literature 1970]
* {{Nobelprize}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20110927221903/http://www.stalinsociety.org.uk/lies.html#Solzhenitsyn Negative Analysis of Alexander Solzhenitsyn] by the ''[[Stalin Society]]''
* {{Citation | last = Solzhenitsyn | first = Aleksandr I | url = http://www.orthodoxytoday.org/articles/SolzhenitsynHarvard.php | title = A World Split Apart | year = 1978 | type = commencement address to the graduating class | place = Harvard University | publisher = OrthodoxyToday.org | access-date = 9 August 2014 | archive-date = 7 August 2008 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080807045730/http://www.orthodoxytoday.org/articles/SolzhenitsynHarvard.php | url-status = dead }}.
* [http://russia-ic.com/culture_art/literature/308 Vermont Recluse Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn]
* [http://www.spiegel.de/international/world/0,1518,druck-496003,00.html ''Der Spiegel'' interviews Alexander Solzhenitsyn: 'I Am Not Afraid of Death'], 23 July 2007
* [https://www.americanrhetoric.com/speeches/alexandersolzhenitsynharvard.htm As delivered text and video of Harvard Commencement Address] at AmericanRhetoric.com
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20110807090850/http://www.isi.org/(S(rrpndayozroq5155yj1hu2nl))/books/bookdetail.aspx?id=46543681-fa28-46b9-92dd-3f99181d3ffd The Solzhenitsyn Reader: New and Essential Writings, 1947–2005]
* {{IBList |type=author|id=231|name=Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn}}

{{Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn}}
{{Nobel Prize in Literature Laureates 1951–1975}}
{{1970 Nobel Prize winners}}
{{Templeton Prize Laureates}}
{{Soviet dissidents}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Solzhenitsyn, Aleksandr}}
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