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{{Short description|1861–1865 conflict in the United States}}
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{{Use mdy dates|date=April 2022}}
{{Use American English|date=October 2013}}
{{Infobox military conflict
| conflict          = American Civil War
| image             = CivilWarUSAColl.png
| image_size        = 300
| caption           = Clockwise from top: {{flatlist|
* [[Battle of Gettysburg]]
* [[Union Army|Union]] [[John C. Tidball|Captain John Tidball's]] [[Field artillery in the American Civil War|artillery]]
* [[Confederate States Army|Confederate]] prisoners
* [[Casemate ironclad|ironclad]] {{USS|Atlanta|1861|6}}
* [[Richmond in the American Civil War|Ruins of Richmond, Virginia]]
* [[Battle of Franklin (1864)|Battle of Franklin]]
}}
| date              = April 12, 1861 – May 26, 1865{{Efn|See also [[Conclusion of the American Civil War]] and [[American Civil War#End of the war]]}}<ref name=End>{{cite journal|last=Blair|first=William A.|title= Finding the Ending of America's Civil War|journal=The American Historical Review|volume=120|issue=5|url= https://www.jstor.org/stable/43697075|year=2015|pages=1753–1766 |publisher=Oxford University Press|doi=10.1093/ahr/120.5.1753 |jstor=43697075 |access-date=July 29, 2022}} [[Pennsylvania State University]] Professor William A. Blair wrote at pages 313–14: "the sheer weight of scholarship has leaned toward portraying the surrenders of the Confederate armies as the end of the war."; ''The New York Times'': {{cite web|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1865/05/29/archives/end-of-the-rebellion-the-last-rebel-army-disbands-kirby-smith.html|title= End of the Rebellion; The Last Rebel Army Disbands. Kirby Smith Surrenders the Land and Naval Forces Under His Command. The Confederate Flag Disappears from the Continent. The Era of Peace Begins. Military Prisoners During the War to be Discharged. Deserters to be Released from Confinement. [Official.] From Secretary Stanton to Gen. Dix.|website=[[The New York Times]]|agency=[[United States Department of War]]|date=May 29, 1865|access-date=July 29, 2022}}; [[American Civil War Centennial|United States Civil War Centennial Commission]] {{cite book|last= Robertson|first=James I. Jr.|title=The Civil War|publisher=Civil War Centennial Commission|year=1963|location=Washington, D.C.|oclc=299955768|url= https://www.gutenberg.org/files/58549/58549-h/58549-h.htm#c10}} At p. 31, Professor [[James I. Robertson Jr.]] of [[Virginia Tech|Virginia Tech University]] and Executive Director of the U. S. Civil War Centennial Commission wrote, "Lee's surrender left Johnston with no place to go. On April 26, near Durham, N. C., the Army of Tennessee laid down its arms before Sherman's forces. With the surrender of isolated forces in the Trans-Mississippi West on May 4, 11, and 26, the most costly war in American history came to an end."</ref><ref name=End2>Among the many other contemporary sources and later historians citing May 26, 1865, the date that the surrender of the last significant Confederate force in the trans-Mississippi department was agreed upon, or citing simply the surrender of the Confederate armies, as the end date for the American Civil War hostilities are [[George Templeton Strong]], who was a prominent New York lawyer; a founder, treasurer, and member of the Executive Committee of United States Sanitary Commission throughout the war; and a diarist. A diary excerpt is published in Gienapp, William E., ed. ''The Civil War and Reconstruction: A Documentary Collection.'' New York: W.W. Norton & Co., 2001, pp. 313–314 {{ISBN|978-0-393-97555-0}}. A footnote in Gienapp shows the excerpt was taken from an edited version of the diaries by Allan Nevins and Milton Halsey Thomas, eds., ''The Diary of George Templeton Strong'', vol. 2 (New York: The McMillan Company), pp. 600–601, which differs from the volume and page numbers of the original diaries; the actual diary is shown at https://digitalcollections.nyhistory.org/islandora/object/nyhs%3A55249 {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221116151714/https://digitalcollections.nyhistory.org/islandora/object/nyhs%3A55249 |date=November 16, 2022 }}, the page in Strong's original handwriting is shown at that web page, it is Volume 4, pp. 124–125: diary entries for May 23 (continued)-June 7, 1865 of the original diaries; [[Horace Greeley]], [https://archive.org/details/americanconflic00greegoog ''The American Conflict: A History of the Great Rebellion in the United States, 1860–'65''.] Volume II. Hartford: O. D. Case & Company, 1866. {{OCLC|936872302}}. p. 757: "Though the war on land ceased, and the Confederate flag utterly disappeared from this continent with the collapse and dispersion of Kirby Smith's command...."; [[John William Draper]], ''History of the American Civil War''. [https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.278844] Volume 3. New York: Harper & Brothers, 1870. {{OCLC|830251756}}. Retrievfootnoed July 28, 2022. p. 618: "On the 26th of the same month General Kirby Smith surrendered his entire command west of the Mississippi to General Canby. With this, all military opposition to the government ended."; [[Jefferson Davis]]. ''The Rise And Fall Of The Confederate Government. Volume II.'' New York: D. Appleton and Company, 1881. {{OCLC|1249017603}}. p. 630: "With General E. K. Smith's surrender the Confederate flag no longer floated on the land; p. 663: "When the Confederate soldiers laid down their arms and went home, all hostilities against the power of the Government of the United States ceased."; [[Ulysses S. Grant]] ''Personal Memoirs of U. S. Grant''. Volume 2. [https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.160835] New York: Charles L. Webster & Company, 1886. {{OCLC|255136538}}. p. 522: "General E. Kirby Smith surrendered the trans-Mississippi department on the 26th of May, leaving no other Confederate army at liberty to continue the war."; [[Frederick H. Dyer]] ''A compendium of the War of the Rebellion''. [https://archive.org/details/08697590.3359.emory.edu] Des Moines, IA: Dyer Publishing Co., 1908. {{OCLC|8697590}}. Full entry on last Table of Contents page (unnumbered on download): "Alphabetical Index of Campaigns, Battles, Engagements, Actions, Combats, Sieges, Skirmishes, Reconnaissances, Scouts and Other Military Events Connected with the "War of the Rebellion" During the Period of Actual Hostilities, From April 12, 1861, to May 26, 1865"; Nathaniel W. Stephenson, ''The Day of the Confederacy,'' A Chronicle of the Embattled South, Volume 30 in The Chronicles Of America Series. [https://archive.org/details/dayconfederacya01stepgoog/page/n220/mode/2up?ref=ol&view=theater] New Haven: Yale University Press; Toronto: Glasgow, Brook & Co.; London: Oxford University Press, 1919. p. 202: "The surrender of the forces of the Trans-Mississippi on May 26, 1865, brought the war to a definite conclusion."; [[Bruce Catton]]. ''The Centennial History of the Civil War''. Vol. 3, ''Never Call Retreat''. Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1965. p. 445. "and on May 26 he [E. Kirby Smith] surrendered and the war was over"; and [[Gary W. Gallagher]], Stephen D. Engle, Robert K. Krick & Joseph T. Glatthaar, foreword by [[James M. McPherson]]. ''The American Civil War: This Mighty Scourge of War.'' New York: Osprey Publishing, Ltd., 2003 {{ISBN|978-1-84176-736-9}}. p. 308: "By 26 May, General Edward Kirby Smith had surrendered the Rebel forces in the trans-Mississippi west. The war was over."</ref>
<br />({{Age in years, months, weeks and days|month1=04|day1=12|year1=1861|month2=05|day2=26|year2=1865}})
| place             = [[United States]], [[Atlantic Ocean]]
| result            = [[Union (American Civil War)|Union]] victory
* Abolition of slavery in the United States
* Beginning of the [[Reconstruction era]]
* Passage of the [[Reconstruction Amendments]]
| territory         = Dissolution of the [[Confederate States of America]]
| combatant1        = {{flagicon|United States|1861}} [[Union (American Civil War)|United States]]
| combatant2        = {{flagcountry|Confederate States of America|1861}}
| commander1        = {{flagicon|United States|1861}} [[Abraham Lincoln]]{{Assassinated|Assassination of Abraham Lincoln}}<br /> {{flagicon|United States|1861}} [[Ulysses S. Grant]]<br /> ''[[Military leadership in the American Civil War#The United States (The Union)|and others...]]''
| commander2        = {{flagicon|Confederate States of America|1861}} [[Jefferson Davis]]{{Surrender}}<br />{{flagicon|Confederate States of America|1861}} [[Robert E. Lee]]{{Surrender}}<br />''[[Military leadership in the American Civil War#The Confederate States|and others...]]''
| strength1         = 2,200,000<ref name="strength" group=lower-alpha>Total number that served</ref><br />698,000 (peak)<ref name="nps.gov">{{cite web|url=http://www.nps.gov/civilwar/facts.htm|title=Facts|publisher=National Park Service}}</ref><ref>[http://www.oocities.org/littlegreenmen.geo/UASize.htm "Size of the Union Army in the American Civil War"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170416213758/http://www.oocities.org/littlegreenmen.geo/UASize.htm |date=April 16, 2017 }}: Of which 131,000 were in the Navy and Marines, 140,000 were garrison troops and home defense militia, and 427,000 were in the field army.</ref>
| strength2         = 750,000–1,000,000<ref name="strength" group=lower-alpha />{{sfn|Long|1971|p=705}}<br />360,000 (peak)<ref name="nps.gov"/><ref>[http://ebooks.library.cornell.edu/cgi/t/text/pageviewer-idx?c=moawar;cc=moawar;q1=abstract;rgn=full%20text;idno=waro0128;didno=waro0128;view=image;seq=0542 "The war of the rebellion: a compilation of the official records of the Union and Confederate armies; Series 4 – Volume 2"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170725221244/http://ebooks.library.cornell.edu/cgi/t/text/pageviewer-idx?c=moawar;cc=moawar;q1=abstract;rgn=full%20text;idno=waro0128;didno=waro0128;view=image;seq=0542 |date=July 25, 2017 }}, United States War Dept., 1900.</ref>
| casualties1       = {{plainlist|
* 110,000+ {{KIA}}/{{DOW}}
* 230,000+ accident/disease deaths<ref name="civilwarhome.com">Fox, William F. [http://www.civilwarhome.com/foxspref.html Regimental losses in the American Civil War] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170525214736/http://www.civilwarhome.com/foxspref.html |date=May 25, 2017 }} (1889).</ref><ref name="Official DOD data">{{Cite web|url=https://dcas.dmdc.osd.mil/dcas/app/summaryData/casualties/principalWars|title=DCAS Reports – Principal Wars, 1775–1991|website=dcas.dmdc.osd.mil}}</ref>
* 25,000–30,000 died in Confederate prisons<ref name="nps.gov"/><ref name="civilwarhome.com" />
'''365,000+ total dead{{sfn|Chambers|Anderson|1999|p=849}}'''
* 282,000+ wounded<ref name="Official DOD data" />
* 181,193 captured<ref name="nps.gov"/>{{Better source needed|date=October 2016}}{{Efn|211,411 Union soldiers were captured, and 30,218 died in prison. The ones who died have been excluded to prevent double-counting of casualties.}}}}
'''Total: 828,000+ casualties'''
| casualties2       = {{plainlist|
* 94,000+ {{KIA}}/{{DOW}}<ref name="civilwarhome.com" />
* 26,000–31,000 died in Union prisons<ref name="Official DOD data" />
'''290,000+ total dead'''
* 137,000+ wounded
* 436,658 captured<ref name="nps.gov"/>{{Better source needed|date=October 2016}}{{Efn|462,634 Confederate soldiers were captured and 25,976 died in prison. The ones who died have been excluded to prevent double-counting of casualties.}}}}
'''Total: 864,000+ casualties'''
| casualties3       = {{plainlist|
* 50,000 free civilians dead<ref name="StatsWarCost" />
* 80,000+ slaves dead (disease)<ref>James Downs, [https://blog.oup.com/2012/04/black-white-demographic-death-toll-civil-war/ "Colorblindness in the demographic death toll of the Civil War"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180119065611/https://blog.oup.com/2012/04/black-white-demographic-death-toll-civil-war/ |date=January 19, 2018 }}. Oxford University Press blog, April 13, 2012. "The rough 19th century estimate was that 60,000 former slaves died from the epidemic, but doctors treating black patients often claimed that they were unable to keep accurate records due to demands on their time and the lack of manpower and resources. The surviving records only include the number of black patients whom doctors encountered; tens of thousands of other slaves had no contact with army doctors, leaving no records of their deaths." 60,000 documented plus 'tens of thousands' undocumented gives a minimum of 80,000 slave deaths.</ref>
* '''Total: 616,222<ref>Toward a Social History of the American Civil War Exploratory Essays, Cambridge University Press, 1990, p. 4.</ref>–1,000,000+ dead'''<ref name="recounting" /><ref>James Downs, [https://blog.oup.com/2012/04/black-white-demographic-death-toll-civil-war/ "Colorblindness in the demographic death toll of the Civil War"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180119065611/https://blog.oup.com/2012/04/black-white-demographic-death-toll-civil-war/ |date=January 19, 2018 }}. Oxford University Press blog, April 13, 2012. "An 2 April 2012 New York Times article, 'New Estimate Raises Civil War Death Toll', reports that a new study ratchets up the death toll from an estimated 650,000 to a staggering 850,000 people. As horrific as this new number is, it fails to reflect the mortality of former slaves during the war. If former slaves were included in this figure, the Civil War death toll would likely be over a million casualties&nbsp;...".</ref>}}
}}
{{Campaignbox American Civil War}}
{{Events leading to US Civil War}}
{{Periods in US history}}

The '''American Civil War''' (April 12, 1861&nbsp;– May 26, 1865; also known by [[Names of the American Civil War|other names]]) was a [[civil war]] in the [[United States]] between the [[Union (American Civil War)|Union]]{{Efn|The Union was the U.S. government and included the states that remained loyal to it, both the non-slave states and the [[Border states (American Civil War)|border states]] (Missouri, Kentucky, Maryland, and Delaware) where slavery was legal. Missouri and Kentucky were also claimed by the Confederacy and given full state delegations in the Confederate Congress for the duration of the war.}} ("the North") and the [[Confederate States of America|Confederacy]] ("the South"), which had been formed by [[U.S. state|state]]s that had [[secession|seceded]] from the Union. The central [[Origins of the American Civil War|cause of the war]] was the dispute over whether [[Slavery in the United States|slavery]] would be permitted to expand into the western territories, leading to more [[Slave states and free states|slave states]], or be prevented from doing so, which many believed would place slavery on a course of ultimate extinction.<ref name="Causes_Battlefields">{{cite web |url=https://www.battlefields.org/learn/primary-sources/declaration-causes-seceding-states |title=The Declaration of Causes of Seceding States. Primary Sources |last= |first= |date=2023 |publisher=[[American Battlefield Trust]] |access-date=December 30, 2023 }}</ref>

[[Timeline of events leading to the American Civil War|Decades of political controversy]] over slavery were brought to a head by the victory in the [[1860 United States presidential election|1860 U.S. presidential election]] of [[Abraham Lincoln]], who opposed slavery's expansion into the western territories. Seven southern slave states responded to Lincoln's victory by seceding from the United States and forming the Confederacy. The Confederacy seized U.S. forts and other federal assets within their borders. Four more southern states [[Secession in the United States|seceded]] after the war began and, led by Confederate President [[Jefferson Davis]], the Confederacy asserted control over about a third of the U.S. population in eleven states. Four years of intense combat, mostly in the South, ensued.

During 1861–1862 in the [[Western theater of the American Civil War|Western Theater]], the Union made significant permanent gains{{Em dash}}though in the [[Eastern Theater of the American Civil War|Eastern Theater]] the conflict was inconclusive. The abolition of slavery became a Union war goal on January 1, 1863, when Lincoln issued the [[Emancipation Proclamation]], which declared all slaves in rebel states to be free, which applied to more than 3.5 million of the 4 million enslaved people in the country. To the west, the Union first destroyed the Confederacy's river navy by the summer of 1862, then much of its western armies, and later seized [[New Orleans]]. The successful 1863 Union [[siege of Vicksburg]] split the Confederacy in two at the [[Mississippi River]]. In 1863, Confederate General [[Robert E. Lee]]'s incursion north ended at the [[Battle of Gettysburg]]. Western successes led to General [[Ulysses S. Grant]]'s command of all Union armies in 1864. Inflicting an ever-tightening [[Union blockade|naval blockade]] of Confederate ports, the Union marshaled resources and manpower to attack the Confederacy from all directions. This led to the [[fall of Atlanta]] in 1864 to Union General [[William Tecumseh Sherman]], followed by his [[Sherman's March to the Sea|March to the Sea]]. The last significant battles raged around the ten-month [[Siege of Petersburg]], gateway to the Confederate capital of [[Richmond, Virginia|Richmond]]. The Confederates abandoned Richmond, and on April 9, 1865, Lee surrendered to Grant following the [[Battle of Appomattox Court House]], setting in motion the end of the war. Lincoln lived to see this victory but on April 14, [[Assassination of Abraham Lincoln|he was assassinated]].

While the [[conclusion of the American Civil War]] arguably has several different dates, Appomattox is often referred to symbolically. It set off a wave of Confederate surrenders.  On May 26, the last military department of the Confederacy, the [[Department of the Trans-Mississippi]] disbanded. A few small confederate ground forces continued formal surrenders through June 23. By the end of the war, much of the South's infrastructure was destroyed. The Confederacy collapsed, slavery was abolished, and four million enslaved black people were freed. The war-torn nation then entered the [[Reconstruction era]] in an attempt to rebuild the country, bring the former Confederate states back into the United States, and grant [[civil rights]] to freed slaves.

The Civil War is one of the most extensively studied and [[Bibliography of the American Civil War|written about]] episodes in [[history of the United States|U.S. history]]. It remains the subject of cultural and [[Historiographic issues about the American Civil War|historiographical debate]]. Of particular interest is the persisting myth of the [[Lost Cause of the Confederacy]]. The American Civil War was among the first wars to use [[industrial warfare]]. Railroads, the [[telegraph]], steamships, the [[ironclad warship]], and mass-produced weapons were all widely used during the war. In total, the war left between 620,000 and 750,000 soldiers dead, along with an undetermined number of [[civilian casualties]], making the Civil War the deadliest military conflict in American history.{{Efn|Assuming Union and Confederate casualties are counted together—more Americans were killed in [[World War&nbsp;II]] than in either the Union or Confederate Armies if their casualty totals are counted separately.}} The technology and brutality of the Civil War foreshadowed the coming [[World war|World Wars]].

==Causes of secession==
{{Main|Origins of the American Civil War|Timeline of events leading to the American Civil War}}
[[File:US Secession map 1861.svg|thumb|upright=1.15|{{center|'''Status of the states, 1861'''}} {{legend|#A40000| Slave states that seceded before April 15, 1861}} {{legend|#EF2929| Slave states that seceded after April 15, 1861}} {{legend|#FCE94F| Border Southern states that permitted slavery but did not secede (both KY and MO had dual competing Confederate and Unionist governments)}} {{legend|#204A87| Union states that banned slavery}}
{{legend|#D3D7CF| Territories}}|alt=Map of U.S. showing two kinds of Union states, two phases of secession and territories]]

The reasons for the Southern states' decisions to secede have been historically controversial, but most scholars today identify preserving slavery as the central reason, in large part because the seceding states' secession documents say that it was.<ref name="Causes_Battlefields"/> Although some [[historical revisionists]] have offered additional reasons for the war,<ref>[[James C. Bradford]], ''A Companion to American Military History'' (2010), vol. 1, p.&nbsp;101.</ref> slavery was the central source of escalating political tensions in the [[Timeline of United States history (1820–1859)#1850s|1850s]].<ref>"[I]n 1854, the passage of the [[Kansas-Nebraska Act]] ... overturned the policy of containment [of slavery] and effectively unlocked the gates of the Western territories (including both the old Louisiana Purchase lands and the Mexican Cession) to the legal expansion of slavery...."[[Allen C. Guelzo|Guelzo, Allen C.]], ''[[Abraham Lincoln]] as a Man of Ideas'', Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press (2009), p. 80.</ref> The [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican Party]] was determined to prevent any spread of slavery to the territories, which, after they were admitted as free states, would give the free states greater representation in Congress and the Electoral College. Many Southern leaders had threatened secession if the Republican candidate, Lincoln, won the [[1860 United States presidential election|1860 election]]. After Lincoln won, many Southern leaders felt that disunion was their only option, fearing that the loss of representation would hamper their ability to enact pro-slavery laws and policies.<ref>{{Cite book|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=w_2odcYG-swC|page=99}}|title=The Road to Disunion: Volume II: Secessionists Triumphant, 1854–1861|last=Freehling|first=William W.|year=2008|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-983991-9|language=en|pages= 9–24}} {{Cite book|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=X_JGtAEACAAJ|page=111}}|title=Historical Atlas of Political Parties in the United States Congress: 1789–1988|last=Martis|first=Kenneth C.|date=1989|publisher=Simon & Schuster Books For Young Readers|isbn=978-0-02-920170-1| pages= 111–115}} and {{Cite book|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=rQSYk-LWTxcC|page=18}}|title=Politics and Ideology in the Age of the Civil War|last=Foner|first=Eric|year=1980|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-972708-7|language=en |pages= 18–20, 21–24}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine|last1=Coates|first1=Ta-Nehisi|title=What This Cruel War Was Over|url=https://www.theatlantic.com/politics/archive/2015/06/what-this-cruel-war-was-over/396482/|access-date=December 21, 2016|magazine=The Atlantic|date=June 22, 2015}}</ref> In his [[Abraham Lincoln's second inaugural address|second inaugural address]], Lincoln said that: {{blockquote|slaves constituted a peculiar and powerful interest. All knew that this interest was, somehow, the cause of the war. To strengthen, perpetuate, and extend this interest was the object for which the insurgents would rend the Union, even by war; while the government claimed no right to do more than to restrict the territorial enlargement of it.<ref>{{Cite book |last=White | first=Ronald C. Jr. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wtfLtP2LhCcC&pg=PA81 |title=Lincoln's Greatest Speech: The Second Inaugural |date= 2006 |publisher=Simon and Schuster |isbn=978-0-7432-9962-6 |page=81}}</ref>}}

===Slavery===
{{Main|Slavery in the United States}}
Disagreements among states about the future of slavery were the main cause of disunion and the war that followed.<ref>{{cite speech|last=Gallagher|first=Gary|title=Remembering the Civil War|event=Sesquicentennial of the Start of the Civil War|date=February 21, 2011|location=Miller Center of Public Affairs UV|publisher=[[C-Span]]|url=https://www.c-span.org/video/?298125-1/remembering-civil-war|access-date=August 29, 2017|language=en|quote=Issues related to the institution of slavery precipitated secession.... It was not states' rights, it was not the tariff. It was not unhappiness with manners and customs that led to secession and eventually to war. It was a cluster of issues profoundly dividing the nation along a fault line delineated by the institution of slavery.}}</ref>{{Sfn|McPherson|1988|pp=vii–viii}} Slavery had been controversial during the framing of the [[Constitution of the United States|Constitution]], which, because of compromises, ended up with [[Slavery and the United States Constitution|proslavery and antislavery]] features.<ref>{{cite journal |first1=Keith L. |last1=Dougherty |first2=Jac C. |last2=Heckelman |title=Voting on slavery at the Constitutional Convention |journal=[[Public Choice (journal)|Public Choice]] |volume=136 |issue=3–4 |year=2008 |page=293|doi=10.1007/s11127-008-9297-7 |s2cid=14103553 |doi-access=free }}</ref> The issue of slavery had confounded the nation since its inception and increasingly separated the United States into a slaveholding South and a free North. The issue was exacerbated by the rapid territorial expansion of the country, which repeatedly brought to the fore the question of whether new territory should be slaveholding or free. The issue had dominated politics for decades leading up to the war. Key attempts to resolve the matter included the [[Missouri Compromise]] and the [[Compromise of 1850]], but these only postponed the showdown over slavery that would lead to the Civil War.{{Sfn|McPherson|1988|pp=7–8}}

The motivations of the average person were not necessarily those of their faction;<ref>{{cite book |last=McPherson |first=James M. |author1-link=James M. McPherson |year= 1994 |title=What They Fought For 1861–1865 |page=[https://archive.org/details/whattheyfoughtfo00mcph/page/62 62] |url=https://archive.org/details/whattheyfoughtfo00mcph/page/62 |publisher=[[Louisiana State University Press]] |isbn=978-0-8071-1904-4}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=McPherson |first=James M. |date=1997 |title=For Cause and Comrades |page=[https://archive.org/details/forcausecomrades00mcph/page/39 39] |url=https://archive.org/details/forcausecomrades00mcph/page/39 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-509023-9|ref=none}}</ref> some Northern soldiers were indifferent on the subject of slavery, but a general pattern can be established.<ref>{{cite speech|last=Gallagher|first=Gary|title=Remembering the Civil War|event=Sesquicentennial of the Start of the Civil War|date=February 21, 2011|location=Miller Center of Public Affairs UV|publisher=C-Span|url=https://www.c-span.org/video/?298125-1/remembering-civil-war|access-date=August 29, 2017|language=en|quote=The loyal citizenry initially gave very little thought to emancipation in their quest to save the union.... Most loyal citizens, though profoundly prejudice[d] by 21st century standards[,] embraced emancipation as a tool to punish slaveholders, weaken the Confederacy, and protect the Union from future internal strife. A minority of the white populous invoked moral grounds to attack slavery, though their arguments carried far less weight than those presenting emancipation as a military measure necessary to defeat the rebels and restore the Union.}}</ref> As the war dragged on, more and more Unionists came to support the abolition of slavery, whether on moral grounds or as a means to cripple the Confederacy.<ref>{{cite web |title=Union Soldiers Condemn Slavery |url=https://shec.ashp.cuny.edu/items/show/723 |website=SHEC: Resources for Teachers |publisher=The City University of New York Graduate Center |access-date=2 February 2023}}</ref> Confederate soldiers fought the war primarily to protect a Southern society of which slavery was an integral part.<ref>{{cite news|last=Eskridge |first=Larry |title=After 150 years, we still ask: Why 'this cruel war'? |url=http://www.cantondailyledger.com/topstories/x1868081570/After-150-years-we-still-ask-Why-this-cruel-war |newspaper=[[Canton Daily Ledger]] |location=[[Canton, Illinois]] |date=January 29, 2011 |access-date=January 29, 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110201183505/http://www.cantondailyledger.com/topstories/x1868081570/After-150-years-we-still-ask-Why-this-cruel-war |archive-date=February 1, 2011}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Kuriwaki|first1=Shiro|last2=Huff|first2=Connor|last3=Hall|first3=Andrew B.|date=2019|title=Wealth, Slaveownership, and Fighting for the Confederacy: An Empirical Study of the American Civil War|journal=[[American Political Science Review]]|language=en|volume=113|issue=3|pages=658–673|doi=10.1017/S0003055419000170|issn=0003-0554|doi-access=free}}</ref> Opponents of slavery considered slavery an [[Anachronism|anachronistic]] evil incompatible with [[Republicanism in the United States|republicanism]]. The strategy of the anti-slavery forces was containment—to stop the expansion of slavery and thereby put it on a path to ultimate extinction.{{sfn|Weeks|2013|p=240}} The slaveholding interests in the South denounced this strategy as infringing upon their constitutional rights.{{sfn|Olsen|2002|p=237}} Southern whites believed that the emancipation of slaves would destroy the South's economy, because of the large amount of capital invested in slaves and fears of integrating the ex-slave black population.<ref>{{cite book |last=Chadwick |first=French Ensor |author-link=French Ensor Chadwick |url=https://archive.org/stream/causescivilwar02chadgoog#page/n30/mode/1up |title=Causes of the civil war, 1859–1861 |year=1906 |page=8 |via=[[Internet Archive]]}}</ref> In particular, many Southerners feared a repeat of the [[1804 Haiti massacre]] (referred to at the time as "the horrors of Santo Domingo"),<ref name="ReferenceA">{{cite book |first=Kevin C |last=Julius |title=The Abolitionist Decade, 1829–1838: A Year-by-Year History of Early Events in the Antislavery Movement |publisher=[[McFarland & Company]] |year=2004}}</ref><ref name="April page 171">{{cite book |title=Six Days in April: Lincoln and the Union in Peril |first=Frank B. |last=Marcotte |publisher=[[Algora Publishing]] |year=2004 |page=171}}</ref> in which former slaves systematically murdered most of what was left of the country's white population—including men, women, children, and even many sympathetic to abolition—after the [[Haitian Revolution|successful slave revolt in Haiti]]. Historian [[Thomas Fleming (historian)|Thomas Fleming]] points to the historical phrase "a disease in the public mind" used by critics of this idea and proposes it contributed to the segregation in the [[Jim Crow]] era following emancipation.<ref>{{cite book |title=A Disease in the Public Mind: A New Understanding of Why We Fought the Civil War |last=Fleming |first=Thomas |author-link=Thomas Fleming (historian) |year=2014 |publisher=Hachette Books |isbn=978-0-306-82295-7}}</ref> These fears were exacerbated by the [[John Brown's raid on Harpers Ferry|1859 attempt]] of [[John Brown (abolitionist)|John Brown]] to instigate an armed slave rebellion in the South.{{Sfn|McPherson|1988|p=210}}

===Abolitionists===
{{main|Abolitionism in the United States}}

The [[Abolitionism in the United States|abolitionists]]—those advocating the end of slavery—were active in the decades leading up to the Civil War. They traced their philosophical roots back to [[Puritans]], who believed that slavery was morally wrong. One of the early Puritan writings on this subject was ''The Selling of Joseph,'' by [[Samuel Sewall]] in 1700. In it, Sewall condemned slavery and the slave trade and refuted many of the era's typical justifications for slavery.<ref>Sewall, Samuel. ''The Selling of Joseph,'' pp. 1–3, Bartholomew Green & John Allen, Boston, Massachusetts, 1700.</ref><ref name="McCullough, David pp. 132-3">McCullough, David. ''John Adams,'' pp. 132–133, Simon & Schuster, New York, 2001. {{ISBN|0-684-81363-7}}.</ref>

The [[American Revolution]] and the cause of liberty added tremendous impetus to the abolitionist cause. Even in Southern states, laws were changed to limit slavery and facilitate [[manumission]]. The amount of [[Indentured servitude in British America|indentured servitude]] dropped dramatically throughout the country. An [[Act Prohibiting Importation of Slaves]] sailed through Congress with little opposition. President [[Thomas Jefferson]] supported it, and it went into effect on January 1, 1808, which was the first day that the Constitution (Article I, section 9, clause 1) permitted Congress to prohibit the importation of slaves. [[Benjamin Franklin]] and [[James Madison]] each helped found manumission societies. Influenced by the American Revolution, many slave owners freed their slaves, but some, such as [[George Washington]], did so only in their wills. The number of free black people as a proportion of the black population in the [[Upland South|upper South]] increased from less than one percent to nearly 10 percent between 1790 and 1810 as a result of these actions.<ref>Ketcham, Ralph, ''James Madison: A Biography'', pp. 625–626, American Political Biography Press, Newtown, Connecticut, 1971. {{ISBN|0-945707-33-9}}.</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.archives.gov/legislative/features/franklin/ |title=Benjamin Franklin Petitions Congress |date=August 15, 2016 |publisher=National Archives and Records Administration}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Petition from the Pennsylvania Society for the Abolition of Slavery|url=http://www.ushistory.org:80/documents/antislavery.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060521035446/http://www.ushistory.org/documents/antislavery.htm|url-status=dead|archive-date=May 21, 2006|date=February 3, 1790|access-date=May 21, 2006|last=Franklin|first=Benjamin}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=John Paul Kaminski|title=A Necessary Evil?: Slavery and the Debate Over the Constitution|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=t3SDQgfxsCIC&pg=PA256|year=1995|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|page=256|isbn=978-0-945612-33-9}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Painter|first=Nell Irvin|title=Creating Black Americans: African-American History and Its Meanings, 1619 to the Present|year=2007|page=72}}</ref><ref name=Wilson15>Wilson, ''Black Codes'' (1965), p. 15. "By 1775, inspired by those 'self-evident' truths which were to be expressed by the [[United States Declaration of Independence|Declaration of Independence]], a considerable number of colonists felt that the time had come to end slavery and give the free Negroes some fruits of liberty. This sentiment, added to economic considerations, led to the immediate or gradual abolition of slavery in six northern states, while there was a swelling flood of private manumissions in the South. Little actual gain was made by the free Negro even in this period, and by the turn of the century, the downward trend had begun again. Thereafter the only important change in that trend before the Civil War was that after 1831 the decline in the status of the free Negro became more precipitate."</ref>

The establishment of the [[Northwest Territory]] as "free soil"—no slavery—by [[Manasseh Cutler]] and [[Rufus Putnam]] (who both came from Puritan New England) would also prove crucial. This territory (which became the states of Ohio, Michigan, Indiana, Illinois, Wisconsin and part of Minnesota) doubled the size of the United States.<ref>Hubbard, Robert Ernest. ''General Rufus Putnam: George Washington's Chief Military Engineer and the "Father of Ohio''", pp. 1–4, 105–106, McFarland & Company, Inc., Jefferson, North Carolina, 2020. {{ISBN|978-1-4766-7862-7}}.</ref><ref>McCullough, David. ''The Pioneers: The Heroic Story of the Settlers Who Brought the American Ideal West,'' pp. 4, 9, 11, 13, 29–30, Simon & Schuster, New York, 2019. {{ISBN|978-1-5011-6868-0}}.</ref><ref name="McCullough, David pp. 132-3"/>

[[File:Frederick Douglass (circa 1879).jpg|right|thumb|upright|[[Frederick Douglass]], a former slave, was a leading abolitionist]]
In the decades leading up to the Civil War, abolitionists, such as [[Theodore Parker]], [[Ralph Waldo Emerson]], [[Henry David Thoreau]], and [[Frederick Douglass]], repeatedly used the Puritan heritage of the country to bolster their cause. The most radical anti-slavery newspaper, ''[[The Liberator (newspaper)|The Liberator]],'' invoked the Puritans and Puritan values over a thousand times. Parker, in urging New England congressmen to support the abolition of slavery, wrote, "The son of the Puritan ... is sent to Congress to stand up for Truth and Right."<ref>Gradert, Kenyon. ''Puritan Spirits in the Abolitionist Imagination,'' pp. 1–3, 14–5, 24, 29–30, University of Chicago Press: Chicago and London, 2020. {{ISBN|978-0-226-69402-3}}.</ref><ref>[[Henry Steele Commager|Commager, Henry Steele]]. ''Theodore Parker,'' Boston: Little, Brown, and Company, 1936, pp. 206–210.</ref> Literature served as a means to spread the message to common folks. Key works included ''[[Twelve Years a Slave]]'', the [[Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, an American Slave|''Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass'']], ''[[American Slavery as It Is]]'', and the most important: ''[[Uncle Tom's Cabin]]'', the best-selling book of the 19th century aside from the Bible.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Anderson|first=Mic|title=8 Influential Abolitionist Texts|url=https://www.britannica.com/list/8-influential-abolitionist-texts|access-date=January 7, 2021|website=Encyclopedia Britannica|language=en}}</ref>{{Sfn|McPherson|1988|p=38}}<ref name="GailSmith">"The Sentimental Novel: The Example of Harriet Beecher Stowe" by Gail K. Smith, ''The Cambridge Companion to Nineteenth-Century American Women's Writing'' by Dale M. Bauer and Philip Gould, Cambridge University Press, 2001, p. 221. [https://books.google.com/books?id=Cl90oCk0cncC&q=Gail+K.+Smith+selling&pg=PA221 Book preview] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221116151722/https://books.google.com/books?id=Cl90oCk0cncC&pg=PA221#v=onepage&q=Gail%20K.%20Smith%20selling |date=November 16, 2022 }}.</ref>

A more unusual abolitionist than those named above was [[Hinton Rowan Helper]], whose 1857 book, ''[[The Impending Crisis of the South]]: How to Meet It'', "[e]ven more perhaps than ''Uncle Tom's Cabin'' ... fed the fires of sectional controversy leading up to the Civil War."<ref>[[George M. Fredrickson|Fredrickson, George M.]], ed., ''The Impending Crisis of the South'', Cambridge, Massachusetts: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1968. The quotation is from Frederickson's "Introduction", p. ix.</ref> A Southerner and a virulent racist, Helper was nevertheless an abolitionist because he believed, and showed with statistics, that slavery "impeded the progress and prosperity of the South, ... dwindled our commerce, and other similar pursuits, into the most contemptible insignificance; sunk a large majority of our people in galling poverty and ignorance, ... [and] entailed upon us a humiliating dependence on the Free States...."<ref>''The Impending Crisis of the South'', Cambridge, Massachusetts: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1968, p. 25.</ref>

By 1840 more than 15,000 people were members of abolitionist societies in the United States. Abolitionism in the United States became a popular expression of [[moralism]], and led directly to the Civil War. In churches, conventions and newspapers, reformers promoted an absolute and immediate rejection of slavery.<ref>{{cite book|title=The Young People's Encyclopedia of the United States|last=Shapiro|first=William E.|date=1993|publisher=Millbrook Press|isbn=1-56294-514-9|location=Brookfield, Conn.|oclc=30932823}}</ref><ref name="Robins2004">{{cite book |last=Robins |first=R.G. |title=A.J. Tomlinson: Plainfolk Modernist |date=2004 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-988317-2 |language=en}}</ref> Support for abolition among the religious was not universal though. As the war approached, even the main denominations split along political lines, forming rival Southern and Northern churches. For example, in 1845 the [[Baptists]] split into the [[Northern Baptists]] and [[Southern Baptist Convention|Southern Baptists]] over the issue of slavery.{{Sfn|McPherson|1988|p=40}}<ref>{{cite web|date=December 2018|title=Report on Slavery and Racism in the History of the Southern Baptist Theological Seminary|url=http://www.sbts.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/12/Racism-and-the-Legacy-of-Slavery-Report-v4.pdf#page=6 |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.sbts.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/12/Racism-and-the-Legacy-of-Slavery-Report-v4.pdf#page=6 |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live|access-date=July 29, 2019|publisher=Southern Baptist Theological Seminary}}</ref>

Abolitionist sentiment was not strictly religious or moral in origin. The [[Whig Party (United States)|Whig Party]] became increasingly opposed to slavery because it saw it as inherently against the ideals of capitalism and the free market. Whig leader [[William H. Seward]] (who would serve as Lincoln's secretary of state) proclaimed that there was an "irrepressible conflict" between slavery and free labor, and that slavery had left the South backward and undeveloped.{{Sfn|McPherson|1988|p=39}} As the Whig party dissolved in the 1850s, the mantle of abolition fell to its newly formed successor, the Republican Party.{{Sfn|Donald|1995|pp=188–189}}

===Territorial crisis===
{{Further|Slave states and free states}}
[[Manifest destiny]] heightened the conflict over slavery. Each new territory acquired had to face the thorny question of whether to allow or disallow the "peculiar institution".{{Sfn|McPherson|1988|pp=41–46}} Between 1803 and 1854, the United States achieved a vast expansion of territory through purchase, negotiation, and conquest. At first, the new states carved out of these territories entering the union were apportioned equally between slave and free states. Pro- and anti-slavery forces collided over the territories west of the [[Mississippi River]].{{sfn|Krannawitter|2008|pp=49–50}}

The [[Mexican–American War]] and its aftermath was a key territorial event in the leadup to the war.{{Sfn|McPherson|1988|pp=49–77}} As the [[Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo]] finalized the conquest of northern Mexico west to [[Alta California|California]] in 1848, slaveholding interests looked forward to expanding into these lands and perhaps Cuba and Central America as well.{{sfn|McPherson|2007|p=14}}{{sfn|Stampp|1990|pp=190–193}} Prophetically, Ralph Waldo Emerson wrote that "Mexico will poison us", referring to the ensuing divisions around whether the newly conquered lands would end up slave or free.{{Sfn|McPherson|1988|p=51}} Northern free-soil interests vigorously sought to curtail any further expansion of slave territory. The Compromise of 1850 over California balanced a free-soil state with a stronger [[Fugitive Slave Act of 1850|federal fugitive slave law]] for a political settlement after four years of strife in the 1840s. But the states admitted following [[California]] were all free: [[Minnesota]] (1858), [[Oregon]] (1859), and [[Kansas]] (1861). In the Southern states, the question of the territorial expansion of slavery westward again became explosive.{{sfn|McPherson|2007|pp=13–14}} Both the South and the North drew the same conclusion: "The power to decide the question of slavery for the territories was the power to determine the future of slavery itself."{{sfn|Bestor|1964|p=19}}{{sfn|McPherson|2007|p=16}} Soon after the Utah Territory [[Act in Relation to Service|legalized slavery in 1852]], the [[Utah War|Utah War of 1857]] saw Mormon settlers in the Utah territory fighting the US government.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Kerstetter |first=Todd M. |date=2012-09-01 |title=The Mormon Rebellion: America's First Civil War, 1857–1858 . By David L. Bigler and Will Bagley. (Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press, 2011. pp. xv, 392.) |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1111/j.1540-6563.2012.00328_10.x |journal=The Historian |language=en |volume=74 |issue=3 |pages=564–565 |doi=10.1111/j.1540-6563.2012.00328_10.x |s2cid=145299150 |issn=0018-2370}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Reséndez |first=Andrés |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Z2gpCgAAQBAJ |title=The Other Slavery: The Uncovered Story of Indian Enslavement in America |date=2016|publisher=HarperCollins |isbn=978-0-544-60267-0 |language=en}}</ref>

{{multiple image
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By 1860, four doctrines had emerged to answer the question of federal control in the territories, and they all claimed they were sanctioned by the Constitution, implicitly or explicitly.{{sfn|Bestor|1964|pp=19–21}} The first of these theories, represented by the [[Constitutional Union Party (United States)|Constitutional Union Party]], argued that the Missouri Compromise apportionment of territory north for free soil and south for slavery should become a constitutional mandate. The failed [[Crittenden Compromise]] of 1860 was an expression of this view.{{sfn|Bestor|1964|p=20}}

The second doctrine of congressional preeminence was championed by Abraham Lincoln and the Republican Party. It insisted that the Constitution did not bind legislators to a policy of balance—that slavery could be excluded in a territory, as it was in the [[Northwest Ordinance]] of 1787, at the discretion of Congress.{{sfn|Russell|1966|pp=468–469}} Thus Congress could restrict human bondage, but never establish it. The ill-fated [[Wilmot Proviso]] announced this position in 1846.<ref>{{Cite journal|journal=American Historical Review|volume=69|issue=2|pages=327–352|editor-last=Friedman|editor-first=Lawrence Meir|editor2-last=Scheiber|editor2-first=Harry N.|date=1988|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=978-0-674-02527-1|language=en|last=Bestor|first=Arthur|title=The American Civil War as a Constitutional Crisis|jstor=1844986|doi=10.2307/1844986}}</ref> The Proviso was a pivotal moment in national politics, as it was the first time slavery had become a major congressional issue based on sectionalism, instead of party lines. Its support by Northern Democrats and Whigs, and opposition by Southerners, was a dark omen of coming divisions.{{Sfn|McPherson|1988|pp=52–54}}

Senator [[Stephen A. Douglas]] proclaimed the third doctrine: territorial or "popular" sovereignty, which asserted that the settlers in a territory had the same rights as states in the Union to allow or disallow slavery as a purely local matter.{{sfn|Bestor|1964|pp=21–23}} The [[Kansas–Nebraska Act]] of 1854 legislated this doctrine.{{sfn|Johannsen|1973|p=406}} In the Kansas Territory, political conflict spawned "[[Bleeding Kansas]]", a five-year paramilitary conflict between pro- and anti-slavery supporters. The U.S. House of Representatives voted to admit Kansas as a free state in early 1860, but its admission did not pass the Senate until January 1861, after the departure of Southern senators.<ref name=Politics>{{cite web|title=Territorial Politics and Government |url=http://www.territorialkansasonline.org/~imlskto/cgi-bin/index.php?SCREEN=pol_govt&option=more |publisher=Territorial Kansas Online: University of Kansas and Kansas Historical Society |access-date=July 10, 2014}} Finteg.</ref>

The fourth doctrine was advocated by Mississippi Senator (and soon to be Confederate President) [[Jefferson Davis]].{{sfn|Bestor|1964|p=21}} It was one of state sovereignty ("states' rights"),{{sfn|Bestor|1964|p=23}} also known as the "Calhoun doctrine",{{sfn|Varon|2008|p=58}} named after the South Carolinian political theorist and statesman [[John C. Calhoun]].{{sfn|Russell|1966|p=470}} Rejecting the arguments for federal authority or self-government, state sovereignty would empower states to promote the expansion of slavery as part of the federal union under the U.S. Constitution.{{sfn|Bestor|1964|pp=23–24}} These four doctrines comprised the dominant ideologies presented to the American public on the matters of slavery, the territories, and the U.S. Constitution before the 1860 presidential election.{{sfn|Bestor|1964|pp=24–25}}

===States' rights===
A long-running dispute over the origin of the Civil War is to what extent states' rights triggered the conflict. The consensus among historians is that the Civil War was {{Em|not}} fought about states' rights.<ref name=":6">{{Cite web|last=Flanagin|first=Jake|title=For the last time, the American Civil War was not about states' rights|url=https://qz.com/378533/for-the-last-time-the-american-civil-war-was-not-about-states-rights/|access-date=June 12, 2021|website=Quartz|date=April 8, 2015 |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":7" /><ref name=":8" />{{sfn|McPherson|2007|pp=3–9}} But the issue is frequently referenced in popular accounts of the war and has much traction among Southerners. Southerners advocating secession argued that just as each state had decided to join the Union, a state had the right to secede—leave the Union—at any time. Northerners (including pro-slavery President Buchanan) rejected that notion as opposed to the will of the [[Founding Fathers of the United States|Founding Fathers]], who said they were setting up a perpetual union.<ref name="Forrest McDonald 2002" />

Historian James McPherson points out that even if Confederates genuinely fought over states' rights, it boiled down to states' right to slavery.{{sfn|McPherson|2007|pp=3–9}} McPherson writes concerning states' rights and other non-slavery explanations:

{{blockquote|While [[Lost Cause of the Confederacy|one or more of these interpretations]] remain popular among the [[Sons of Confederate Veterans]] and other Southern heritage groups, few professional historians now subscribe to them. Of all these interpretations, the states'-rights argument is perhaps the weakest. It fails to ask the question, states' rights for what purpose? States' rights, or sovereignty, was always more a means than an end, an instrument to achieve a certain goal more than a principle.{{sfn|McPherson|2007|pp=3–9}}}}

States' rights was an ideology formulated and applied as a means of advancing slave state interests through federal authority.{{sfn|McPherson|2007|p=7}} As historian Thomas L. Krannawitter points out, the "Southern demand for federal slave protection represented a demand for an unprecedented expansion of Federal power."{{sfn|Krannawitter|2008|p=232}}<ref>Gara, 1964, p.&nbsp;190.</ref> Before the Civil War, slavery advocates supported the use of federal powers to enforce and extend slavery, as with the Fugitive Slave Act of 1850 and the ''[[Dred Scott v. Sandford]]'' decision.<ref name=":5">{{Cite web|date=July 3, 2017|title=States' Rights, the Slave Power Conspiracy, and the Causes of the Civil War|url=https://concerninghistory.org/general/states-rights-the-slave-power-conspiracy-and-the-cause-of-the-civil-war/|access-date=June 12, 2021|website=Concerning History|language=en}}</ref><ref name="woods2017">{{Cite journal |last=Woods |first=Michael E. |date=2017 |title='Tell Us Something about State Rights': Northern Republicans, States' Rights, and the Coming of the Civil War |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/26070516 |journal=Journal of the Civil War Era |volume=7 |issue=2 |pages=242–268 |jstor=26070516 |issn=2154-4727}}</ref> The faction that pushed for secession often infringed on states' rights. Because of the overrepresentation of pro-slavery factions in the federal government, many Northerners, even non-abolitionists, feared the [[Slave Power]] conspiracy.<ref name=":5" /><ref name="woods2017" /> Some Northern states resisted the enforcement of the Fugitive Slave Act. Historian [[Eric Foner]] states that the act "could hardly have been designed to arouse greater opposition in the North. It overrode numerous state and local laws and legal procedures and 'commanded' individual citizens to assist, when called upon, in capturing runaways." He continues, "It certainly did not reveal, on the part of slaveholders, sensitivity to states' rights."<ref name=":7">{{Cite web|last=Foner|first=Eric|title=When the South Wasn't a Fan of States' Rights|url=https://www.politico.com/magazine/story/2015/01/underground-railroad-states-rights-114536|access-date=June 12, 2021|website=Politico Magazine|date=January 23, 2015 |language=en}}</ref> According to historian [[Paul Finkelman]], "the southern states mostly complained that the northern states were asserting their states' rights and that the national government was not powerful enough to counter these northern claims."<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal|last=Finkelman|first=Paul|date=June 24, 2015|title=States' Rights, Southern Hypocrisy, and the Crisis of the Union|url=https://ideaexchange.uakron.edu/akronlawreview/vol45/iss2/5|journal=Akron Law Review|volume=45|issue=2|issn=0002-371X}}</ref> The [[Confederate Constitution]] also "federally" required slavery to be legal in all Confederate states and claimed territories.<ref name=":6" /><ref>{{Cite web|last=McCurry|first=Stephanie|date=June 21, 2020|title=The Confederacy Was an Antidemocratic, Centralized State|url=https://www.theatlantic.com/ideas/archive/2020/06/confederacy-wasnt-what-you-think/613309/|access-date=June 12, 2021|website=The Atlantic|language=en}}</ref>

===Sectionalism===
[[File:Two unidentified young boys, one in Union cap, one in Confederate cap LCCN2016652793.jpg|thumb|[[Ambrotype]] of two unidentified young boys, one in blue Union cap, one in gray Confederate cap ([[Liljenquist collection]], Library of Congress)]]
[[Sectionalism]] resulted from the different economies, social structure, customs, and political values of the North and South.<ref name="sectionalism" /><ref name="sectionalism17" /> Regional tensions came to a head during the [[War of 1812]], resulting in the [[Hartford Convention]], which manifested Northern dissatisfaction with a foreign trade embargo that affected the industrial North disproportionately, the [[Three-Fifths Compromise]], dilution of Northern power by new states, and a succession of [[Virginia dynasty|Southern presidents]]. Sectionalism increased steadily between 1800 and 1860 as the North, which phased slavery out of existence, industrialized, urbanized, and built prosperous farms, while the [[deep South]] concentrated on plantation agriculture based on slave labor, together with [[subsistence agriculture]] for poor whites. In the 1840s and 1850s, the issue of accepting slavery (in the guise of rejecting slave-owning bishops and missionaries) split the nation's largest religious denominations (the Methodist, Baptist, and Presbyterian churches) into separate Northern and Southern denominations.{{sfn|Ahlstrom|1972|pp=648–649}}

Historians have debated whether economic differences between the mainly industrial North and the mainly agricultural South helped cause the war. Most historians now disagree with the [[economic determinism]] of historian [[Charles A. Beard]] in the 1920s, and emphasize that Northern and Southern economies were largely complementary. While socially different, the sections economically benefited each other.<ref name="progressive" />{{sfn|Woodworth|1996|pp=145, 151, 505, 512, 554, 557, 684}}

===Protectionism===
Owners of slaves preferred low-cost manual labor with no mechanization. Northern manufacturing interests supported tariffs and protectionism while Southern planters demanded free trade.{{sfn|Thornton|Ekelund|2004|p=21}} The Democrats in Congress, controlled by Southerners, wrote the tariff laws in the 1830s, 1840s, and 1850s, and kept reducing rates so that the 1857 rates were the lowest since 1816. The Republicans called for an increase in tariffs in the 1860 election. The increases were only enacted in 1861 after Southerners resigned their seats in Congress.<ref name="taussig" />{{sfn|Hofstadter|1938|pp=50–55}} The tariff issue was a Northern grievance. However, [[neo-Confederate]] writers have claimed it as a Southern grievance. In 1860–61 none of the groups that proposed compromises to head off secession raised the tariff issue.<ref>Robert Gray Gunderson, ''Old Gentleman's Convention: The Washington Peace Conference of 1861.'' (1961).</ref> Pamphleteers from the North and the South rarely mentioned the tariff.<ref>{{cite book|author=Jon L. Wakelyn|title=Southern Pamphlets on Secession, November 1860 – April 1861|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=By6K9VHfWtIC|page=23}}|year=1996|publisher=University of North Carolina Press|pages=23–30|isbn=978-0-8078-6614-6}}</ref>

===Nationalism and honor===
Nationalism was a powerful force in the early 19th century, with famous spokesmen such as [[Andrew Jackson]] and [[Daniel Webster]]. While practically all Northerners supported the Union, Southerners were split between those loyal to the entirety of the United States (called "[[Southern Unionists]]") and those loyal primarily to the Southern region and then the Confederacy.{{sfn|Potter|1962b|pp=924–950}}

Perceived insults to Southern collective honor included the enormous popularity of ''Uncle Tom's Cabin'' and abolitionist John Brown's attempt to incite a slave rebellion in 1859.<ref name="southern" /><ref name="nationalism" />

While the South moved towards a Southern nationalism, leaders in the North were also becoming more nationally minded, and they rejected any notion of splitting the Union. The Republican national electoral platform of 1860 warned that Republicans regarded disunion as [[treason]] and would not tolerate it.<ref name="republican18" /> The South ignored the warnings; Southerners did not realize how ardently the North would fight to hold the Union together.<ref name="nationalism19" />

===Lincoln's election===
{{Main|1860 United States presidential election}}
[[File:Abraham Lincoln by Mathew Brady, 1860.tif|thumb|upright|[[Mathew Brady]]'s ''Portrait of Abraham Lincoln'', 1860|alt=Portrait of the middle-aged Abraham Lincoln the year of 1860 by Mathew Brady]]

The election of Abraham Lincoln in November 1860 was the final trigger for secession.{{sfn|Potter|Fehrenbacher|1976|p=485}} Southern leaders feared that Lincoln would stop the expansion of slavery and put it on a course toward extinction.{{sfn|McPherson|1988|pp=254–255}} However, Lincoln would not be inaugurated until five months after the election, which gave the South time to secede and prepare for war in the winter and spring of 1861.<ref>{{Cite web |title=1861 Time Line of the Civil War  |url=https://www.loc.gov/collections/civil-war-glass-negatives/articles-and-essays/time-line-of-the-civil-war/1861 |access-date=January 22, 2022 |website=Library of Congress, Washington, D.C.}}</ref>

According to Lincoln, the American people had shown that they had been successful in ''establishing'' and ''administering'' a republic, but a third challenge faced the nation: ''maintaining'' a republic based on the people's vote, in the face of an attempt to destroy it.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Jaffa|first=Harry V.|url=|title=A New Birth of Freedom: Abraham Lincoln and the Coming of the Civil War|date=2004|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|isbn=978-0-8476-9953-7|page=1|language=en}}</ref>

==Outbreak of the war==

===Secession crisis===
The election of Lincoln provoked the legislature of [[South Carolina in the American Civil War|South Carolina]] to call a state convention to consider secession. Before the war, South Carolina did more than any other Southern state to advance the notion that a state had the right to [[Nullification crisis|nullify]] federal laws, and even to secede from the United States. The convention unanimously voted to secede on December 20, 1860, and adopted [[South Carolina Declaration of Secession|a secession declaration]]. It argued for states' rights for slave owners in the South, but contained a complaint about states' rights in the North in the form of opposition to the Fugitive Slave Act, claiming that Northern states were not fulfilling their federal obligations under the Constitution. The "cotton states" of [[Mississippi in the American Civil War|Mississippi]], [[Florida in the American Civil War|Florida]], [[Alabama in the American Civil War|Alabama]], Georgia, Louisiana, and [[Texas in the American Civil War|Texas]] followed suit, seceding in January and February 1861.<ref>{{Cite web|title=1861 {{!}} Time Line of the Civil War|url=https://www.loc.gov/collections/civil-war-glass-negatives/articles-and-essays/time-line-of-the-civil-war/1861/|access-date=June 12, 2021|website=Library of Congress}}</ref>

Among the ordinances of secession passed by the individual states, those of three—Texas, Alabama, and Virginia—specifically mentioned the plight of the "slaveholding states" at the hands of Northern abolitionists. The rest make no mention of the slavery issue and are often brief announcements of the dissolution of ties by the legislatures.<ref>[http://www.civil-war.net/pages/ordinances_secession.asp Ordinances of Secession by State] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040611023102/http://civil-war.net/pages/ordinances_secession.asp |date=June 11, 2004 }}. Retrieved November 28, 2012.</ref> However, at least four states—South Carolina,<ref>The text of [http://avalon.law.yale.edu/19th_century/csa_scarsec.asp the ''Declaration of the Immediate Causes Which Induce and Justify the Secession of South Carolina from the Federal Union''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190220121942/http://avalon.law.yale.edu/19th_century/csa_scarsec.asp |date=February 20, 2019 }}.</ref> Mississippi,<ref>The text of [http://avalon.law.yale.edu/19th_century/csa_missec.asp ''A Declaration of the Immediate Causes which Induce and Justify the Secession of the State of Mississippi from the Federal Union''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141010225636/http://avalon.law.yale.edu/19th_century/csa_missec.asp |date=October 10, 2014 }}. Retrieved November 28, 2012.</ref> Georgia,<ref>The text of [http://avalon.law.yale.edu/19th_century/csa_geosec.asp Georgia's secession declaration] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110714154731/http://avalon.law.yale.edu/19th_century/csa_geosec.asp |date=July 14, 2011 }}. Retrieved November 28, 2012.</ref> and Texas<ref name="Thetext">The text of [http://avalon.law.yale.edu/19th_century/csa_texsec.asp ''A Declaration of the Causes which Impel the State of Texas to Secede from the Federal Union''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110811013053/http://avalon.law.yale.edu/19th_century/csa_texsec.asp |date=August 11, 2011 }}. Retrieved November 28, 2012.</ref>—also passed lengthy and detailed explanations of their reasons for secession, all of which laid the blame squarely on the movement to abolish slavery and that movement's influence over the politics of the Northern states. The Southern states believed slaveholding was a constitutional right because of the [[Fugitive Slave Clause]] of the Constitution. These states agreed to form a new federal government, the [[Confederate States of America]], on February 4, 1861.{{sfn|McPherson|1988|p=24}} They took control of federal forts and other properties within their boundaries with little resistance from outgoing President [[James Buchanan]], whose term ended on March 4, 1861. Buchanan said that the [[Dred Scott decision]] was proof that the South had no reason for secession, and that the Union "was intended to be perpetual", but that "The power by force of arms to compel a State to remain in the Union" was not among the "enumerated powers granted to Congress".<ref name="ucsb" /> One-quarter of the U.S. Army—the entire garrison in Texas—was surrendered in February 1861 to state forces by its commanding general, [[David E. Twiggs]], who then joined the Confederacy.{{sfn|Winters|1963|p=28}}

As Southerners resigned their seats in the Senate and the House, Republicans were able to pass projects that had been blocked by Southern senators before the war. These included the [[Morrill Tariff]], land grant colleges (the [[Morrill Land-Grant Acts|Morrill Act]]), a [[Homestead Acts#Homestead Act of 1862|Homestead Act]], a transcontinental railroad (the [[Pacific Railroad Acts]]),<ref name="WDL">{{cite web |url=http://www.wdl.org/en/item/4608/ |title=Profile Showing the Grades upon the Different Routes Surveyed for the Union Pacific Rail Road Between the Missouri River and the Valley of the Platte River |publisher=[[World Digital Library]] |year=1865 |access-date=July 16, 2013}}</ref> the [[National Bank Act]], the authorization of [[United States Note]]s by the [[Legal Tender Act of 1862]], and the ending of [[District of Columbia Compensated Emancipation Act|slavery in the District of Columbia]]. The [[Revenue Act of 1861]] introduced the [[income tax]] to help finance the war.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Abraham Lincoln imposes first federal income tax|url=https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/lincoln-imposes-first-federal-income-tax|access-date=June 12, 2021|website=History.com|language=en}}</ref>

[[File:President-Jefferson-Davis.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Jefferson Davis]], [[President of the Confederate States of America]] (1861–1865)|alt=Middle-aged man in a goatee posed standing in a suit, vest and bowtie]]

In December 1860, the Crittenden Compromise was proposed to re-establish the Missouri Compromise line by constitutionally banning slavery in territories to the north of the line while guaranteeing it to the south. The adoption of this compromise likely would have prevented the secession of the Southern states, but Lincoln and the Republicans rejected it.{{sfn|McPherson|1988|pp=252–54}} Lincoln stated that any compromise that would extend slavery would in time bring down the Union.{{sfn|McPherson|1988|p=253}} A pre-war February [[Peace Conference of 1861]] met in Washington, proposing a solution similar to that of the Crittenden compromise; it was rejected by Congress. The Republicans proposed an [[Corwin Amendment|alternative compromise]] to not interfere with slavery where it existed but the South regarded it as insufficient. Nonetheless, the remaining eight slave states rejected pleas to join the Confederacy following a two-to-one no-vote in Virginia's First Secessionist Convention on April 4, 1861.{{sfn|McPherson|1988|pp=234–266}}

On March 4, 1861, Abraham Lincoln was sworn in as president. In his [[Inauguration|inaugural address]], he argued that the Constitution was a ''[[Preamble to the United States Constitution|more perfect union]]'' than the earlier [[Articles of Confederation|Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union]], that it was a binding contract, and called any secession "legally void".<ref name="inaugural" /> He had no intent to invade Southern states, nor did he intend to end slavery where it existed, but said that he would use force to maintain possession of federal property,<ref name="inaugural" /> including forts, arsenals, mints, and customhouses that had been seized by the Southern states.{{sfn|McPherson|1988|p=262}} The government would make no move to recover post offices, and if resisted, mail delivery would end at state lines. Where popular conditions did not allow peaceful enforcement of federal law, U.S. marshals and judges would be withdrawn. No mention was made of bullion lost from U.S. mints in Louisiana, Georgia, and North Carolina. He stated that it would be U.S. policy to only collect import duties at its ports; there could be no serious injury to the South to justify the armed revolution during his administration. His speech closed with a plea for restoration of the bonds of union, famously calling on "the mystic chords of memory" binding the two regions.<ref name="inaugural" />

The Davis government of the new Confederacy sent three delegates to Washington to negotiate a peace treaty with the United States of America. Lincoln rejected any negotiations with Confederate agents because he claimed the Confederacy was not a legitimate government, and that making any treaty with it would be tantamount to recognition of it as a sovereign government.{{sfn|Potter|Fehrenbacher|1976|pp=572–573}} Lincoln instead attempted to negotiate directly with the governors of individual seceded states, whose administrations he continued to recognize.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Harris |first=William C. |date=Winter 2000 |title=The Hampton Roads Peace Conference: A Final Test of Lincoln's Presidential Leadership |url=http://hdl.handle.net/2027/spo.2629860.0021.104 |journal=Journal of the Abraham Lincoln Association |volume=21 |issue=1 |hdl=2027/spo.2629860.0021.104 |issn=1945-7987}}</ref>

Complicating Lincoln's attempts to defuse the crisis were the actions of the new Secretary of State, William Seward. Seward had been Lincoln's main rival for the Republican presidential nomination. Shocked and embittered by this defeat, Seward agreed to support Lincoln's candidacy only after he was guaranteed the executive office that was considered at that time to be the most powerful and important after the presidency itself. Even in the early stages of Lincoln's presidency Seward still held little regard for the new chief executive due to his perceived inexperience, and therefore Seward viewed himself as the ''[[de facto]]'' head of government or "[[prime minister]]" behind the throne of Lincoln. In this role, Seward attempted to engage in unauthorized and indirect negotiations that failed.{{sfn|Potter|Fehrenbacher|1976|pp=572–573}} However, President Lincoln was determined to hold all remaining Union-occupied forts in the Confederacy: [[Fort Monroe]] in Virginia, [[Fort Pickens]], [[Fort Jefferson (Florida)|Fort Jefferson]], and [[Fort Zachary Taylor|Fort Taylor]] in Florida, and [[Fort Sumter]] in South Carolina.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Hardyman|first=Robyn|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=D11iDwAAQBAJ|title=What Caused the Civil War?|date=2016|publisher=Gareth Stevens Publishing LLLP|isbn=978-1-4824-5180-1|page=27|language=en}}</ref>{{Citation needed|date=January 2023|reason=A children's book is not a reliable source}}

===Battle of Fort Sumter===
{{Main|Battle of Fort Sumter}}
{{See also|President Lincoln's 75,000 volunteers}}
[[File:Sumter.jpg|alt=Artwork Despite him stone fort at center surrounded by water. The fort is on fire and shells explode in the air above it.|thumb|The Battle of Fort Sumter, as depicted by [[Currier and Ives]]]]

The American Civil War began on April 12, 1861, when Confederate forces opened fire on the Union-held Fort Sumter. Fort Sumter is located in the middle of the harbor of [[Charleston in the American Civil War|Charleston]], South Carolina.{{Sfn|McPherson|1988|p=264}} Its status had been contentious for months. Outgoing President Buchanan had dithered in reinforcing the Union garrison in the harbor, which was under command of Major [[Robert Anderson (Civil War)|Robert Anderson]]. Anderson took matters into his own hands and on December 26, 1860, under the cover of darkness, sailed the garrison from the poorly placed [[Fort Moultrie]] to the stalwart island Fort Sumter.{{Sfn|McPherson|1988|p=265}} Anderson's actions catapulted him to hero status in the North. An attempt to resupply the fort on January 9, 1861, failed and nearly started the war then and there. But an informal truce held.{{Sfn|McPherson|1988|p=266}} On March 5, the newly sworn in Lincoln was informed that the Fort was running low on supplies.{{Sfn|McPherson|1988|p=267}}

Fort Sumter proved to be one of the main challenges of the new Lincoln administration.{{Sfn|McPherson|1988|p=267}} Back-channel dealing by Secretary of State Seward with the Confederates undermined Lincoln's decision-making; Seward wanted to pull out of the fort.{{Sfn|McPherson|1988|p=268}} But a firm hand by Lincoln tamed Seward, and Seward became one of Lincoln's staunchest allies. Lincoln ultimately decided that holding the fort, which would require reinforcing it, was the only workable option. Thus, on April 6, Lincoln informed the Governor of South Carolina that a ship with food but no ammunition would attempt to supply the Fort. Historian McPherson describes this win-win approach as "the first sign of the mastery that would mark Lincoln's presidency"; the Union would win if it could resupply and hold onto the Fort, and the South would be the aggressor if it opened fire on an unarmed ship supplying starving men.{{Sfn|McPherson|1988|p=272}} An April 9 Confederate cabinet meeting resulted in President Davis's ordering General [[P. G. T. Beauregard]] to take the Fort before supplies could reach it.{{Sfn|McPherson|1988|p=273}}

At 4:30 am on April 12, Confederate forces fired the first of 4,000 shells at the Fort; it fell the next day. The loss of Fort Sumter lit a patriotic fire under the North.{{Sfn|McPherson|1988|pp=273–274}} On April 15, Lincoln called on the states to field [[President Lincoln's 75,000 volunteers|75,000 volunteer]] troops for 90&nbsp;days; impassioned Union states met the quotas quickly.{{sfn|McPherson|1988|p=274}} On May 3, 1861, Lincoln called for an additional 42,000 volunteers for a period of three years.<ref name="Proclamation 83 – Increasing the Size of the Army and Navy" />{{sfn|McPherson|1988|p=278}} Shortly after this, [[Virginia in the American Civil War|Virginia]], [[Tennessee in the American Civil War|Tennessee]], [[Arkansas in the American Civil War|Arkansas]], and [[North Carolina in the American Civil War|North Carolina]] seceded and joined the Confederacy. To reward Virginia, the Confederate capital was moved to [[Richmond, Virginia|Richmond]].{{sfn|McPherson|1988|pp=276–307}}

===Attitude of the border states===
{{Main|Border states (American Civil War)}}
[[File:US Secession map 1863 (BlankMap derived).png|thumb|upright=1.15|right|US Secession map. The [[Union (American Civil War)|Union]] vs. the [[Confederate States of America|Confederacy.]]
{{legend|#1A3E7A| Union states}}
{{legend|#6895c9| Union territories not permitting slavery}}
{{legend|#EDD200| Southern [[Border states (American Civil War)|Border Union states, permitting slavery]]}} (One of these states, [[West Virginia]], was created in 1863, while KY and MO had dual competing Confederate and Unionist governments)
{{legend|#C95200| Confederate states}}
{{legend|#EDB360| Union territories that permitted slavery (claimed by Confederacy) at the start of the war, but where slavery was outlawed by the U.S. in 1862}}]]

[[Maryland]], [[Delaware]], [[Missouri]], and [[Kentucky]] were slave states whose people had divided loyalties to Northern and Southern businesses and family members. Some men enlisted in the [[Union Army]] and others in the Confederate Army.{{sfn|Jones|2011|pp=203–204}} [[West Virginia]] separated from [[Virginia]] and was admitted to the [[Union (American Civil War)|Union]] on June 20, 1863.{{sfn|Jones|2011|p=21}}

Maryland's territory surrounded the United States' capital of [[Washington, D.C., in the American Civil War|Washington, D.C.]], and could cut it off from the North.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://msa.maryland.gov/msa/stagser/s1259/121/7590/html/0000.html|title=Civil War and the Maryland General Assembly, Maryland State Archives|website=msa.maryland.gov|access-date=May 28, 2017}}</ref> It had numerous anti-Lincoln officials who tolerated anti-army [[Baltimore riot of 1861|rioting in Baltimore]] and the burning of bridges, both aimed at hindering the passage of troops to the South. Maryland's legislature voted overwhelmingly (53–13) to stay in the Union, but also rejected hostilities with its southern neighbors, voting to close Maryland's rail lines to prevent them from being used for war.<ref name="Maryland State Archives">{{cite web|url=http://teachingamericanhistorymd.net/000001/000000/000017/html/t17.html|title=Teaching American History in Maryland – Documents for the Classroom: ''Arrest of the Maryland Legislature, 1861''|publisher=Maryland State Archives|year=2005|access-date=February 6, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080111110628/http://teachingamericanhistorymd.net/000001/000000/000017/html/t17.html |archive-date=January 11, 2008 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Lincoln responded by establishing [[martial law]] and unilaterally suspending [[habeas corpus]] in Maryland, along with sending in militia units from the North.{{sfn|McPherson|1988|pp=284–287}} Lincoln rapidly took control of Maryland and the District of Columbia by seizing many prominent figures, including arresting 1/3 of the members of the [[Maryland General Assembly]] on the day it reconvened.<ref name="Maryland State Archives" /><ref>William C. Harris, ''Lincoln and the Border States: Preserving the Union'' (University Press of Kansas, 2011), p. 71.</ref> All were held without trial, with Lincoln ignoring a ruling on June 1, 1861, by U.S. Supreme Court Chief Justice [[Roger Taney]], not speaking for the Court,<ref>"One significant point of disagreement among historians and political scientists is whether Roger Taney heard ''Ex parte Merryman'' as a U.S. circuit judge or as a Supreme Court justice in chambers." White, Jonathan W., ''Abraham Lincoln and Treason in the Civil War: The Trials of John Merryman'', Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2011, pp. 38–39; [[Steve Vladeck|Vladeck, Stephen I.]], [https://www.templelawreview.org/article/80-2_vladeck/ "The ''Field'' Theory: Martial Law, The Suspension Power, and The Insurrection Act"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220927142538/https://www.templelawreview.org/article/80-2_vladeck/ |date=September 27, 2022 }}, ''Temple Law Review'', vol. 80, no. 2 (Summer 2007), p. 391, n.2.</ref> that only Congress (and not the president) could suspend habeas corpus (''[[Ex parte Merryman]]''). Federal troops imprisoned a prominent Baltimore newspaper editor, [[Frank Key Howard]], Francis Scott Key's grandson, after he criticized Lincoln in an editorial for ignoring Taney's ruling.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Howard|first1=F. K. (Frank Key)|title=Fourteen Months in American Bastiles|date=1863|publisher=H.F. Mackintosh|location=London|url=https://archive.org/details/fourteenmonthsin00inhowa|access-date=August 18, 2014}}</ref>

In Missouri, an [[Missouri Constitutional Convention (1861–63)|elected convention]] on secession voted decisively to remain within the Union. When pro-Confederate Governor [[Claiborne Fox Jackson|Claiborne F. Jackson]] called out the state militia, it was attacked by federal forces under General [[Nathaniel Lyon]], who chased the governor and the rest of the State Guard to the southwestern corner of the state (''see also'': [[Missouri secession]]). Early in the war the Confederacy controlled the southern portion of Missouri through the [[Confederate government of Missouri]] but was largely driven out of the state after 1862. In the resulting vacuum, the convention on secession reconvened and took power as the Unionist provisional government of Missouri.<ref name="nevins" />

Kentucky did not secede; for a time, it declared itself neutral. When Confederate forces entered the state in September 1861, neutrality ended and the state reaffirmed its Union status while maintaining slavery. During a brief invasion by Confederate forces in 1861, Confederate sympathizers and delegates from 68 Kentucky counties organized a secession convention at the Russellville Convention, formed the shadow [[Confederate Government of Kentucky]], inaugurated a governor, and gained recognition from the Confederacy and Kentucky was formally admitted into the Confederacy on December 10, 1861. Its jurisdiction extended only as far as Confederate battle lines in the Commonwealth which at its greatest extent was over half the state, and it went into exile after October 1862.<ref name="nevins26" />

After Virginia's secession, a [[Restored Government of Virginia|Unionist government]] in [[Wheeling, West Virginia|Wheeling]] asked 48 counties to vote on an ordinance to create a new state on October 24, 1861. A voter turnout of 34 percent approved the statehood bill (96 percent approving).<ref name="Convenience WV">{{cite web |url=http://www.wvculture.org/History/statehood/statehood10.html |title=A State of Convenience, The Creation of West Virginia |publisher=West Virginia Archives & History |access-date=April 20, 2012 |archive-date=May 18, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120518153656/http://www.wvculture.org/History/statehood/statehood10.html |url-status=dead}}</ref> Twenty-four secessionist counties were included in the new state,<ref name="copperhead" /> and the ensuing guerrilla war engaged about 40,000 federal troops for much of the war.{{sfn|McPherson|1988|p=303}}{{sfn|Weigley|2004|p=55}} Congress admitted West Virginia to the Union on June 20, 1863. West Virginia provided about 20,000–22,000 soldiers to both the Confederacy and the Union.<ref name="charleston" />

A Unionist secession attempt occurred in [[East Tennessee]], but was suppressed by the Confederacy, which arrested over 3,000 men suspected of being loyal to the Union. They were held without trial.{{sfn|Neely|1993|pp=10–11}}

==War==
{{See also|List of American Civil War battles|Military leadership in the American Civil War}}
The Civil War was a contest marked by the ferocity and frequency of battle. Over four years, 237 named battles were fought, as were many more minor actions and skirmishes, which were often characterized by their bitter intensity and high casualties. In his book ''The American Civil War'', British historian [[John Keegan]] writes that "The American Civil War was to prove one of the most ferocious wars ever fought". In many cases, without geographic objectives, the only target for each side was the enemy's soldier.<ref>Keegan, ''The American Civil War'' (2009), p. 73. Over 10,000 military engagements took place during the war, 40 percent of them in Virginia and Tennessee. See Gabor Boritt, ed., ''War Comes Again'' (1995), p.&nbsp;247.</ref>

===Mobilization===
{{See also|Economic history of the United States Civil War}}

[[File:Anti Civil War Draft Rioters in Lexington Avenue New York 1863.jpg|thumb|upright|Rioters attacking a building during the [[New York City draft riots|New York anti-draft riots]] of 1863|alt=Building on fire as rioters look on, one holds a sign that says "no draft"]]

As the first seven states began organizing a Confederacy in Montgomery, the entire U.S. army numbered 16,000. However, Northern governors had begun to mobilize their militias.<ref>''"With an actual strength of 1,080 officers and 14,926 enlisted men on June 30, 1860, the Regular Army&nbsp;..."'' [http://www.history.army.mil/html/bookshelves/resmat/civil_war/extracts/the_civil_war_1861_(pg_199-221).pdf Civil War Extracts] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121017195124/http://www.history.army.mil/html/bookshelves/resmat/civil_war/extracts/the_civil_war_1861_(pg_199-221).pdf |date=October 17, 2012 }} pp.&nbsp;199–221, American Military History.</ref> The Confederate Congress authorized the new nation up to 100,000 troops sent by governors as early as February. By May, Jefferson Davis was pushing for 100,000 soldiers for one year or the duration, and that was answered in kind by the U.S. Congress.<ref>{{Cite book|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=9lAfAQAAIAAJ|page=264}}|title=Abraham Lincoln: A History|last1=Nicolay|first1=John George|last2=Hay|first2=John|date=1890|publisher=Century Company|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=Z2_ZM0dWVrsC|page=308}}|title=The Confederate States of America, 1861–1865: A History of the South|last=Coulter|first=E. Merton|year= 1950|publisher=LSU Press|isbn=978-0-8071-0007-3|page=308|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=9lAfAQAAIAAJ|page=264}}|title=Abraham Lincoln: A History|last1=Nicolay|first1=John George|last2=Hay|first2=John|date=1890|publisher=Century Company|language=en}} state: "Since the organization of the Montgomery government in February, some four different calls for Southern volunteers had been made&nbsp;... In his message of April 29 to the rebel Congress, Jefferson Davis proposed to organize for instant action an army of 100,000&nbsp;..." Coulter reports that Alexander Stephens took this to mean Davis wanted unilateral control of a standing army, and from that moment on became his implacable opponent.</ref>

In the first year of the war, both sides had far more volunteers than they could effectively train and equip. After the initial enthusiasm faded, reliance on the cohort of young men who came of age every year and wanted to join was not enough. Both sides used a draft law—[[conscription]]—as a device to encourage or force volunteering; relatively few were drafted and served. The Confederacy passed a draft law in April 1862 for young men aged 18 to 35; overseers of slaves, government officials, and clergymen were exempt. The U.S. Congress followed in July, authorizing a militia draft within a state when it could not meet its quota with volunteers. European [[History of Immigration to the United States#1850 to 1930|immigrants]] joined the Union Army in large numbers, including 177,000 born in [[Germany]] and 144,000 born in Ireland.<ref>{{Cite book|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=4xgOAAAAIAAJ|page=523}}|title=The German Element in the United States: With Special Reference to Its Political, Moral, Social, and Educational Influence|last=Faust|first=Albert Bernhardt|date=1909|publisher=Houghton Mifflin Company|language=en}} The railroads and banks grew rapidly. See [[Ellis Paxson Oberholtzer|Oberholtzer, Ellis Paxson]]. {{cite book|url={{Google books|plainurl=y|id=8jHiEwVmB8MC|page=478}}|title=Jay Cooke: Financier Of The Civil War |year=1907 |volume= 2 |pages= 378–430}}. See also {{Cite book|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=hmchAAAAMAAJ|page=69}}|title=A history of the United States since the Civil War|last=Oberholtzer|first=Ellis Parson|date=1926|publisher=The Macmillan company|language=en|pages=69–12}}</ref>

When the [[Emancipation Proclamation]] went into effect in January 1863, ex-slaves were energetically recruited by the states and used to meet the state quotas. States and local communities offered higher and higher cash bonuses for white volunteers. Congress tightened the law in March 1863. Men selected in the draft could provide substitutes or, until mid-1864, pay commutation money. Many eligibles pooled their money to cover the cost of anyone drafted. Families used the substitute provision to select which man should go into the army and which should stay home. There was much evasion and overt resistance to the draft, especially in Catholic areas. The [[New York Draft Riots|draft riot in New York City]] in July 1863 involved Irish immigrants who had been signed up as citizens to swell the vote of the [[Tammany Hall|city's Democratic political machine]], not realizing it made them liable for the draft.<ref name="reconstruct" /> Of the 168,649 men procured for the Union through the draft, 117,986 were substitutes, leaving only 50,663 who had their services conscripted.<ref name="murdock" />

In both the North and South, the draft laws were highly unpopular. In the North, some 120,000 men evaded conscription, many of them fleeing to Canada, and another 280,000 soldiers deserted during the war.<ref>Judith Lee Hallock, "The Role of the Community in Civil War Desertion." ''Civil War History'' (1983) 29#2 pp. 123–134. [http://mtw160-198.ippl.jhu.edu/journals/civil_war_history/v029/29.2.hallock.pdf online].</ref> At least 100,000 Southerners deserted, or about 10 percent; Southern desertion was high because, according to one historian writing in 1991, the highly localized Southern identity meant that many Southern men had little investment in the outcome of the war, with individual soldiers caring more about the fate of their local area than any grand ideal.<ref>{{Cite journal |jstor=2580242|title=Desertion as Localism: Army Unit Solidarity and Group Norms in the U.S. Civil War|journal=Social Forces|volume=70|issue=2|pages=321–342|last1=Bearman|first1=Peter S.|year=1991|doi=10.1093/sf/70.2.321}}</ref> In the North, "[[bounty jumper]]s" enlisted to get the generous bonus, deserted, then went back to a second recruiting station under a different name to sign up again for a second bonus; 141 were caught and executed.<ref name="desertion37" />

From a tiny frontier force in 1860, the Union and Confederate armies had grown into the "largest and most efficient armies in the world" within a few years. Some European observers at the time dismissed them as amateur and unprofessional,<ref>{{Cite web|last=Civil War Institute|date=January 5, 2015|title=A Prussian Observes the American Civil War|url=https://gettysburgcompiler.org/2015/01/05/a-prussian-observes-the-american-civil-war/|access-date=January 6, 2022|website=The Gettysburg Compiler|language=en}}</ref> but historian John Keegan concluded that each outmatched the French, Prussian, and Russian armies of the time, and without the Atlantic, would have threatened any of them with defeat.{{sfn|Keegan|2009|p=57}}

===Prisoners===
{{Main|American Civil War prison camps}}
At the start of the Civil War, a system of paroles operated. Captives agreed not to fight until they were officially exchanged. Meanwhile, they were held in camps run by their army. They were paid, but they were not allowed to perform any military duties.<ref>{{cite book|author=Roger Pickenpaugh|title=Captives in Blue: The Civil War Prisons of the Confederacy|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=pWOfsOceCNUC|page=57}}|year=2013|publisher=University of Alabama Press|pages=57–73|isbn=978-0-8173-1783-6}}</ref> The system of exchanges collapsed in 1863 when the Confederacy refused to exchange black prisoners. After that, about 56,000 of the 409,000 POWs died in prisons during the war, accounting for nearly 10 percent of the conflict's fatalities.{{sfn|Tucker|Pierpaoli|White|2010|p=1466}}

===Women===
{{See also|Women in the military#United States|Gender issues in the American Civil War}}

Historian [[Elizabeth D. Leonard]] writes that, according to various estimates, between five hundred and one thousand women enlisted as soldiers on both sides of the war, disguised as men.<ref name="Leonard 1999">{{cite book |last=Leonard |first=Elizabeth D. |title=All the Daring of the Soldier: Women of the Civil War Armies |date=1999 |publisher=W.W. Norton & Co. |edition= |isbn=0-3930-4712-1 |url=https://archive.org/details/alldaringofsoldi00leon/page/165/mode/1up |url-access=registration}}</ref>{{rp|165, 310–11}} Women also served as spies, resistance activists, nurses, and hospital personnel.{{r|Leonard 1999}}{{rp|240}} Women served on the Union hospital ship [[USS Red Rover (1859)|''Red Rover'']] and nursed Union and Confederate troops at field hospitals.<ref name="womensmemorial.org">{{cite web|url=http://www.womensmemorial.org/Education/timeline.html |title=Highlights in the History of Military Women |website=Women In Military Service For America Memorial |access-date=June 22, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130403045042/http://www.womensmemorial.org/Education/timeline.html |archive-date=April 3, 2013 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

[[Mary Edwards Walker]], the only woman ever to receive the [[Medal of Honor]], served in the Union Army and was given the medal for her efforts to treat the wounded during the war. Her name was deleted from the Army Medal of Honor Roll in 1917 (along with over 900 other Medal of Honor recipients); however, it was restored in 1977.<ref name=":3">{{cite book|title=Amazons to Fighter Pilots: A Biographical Dictionary of Military Women (Volume Two)|last=Pennington|first=Reina|publisher=Greenwood Press|year=2003|isbn=0-313-32708-4|location=Westport, Connecticut|pages=474–75}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=The Case of Dr. Walker, Only Woman to Win (and Lose) the Medal of Honor|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1977/06/04/archives/the-case-of-dr-walker-only-woman-to-win-and-lose-the-medal-of-honor.html|access-date=January 6, 2018 |work=[[The New York Times]] |date=June 4, 1977}}</ref>

===Naval tactics===
[[File:Battle of Hampton Roads 3g01752u.jpg|thumb|Battle between the {{USS|Monitor}} and {{USS|Merrimack|1855|2}}|alt=Painting of land battle scene in foreground and naval battle with sinking ships in background]]

The small [[Union Navy|U.S. Navy]] of 1861 was rapidly enlarged to 6,000 officers and 45,000 sailors in 1865, with 671 vessels, having a tonnage of 510,396.{{sfn|Welles|1865|p=152}}{{sfn|Tucker|Pierpaoli|White|2010|p=462}} Its mission was to blockade Confederate ports, take control of the river system, defend against Confederate raiders on the high seas, and be ready for a possible war with the British [[Royal Navy]].{{sfn|Canney|1998|p=?}} Meanwhile, the main riverine war was fought in the West, where a series of major rivers gave access to the Confederate heartland. The U.S. Navy eventually gained control of the Red, Tennessee, Cumberland, Mississippi, and Ohio rivers. In the East, the Navy shelled Confederate forts and provided support for coastal army operations.<ref>{{cite web |title=American Civil War: The naval war |url=https://www.britannica.com/event/American-Civil-War/The-naval-war |website=Britannica |publisher=Encyclopaedia Britannica |access-date=January 24, 2022}}</ref>

The Civil War occurred during the early stages of the industrial revolution. Many naval innovations emerged during this time, most notably the advent of the [[ironclad warship]]. It began when the Confederacy, knowing they had to meet or match the Union's naval superiority, responded to the Union blockade by building or converting more than 130 vessels, including twenty-six ironclads and floating batteries.{{sfn|Nelson|2005|p=92}} Only half of these saw active service. Many were equipped with ram bows, creating "ram fever" among Union squadrons wherever they threatened. But in the face of overwhelming Union superiority and the Union's ironclad warships, they were unsuccessful.{{sfn|Anderson|1989|p=300}}

In addition to ocean-going warships coming up the Mississippi, the Union Navy used timberclads, tinclads, and armored gunboats. Shipyards at Cairo, Illinois, and St. Louis built new boats or modified [[steamboat]]s for action.<ref>Myron J. Smith, ''Tinclads in the Civil War: Union Light-Draught Gunboat Operations on Western Waters, 1862–1865'' (2009).</ref>

The Confederacy experimented with the [[submarine]] {{ship|CSS|Hunley}}, which did not work satisfactorily,<ref>Gerald F. Teaster and Linda and James Treaster Ambrose, ''The Confederate Submarine H. L. Hunley'' (1989).</ref> and with building an ironclad ship, {{ship|CSS|Virginia}}, which was based on rebuilding a sunken Union ship, {{USS|Merrimack|1855|2}}. On its first foray, on March 8, 1862, ''Virginia'' inflicted significant damage to the Union's wooden fleet, but the next day the first Union ironclad, {{USS|Monitor}}, arrived to challenge it in the [[Chesapeake Bay]]. The resulting three-hour [[Battle of Hampton Roads]] was a draw, but it proved that ironclads were effective warships.{{sfn|Nelson|2005|p=345}} Not long after the battle, the Confederacy was forced to scuttle the ''Virginia'' to prevent its capture, while the Union built many copies of the ''Monitor''. Lacking the technology and infrastructure to build effective warships, the Confederacy attempted to obtain warships from [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|Great Britain]]. However, this failed, because Great Britain had no interest in selling warships to a nation that was at war with a stronger enemy, and doing so could sour relations with the [[United States|U.S.]]{{sfn|Fuller|2008|p=36}}

=== Union blockade ===
{{Main|Union blockade}}
[[File:Scott-anaconda.jpg|thumb|General Scott's "[[Anaconda Plan]]" 1861. Tightening naval blockade, forcing rebels out of Missouri along the Mississippi River, Kentucky Unionists sit on the fence, idled cotton industry illustrated in Georgia.|alt=A cartoon map of the South surrounded by a snake.]]

By early 1861, General [[Winfield Scott]] had devised the [[Anaconda Plan]] to win the war with as little bloodshed as possible, which called for blockading the Confederacy and slowly suffocating the South to surrender.{{sfn|Richter|2009|p=49}} Lincoln adopted parts of the plan, but chose to prosecute a more active vision of war.{{sfn|Johnson|1998|p=228}} In April 1861, Lincoln announced the Union blockade of all Southern ports; commercial ships could not get insurance and regular traffic ended. The South blundered in embargoing cotton exports in 1861 before the blockade was effective; by the time they realized the mistake, it was too late. "[[King Cotton]]" was dead, as the South could export less than 10 percent of its cotton. The blockade shut down the ten Confederate seaports with railheads that moved almost all the cotton, especially New Orleans, Mobile, and Charleston. By June 1861, warships were stationed off the principal Southern ports, and a year later nearly 300 ships were in service.{{sfn|Anderson|1989|pp=288–289, 296–298}}

==== Blockade runners ====
{{Main|Blockade runners of the American Civil War}}
[[File:First Charleston Harbor.jpg|thumb|upright=1.15|Gunline of nine Union ironclads. [[Union blockade#South Atlantic Blockading Squadron|South Atlantic Blockading Squadron]] off Charleston. Continuous blockade of all major ports was sustained by North's overwhelming war production.|alt=Panoramic view of ships in harbor during battle]]

The Confederates began the war short on military supplies and in desperate need of large quantities of arms which the agrarian South could not provide. Arms manufactures in the industrial North were restricted by an arms embargo, keeping shipments of arms from going to the South, and ending all existing and future contracts. The Confederacy subsequently looked to foreign sources for their enormous military needs and sought out financiers and companies like [[S. Isaac, Campbell & Company]] and the [[London Armoury Company]] in Britain, who acted as purchasing agents for the Confederacy, connecting them with Britain's many arms manufactures, and ultimately becoming the Confederacy's main source of arms.<ref>[[#wise1991|Wise, 1991]], p. 49.</ref><ref>[[#mendelsohn|Mendelsohn, 2012]], pp. 43–44.</ref>

To get the arms safely to the Confederacy, British investors built small, fast, steam-driven [[Blockade runners of the American Civil War|blockade runners]] that traded arms and supplies brought in from Britain through Bermuda, Cuba, and the Bahamas in return for high-priced cotton. Many of the ships were lightweight and designed for speed and could only carry a relatively small amount of cotton back to England.{{sfn|Stern|1962|pp=224–225}} When the Union Navy seized a blockade runner, the ship and cargo were condemned as a [[prize of war]] and sold, with the proceeds given to the Navy sailors; the captured crewmen were mostly British, and they were released.<ref>Mark E. Neely Jr. "The Perils of Running the Blockade: The Influence of International Law in an Era of Total War", ''Civil War History'' (1986) 32#2, pp.&nbsp;101–18, [http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/civil_war_history/v032/32.2.neely.html in Project MUSE].</ref>

====Economic impact====
The Southern economy nearly collapsed during the war. There were multiple reasons for this: the severe deterioration of food supplies, especially in cities, the failure of Southern railroads, the loss of control of the main rivers, foraging by Northern armies, and the seizure of animals and crops by Confederate armies.<ref name="Wise 1991" /> Most historians agree that the blockade was a major factor in ruining the Confederate economy; however, Wise argues that the blockade runners provided just enough of a lifeline to allow Lee to continue fighting for additional months, thanks to fresh supplies of 400,000 rifles, lead, blankets, and boots that the homefront economy could no longer supply.<ref name="Wise 1991">Stephen R. Wise, ''Lifeline of the Confederacy: Blockade Running during the Civil War'' (1991).</ref>

Surdam argues that the blockade was a powerful weapon that eventually ruined the Southern economy, at the cost of few lives in combat. Practically, the entire Confederate cotton crop was useless (although it was sold to Union traders), costing the Confederacy its main source of income. Critical imports were scarce and the coastal trade was largely ended as well.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Surdam |first1=David G. |year=1998 |title=The Union Navy's blockade reconsidered |journal=Naval War College Review |volume=51 |issue=4|pages=85–107}}</ref> The measure of the blockade's success was not the few ships that slipped through, but the thousands that never tried it. Merchant ships owned in Europe could not get insurance and were too slow to evade the blockade, so they stopped calling at Confederate ports.<ref>David G. Surdam, ''Northern Naval Superiority and the Economics of the American Civil War'' (University of South Carolina Press, 2001).</ref>

To fight an offensive war, the Confederacy purchased arms in Britain and converted British-built ships into [[commerce raider]]s. Purchasing arms involved the smuggling of 600,000 arms (mostly British [[Pattern 1853 Enfield|Enfield rifles]]) that enabled the Confederate Army to fight on for two more years<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/science/archaeology/historians-reveal-secrets-of-uk-gunrunning-which-lengthened-the-american-civil-war-by-two-years-9557937.html|title=Historians reveal secrets of UK gun-running which lengthened the American civil war by two years|author=David Keys|date=24 June 2014|work=[[The Independent]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2pMqE2E63XgC&pg=PA87|title=Weapons of Mississippi|author=Kevin Dougherty|year=2010|page=87|publisher=[[University Press of Mississippi]]|isbn=9-7816-0473-4522}}</ref> and the commerce raiders were used in raiding [[United States Merchant Marine|U.S. Merchant Marine]] ships in the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. Insurance rates skyrocketed and the American flag virtually disappeared from international waters. However, the same ships were reflagged with European flags and continued unmolested.{{sfn|Anderson|1989|p=300}} After the war ended, the U.S. government demanded that Britain compensate it for the damage done by blockade runners and raiders outfitted in British ports. Britain partly acquiesced to the demand, paying the U.S. $15&nbsp;million in 1871 only for commerce raiding.{{sfn|Jones|2002|p=225}}

Dinçaslan argues that another outcome of the blockade was oil's rise to prominence as a widely used and traded commodity. The already declining whale oil industry took a blow as many old whaling ships were used in blockade efforts such as the [[Stone Fleet]], and Confederate raiders harassing Union whalers aggravated the situation. Oil products that had been treated mostly as lubricants, especially kerosene, started to replace whale oil used in lamps and essentially became a fuel commodity. This increased the importance of oil as a commodity, long before its eventual use as fuel for combustion engines.{{sfn|Dinçaslan|2022|p=73}}

===Diplomacy===
{{Main|Diplomacy of the American Civil War}}
{{further|United Kingdom and the American Civil War|France and the American Civil War}}

[[File:Abraham Lincoln and the London Punch; cartoons, comments and poems, published in the London charivari, during the American Civil War (1861-1865) (1909) (14782634093).jpg|thumb|left|A December 1861 cartoon in ''Punch'' magazine in London ridicules American aggressiveness in the [[Trent Affair]]. [[John Bull]], at right, warns [[Uncle Sam]], "You do what's right, my son, or I'll blow you out of the water."]]

Although the Confederacy hoped that Britain and France would join them against the Union, this was never likely, and so they instead tried to bring the British and French governments in as mediators.{{sfn|McPherson|1988|pp=546–557}}{{sfn|Herring|2011|p=237}} The Union, under Lincoln and Seward, worked to block this and threatened war if any country officially recognized the existence of the Confederate States of America. In 1861, Southerners voluntarily embargoed cotton shipments, hoping to start an economic depression in Europe that would force Britain to enter the war to get cotton, but this did not work. Worse, Europe turned to Egypt and India for cotton, which they found superior, hindering the South's recovery after the war.{{sfn|McPherson|1988|p=386}}<ref name="nevins73" />

[[Cotton diplomacy]] proved a failure as Europe had a surplus of cotton, while the 1860–62 crop failures in Europe made the North's grain exports of critical importance. It also helped to turn European opinion further away from the Confederacy. It was said that "King Corn was more powerful than King Cotton", as U.S. grain went from a quarter of the British import trade to almost half.{{sfn|McPherson|1988|p=386}} Meanwhile, the war created employment for arms makers, ironworkers, and ships to transport weapons.<ref name="nevins73" />

Lincoln's administration initially failed to appeal to European public opinion. At first, diplomats explained that the United States was not committed to the ending of slavery, and instead repeated legalistic arguments about the unconstitutionality of secession. Confederate representatives, on the other hand, started off much more successful, by ignoring slavery and instead focusing on their struggle for liberty, their commitment to free trade, and the essential role of cotton in the European economy.<ref name=":9" /> The European aristocracy was "absolutely gleeful in pronouncing the American debacle as proof that the entire experiment in popular government had failed. European government leaders welcomed the fragmentation of the ascendant American Republic."<ref name=":9">Don H. Doyle, ''The Cause of All Nations: An International History of the American Civil War'', New York: Basic Books (2015), pp. 8 (quote), 69–70, 70–74.</ref> However, there was still a European public with liberal sensibilities, that the U.S. sought to appeal to by building connections with the international press. As early as 1861, many Union diplomats such as [[Carl Schurz]] realized emphasizing the war against slavery was the Union's most effective moral asset in the struggle for public opinion in Europe. Seward was concerned that an overly radical case for reunification would distress the European merchants with cotton interests; even so, Seward supported a widespread campaign of public diplomacy.<ref name=":9" />

U.S. [[Ambassador|minister]] to Britain [[Charles Francis Adams, Sr.|Charles Francis Adams]] proved particularly adept and convinced Britain not to openly challenge the Union blockade. The Confederacy purchased several warships from commercial shipbuilders in Britain ({{ship|CSS|Alabama}}, {{ship|CSS|Shenandoah}}, {{ship|CSS|Tennessee|1863|6}}, {{ship|CSS|Tallahassee}}, {{ship|CSS|Florida}}, and some others). The most famous, ''Alabama'', did considerable damage and led to serious [[Alabama Claims|postwar disputes]]. However, public opinion against slavery in Britain created a political liability for British politicians, where the [[Abolitionism in the United Kingdom|anti-slavery movement]] was powerful.<ref>Richard Huzzeym, ''Freedom Burning: Anti-Slavery and Empire in Victorian Britain'' (2013).</ref>

War loomed in late 1861 between the U.S. and Britain over the [[Trent Affair|''Trent'' affair]], which began when U.S. Navy personnel boarded the British ship {{RMS|Trent||2}} and seized two Confederate diplomats. However, London and Washington were able to smooth over the problem after Lincoln released the two men.<ref name="approaching" /> [[Albert, Prince Consort|Prince Albert]] had left his deathbed to [[Trent Affair#British reaction (November 27 – December 31, 1861)|issue diplomatic instructions]] to [[Richard Lyons, 1st Viscount Lyons|Lord Lyons]] during the [[Trent affair]]. His request was honored, and, as a result, the British response to the United States was toned down and helped avert the British becoming involved in the war.<ref>{{Cite web |date=January 5, 2022 |title=The Trent Affair: Diplomacy, Britain, and the American Civil War – National Museum of American Diplomacy |url=https://diplomacy.state.gov/u-s-diplomacy-stories/the-trent-affair-diplomacy-britain-and-the-american-civil-war/ |access-date=January 18, 2022 |language=en-US}}</ref> In 1862, the British government considered mediating between the Union and Confederacy, though even such an offer would have risked war with the United States. British Prime Minister [[Henry John Temple, 3rd Viscount Palmerston|Lord Palmerston]] reportedly read ''Uncle Tom's Cabin'' three times when deciding on what his decision would be.<ref name="approaching" />

The Union victory in the [[Battle of Antietam]] caused the British to delay this decision. The Emancipation Proclamation over time would reinforce the political liability of supporting the Confederacy. Realizing that Washington could not intervene in [[Second Federal Republic of Mexico|Mexico]] as long as the Confederacy controlled Texas, [[Second French intervention in Mexico|France invaded Mexico]] in 1861 and installed the [[Habsburg monarchy|Habsburg]] Austrian [[archduke]] [[Maximilian I of Mexico|Maximilian I]] as emperor.<ref>[[Shawcross, Edward]] (2021). ''The Last Emperor of Mexico: The Dramatic Story of the Habsburg Archduke Who Created a Kingdom in the New World''. New York: Basic Books. {{ISBN|978-1541-674196}}. Also titled ''The Last Emperor of Mexico: A Disaster in the New World''. London: Faber & Faber, 2022.</ref> Washington repeatedly protested France's violation of the [[Monroe Doctrine]]. Despite sympathy for the Confederacy, France's seizure of Mexico ultimately deterred it from war with the Union. Confederate offers late in the war to end slavery in return for diplomatic recognition were not seriously considered by London or Paris. After 1863, the [[January Uprising|Polish revolt against Russia]] further distracted the European powers and ensured that they would remain neutral.{{sfn|Herring|2011|p=261}}

[[Russian Empire|Russia]] supported the Union, largely because it believed that the U.S. served as a counterbalance to its geopolitical rival, the United Kingdom. In 1863, the [[Imperial Russian Navy|Russian Navy]]'s Baltic and Pacific fleets wintered in the American ports of New York and San Francisco, respectively.<ref>Norman E. Saul, Richard D. McKinzie. ''Russian-American Dialogue on Cultural Relations, 1776–1914'' p. 95. {{ISBN|978-0826210975}}.</ref>

==Eastern theater==
{{Further|Eastern Theater of the American Civil War}}

[[File:American Civil War Battles by Theater, Year.png|thumb|[[County (United States)|County]] map of Civil War battles by theater and year|alt=Map of the United States with counties colored]]

The Eastern theater refers to the military operations east of the [[Appalachian Mountains]], including the states of Virginia, West Virginia, Maryland, and [[Pennsylvania]], the [[Washington, D.C.|District of Columbia]], and the coastal fortifications and seaports of [[North Carolina]].{{citation needed|date=January 2022}}

=== Background ===
====Army of the Potomac====
Maj. Gen. [[George B. McClellan]] took command of the Union [[Army of the Potomac]] on July 26, 1861 (he was briefly general-in-chief of all the Union armies but was subsequently relieved of that post in favor of Maj. Gen. [[Henry Halleck|Henry W. Halleck]]), and the war began in earnest in 1862. The 1862 Union strategy called for simultaneous advances along four axes:{{sfn|Anderson|1989|p=91}}

# McClellan would lead the main thrust in Virginia towards Richmond.
# Ohio forces would advance through Kentucky into Tennessee.
# The Missouri Department would drive south along the Mississippi River.
# The westernmost attack would originate from Kansas.

====Army of Northern Virginia====

[[File:Robert Edward Lee.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Robert E. Lee]]|alt=Old man with gray beard and military uniform]]

The primary Confederate force in the Eastern theater was the [[Army of Northern Virginia]]. The Army originated as the [[Confederate Army of the Potomac|(Confederate) Army of the Potomac]], which was organized on June 20, 1861, from all operational forces in Northern Virginia. On July 20 and 21, the [[Army of the Shenandoah (Confederate)|Army of the Shenandoah]] and forces from the District of Harpers Ferry were added. Units from the [[Army of the Northwest (Confederate)|Army of the Northwest]] were merged into the Army of the Potomac between March 14 and May 17, 1862. The Army of the Potomac was renamed ''Army of Northern Virginia'' on March 14. The [[Army of the Peninsula]] was merged into it on April 12, 1862.

When Virginia declared its secession in April 1861, [[Robert E. Lee]] chose to follow his home state, despite his desire for the country to remain intact and an offer of a senior Union command.

Lee's biographer, [[Douglas S. Freeman]], asserts that the army received its final name from Lee when he issued orders assuming command on June 1, 1862.<ref>Freeman, Vol. II, p. 78 and footnote 6.</ref> However, Freeman does admit that Lee corresponded with Brigadier General [[Joseph E. Johnston]], his predecessor in army command, before that date and referred to Johnston's command as the Army of Northern Virginia. Part of the confusion results from the fact that Johnston commanded the Department of Northern Virginia (as of October 22, 1861) and the name Army of Northern Virginia can be seen as an informal consequence of its parent department's name. Jefferson Davis and Johnston did not adopt the name, but it is clear that the organization of units as of March 14 was the same organization that Lee received on June 1, and thus it is generally referred to today as the Army of Northern Virginia, even if that is correct only in retrospect.

On July 4 at Harper's Ferry, Colonel [[Stonewall Jackson|Thomas J. Jackson]] assigned [[Jeb Stuart]] to command all the cavalry companies of the Army of the Shenandoah. He eventually commanded the Army of Northern Virginia's cavalry.

=== Battles ===
In one of the first highly visible battles, in July 1861, a march by Union troops under the command of [[Major General|Maj. Gen.]] [[Irvin McDowell]] on the Confederate forces led by Beauregard near Washington was repulsed at the [[First Battle of Bull Run]] (also known as First Manassas).

The Union had the upper hand at first, nearly pushing confederate forces holding a defensive position into a rout, but Confederate reinforcements under Joseph E. Johnston arrived from the [[Shenandoah Valley]] by railroad, and the course of the battle quickly changed. A [[Stonewall Brigade|brigade of Virginians]] under the relatively unknown brigadier general from the [[Virginia Military Institute]], Thomas J. Jackson, stood its ground, which resulted in Jackson receiving his famous nickname, "Stonewall".

Upon the strong urging of President Lincoln to begin offensive operations, McClellan attacked Virginia in the spring of 1862 by way of the [[Virginia Peninsula|peninsula]] between the [[York River (Virginia)|York River]] and [[James River]], southeast of Richmond. McClellan's army reached the gates of Richmond in the [[Peninsula Campaign]].{{sfn|Foote|1974|pp=464–519}}<ref name="terrible" />{{sfn|McPherson|1988|pp=424–27}}

[[File:Thure de Thulstrup - Battle of Antietam.jpg|thumb|The [[Battle of Antietam]], the Civil War's deadliest one-day fight|alt=Painting of battlefield scene]]

Also in the spring of 1862, in the Shenandoah Valley, Stonewall Jackson led his [[Jackson's Valley Campaign|Valley Campaign]]. Employing audacity and rapid, unpredictable movements on interior lines, Jackson's 17,000 troops marched 646 miles (1,040&nbsp;km) in 48 days and won several minor battles as they successfully engaged three Union armies (52,000 men), including those of [[Nathaniel P. Banks]] and [[John C. Frémont|John C. Fremont]], preventing them from reinforcing the Union offensive against Richmond. The swiftness of Jackson's men earned them the nickname of "[[foot cavalry]]".

Johnston halted McClellan's advance at the [[Battle of Seven Pines]], but he was wounded in the battle, and Robert E. Lee assumed his position of command. General Lee and top subordinates [[James Longstreet]] and Stonewall Jackson defeated McClellan in the [[Seven Days Battles]] and forced his retreat.{{sfn|McPherson|1988|pp=538–44}}

The [[Northern Virginia Campaign]], which included the [[Second Battle of Bull Run]], ended in yet another victory for the South.{{sfn|McPherson|1988|pp=528–33}} McClellan resisted General-in-Chief Halleck's orders to send reinforcements to [[John Pope (military officer)|John Pope's]] Union [[Army of Virginia]], which made it easier for Lee's Confederates to defeat twice the number of combined enemy troops.{{citation needed|date=January 2022}}

Emboldened by Second Bull Run, the Confederacy made its first invasion of the North with the [[Maryland Campaign]]. General Lee led 45,000 troops of the Army of Northern Virginia across the [[Potomac River]] into Maryland on September 5. Lincoln then restored Pope's troops to McClellan. McClellan and Lee fought at the Battle of Antietam near [[Sharpsburg, Maryland|Sharpsburg]], Maryland, on September 17, 1862, the bloodiest single day in United States military history.{{sfn|McPherson|1988|pp=538–44}}{{sfn|McPherson|1988|pp=543–45}} Lee's army, checked at last, returned to Virginia before McClellan could destroy it. Antietam is considered a Union victory because it halted Lee's invasion of the North and provided an opportunity for Lincoln to announce his Emancipation Proclamation.{{sfn|McPherson|1988|pp=557–58}}

When the cautious McClellan failed to follow up on Antietam, he was replaced by Maj. Gen. [[Ambrose Burnside]]. Burnside was soon defeated at the [[Battle of Fredericksburg]]{{sfn|McPherson|1988|pp=571–74}} on December 13, 1862, when more than 12,000 Union soldiers were killed or wounded during repeated futile frontal assaults against Marye's Heights.<ref>[[John Matteson|Matteson, John]], ''A Worse Place Than Hell: How the Civil War Battle of Fredericksburg Changed a Nation'', New York: W.W.&nbsp;Norton and Company, 2021.</ref> After the battle, Burnside was replaced by Maj. Gen. [[Joseph Hooker]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Jones |first1=Wilmer L. |title=Generals in Blue and Gray: Lincoln's Generals |year=2006 |publisher=Stackpole Books |isbn=978-1-4617-5106-9 |pages=237–38 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=neq3DAAAQBAJ&pg=PA237 |language=en}}</ref>

[[File:Thure de Thulstrup - L. Prang and Co. - Battle of Gettysburg - Restoration by Adam Cuerden.jpg|thumb|[[Pickett's Charge]]|alt=Cavalry charges on a battlefield]]

Hooker, too, proved unable to defeat Lee's army; despite outnumbering the Confederates by more than two to one, his Chancellorsville Campaign proved ineffective, and he was humiliated in the [[Battle of Chancellorsville]] in May 1863.{{sfn|McPherson|1988|pp=639–45}} Chancellorsville is known as Lee's "perfect battle" because his risky decision to divide his army in the presence of a much larger enemy force resulted in a significant Confederate victory. Gen. Stonewall Jackson was shot in the left arm and right hand by accidental friendly fire during the battle.  The arm was amputated, but he died shortly thereafter of pneumonia.<ref>{{cite book|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=EHRDCgAAQBAJ|page=93}}|page=93|title=Stonewall Jackson's 1862 Valley Campaign|author=Jonathan A. Noyalas|publisher=Arcadia Publishing|date=2010|isbn=978-1-61423-040-3}}</ref> Lee famously said: "He has lost his left arm, but I have lost my right arm."<ref>{{Cite book |last=Thomas |first=Emory M. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2tJZ_TCHUjAC&pg=PA287 |title=Robert E. Lee: A Biography |date=1997 |publisher=W. W. Norton & Company |isbn=978-0-393-31631-5 |page=287}}</ref>

The fiercest fighting of the battle—and the second bloodiest day of the Civil War—occurred on May 3 as Lee launched multiple attacks against the Union position at Chancellorsville. That same day, [[John Sedgwick]] advanced across the [[Rappahannock River]], defeated the small Confederate force at Marye's Heights in the [[Second Battle of Fredericksburg]], and then moved to the west. The Confederates fought a successful delaying action at the [[Battle of Salem Church]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=October 5, 2021 |title=Salem Church |url=https://www.nps.gov/frsp/learn/historyculture/sc.htm |access-date=March 30, 2022 |website=National Park Service}}</ref>

Gen. Hooker was replaced by Maj. Gen. [[George Meade]] during Lee's [[Gettysburg Campaign|second invasion of the North]], in June. Meade defeated Lee at the [[Battle of Gettysburg]] (July 1 to 3, 1863).{{sfn|McPherson|1988|pp=653–63}} This was the bloodiest battle of the war and has been called the war's [[Turning point of the American Civil War|turning point]]. [[Pickett's Charge]] on July 3 is often considered the [[high-water mark of the Confederacy]] because it signaled the collapse of serious Confederate threats of victory. Lee's army suffered 28,000 casualties (versus Meade's 23,000).{{sfn|McPherson|1988|p=664}}

==Western theater==
{{Further|Western Theater of the American Civil War}}
The Western theater refers to military operations between the Appalachian Mountains and the Mississippi River, including the states of [[Alabama]], [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]], [[Florida]], [[Mississippi]], North Carolina, Kentucky, [[South Carolina]], and [[Tennessee]], as well as parts of [[Louisiana]].<ref name=":10">{{Cite book |last=Bowery |first=Charles R. |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/880934087 |title=The Civil War in the Western Theater, 1862 |date=2014 |publisher=Center of Military History |isbn=978-0160923166 |location=Washignton, D.C. |pages=58–72 |oclc=880934087}}</ref>

=== Background ===
====Army of the Tennessee and Army of the Cumberland====
[[File:Gen. Ulysses S. Grant (4228634580).jpg|thumb|upright|[[Ulysses S. Grant]]]]
The primary Union forces in the Western theater were the [[Army of the Tennessee]] and the [[Army of the Cumberland]], named for the two rivers, the [[Tennessee River]] and [[Cumberland River]]. After Meade's inconclusive fall campaign, Lincoln turned to the Western Theater for new leadership. At the same time, the Confederate stronghold of Vicksburg surrendered, giving the Union control of the Mississippi River, permanently isolating the western Confederacy, and producing the new leader Lincoln needed, [[Ulysses S. Grant]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Vicksburg |url=https://www.battlefields.org/learn/civil-war/battles/vicksburg |access-date=2022-09-27 |website=American Battlefield Trust |language=en-US}}</ref>{{citation needed|date=January 2022}}

====Army of Tennessee====
The primary Confederate force in the Western theater was the [[Army of Tennessee]]. The army was formed on November 20, 1862, when General [[Braxton Bragg]] renamed the former [[Army of Mississippi]]. While the Confederate forces had numerous successes in the Eastern Theater, they were defeated many times in the West.<ref name=":10" />

=== Battles ===
The Union's key strategist and tactician in the West was Ulysses S. Grant, who won victories at Forts [[Battle of Fort Henry|Henry]] (February 6, 1862) and [[Battle of Fort Donelson|Donelson]] (February 11 to 16, 1862), earning him the nickname of "Unconditional Surrender" Grant, by which the Union seized control of the Tennessee and Cumberland Rivers.{{sfn|McPherson|1988|pp=405–13}} [[Nathan Bedford Forrest]] rallied nearly 4,000 Confederate troops and led them to escape across the Cumberland. [[Nashville, Tennessee|Nashville]] and central Tennessee thus fell to the Union, leading to attrition of local food supplies and livestock and a breakdown in social organization.{{citation needed|date=January 2022}}

[[Leonidas Polk]]'s invasion of [[Columbus, Kentucky|Columbus]] ended Kentucky's policy of neutrality and turned it against the Confederacy. Grant used river transport and [[Andrew H. Foote|Andrew Foote's]] gunboats of the Western Flotilla to threaten the Confederacy's "Gibraltar of the West" at Columbus, Kentucky. Although rebuffed at Belmont, Grant cut off Columbus. The Confederates, lacking their gunboats, were forced to retreat and the Union took control of western Kentucky and opened Tennessee in March 1862.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Whitsell |first1=Robert D. |year=1963 |title=Military and Naval Activity between Cairo and Columbus |journal=Register of the Kentucky Historical Society |volume=62 |issue=2 |pages=107–21}}</ref>

At the [[Battle of Shiloh]], in Shiloh, Tennessee in April 1862, the Confederates made a surprise attack that pushed Union forces against the river as night fell. Overnight, the Navy landed additional reinforcements, and Grant counter-attacked. Grant and the Union won a decisive victory—the first battle with the high casualty rates that would repeat over and over.{{sfn|Frank|Reaves|2003|p= 170}} The Confederates lost [[Albert Sidney Johnston]], considered their finest general before the emergence of Lee.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Death of Albert Sidney Johnston – Tour Stop #17 (U.S. National Park Service) |url=https://www.nps.gov/places/death-of-albert-sidney-johnston-tour-stop-17.htm |access-date=March 12, 2022 |website=www.nps.gov |language=en}}</ref>

[[File:Chickamauga.jpg|thumb|left|The [[Battle of Chickamauga]], the highest two-day losses]]

One of the early Union objectives in the war was the capture of the Mississippi River, to cut the Confederacy in half. The Mississippi River was opened to Union traffic to the southern border of Tennessee with the taking of [[Battle of Island Number Ten|Island No. 10]] and [[New Madrid, Missouri|New Madrid]], Missouri, and then [[Memphis, Tennessee]].{{sfn|McPherson|1988|pp=418–20}}

In April 1862, the Union Navy [[Capture of New Orleans|captured New Orleans]].{{sfn|McPherson|1988|pp=418–20}} "The key to the river was New Orleans, the South's largest port [and] greatest industrial center."<ref>Kennedy, p. 58.</ref> U.S. Naval forces under [[David Farragut|Farragut]] ran past Confederate defenses south of New Orleans. Confederate forces abandoned the city, giving the Union a critical anchor in the deep South.{{sfn|Symonds|Clipson|2001|p= 92}} which allowed Union forces to begin moving up the Mississippi. [[Battle of Memphis|Memphis fell to Union forces]] on June 6, 1862, and became a key base for further advances south along the Mississippi River. Only the fortress city of [[Vicksburg, Mississippi|Vicksburg]], Mississippi, prevented Union control of the entire river.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2013-01-31 |title=10 Facts: The Vicksburg Campaign |url=https://www.battlefields.org/learn/articles/10-facts-vicksburg-campaign |access-date=2022-09-13 |website=American Battlefield Trust |language=en-US}}</ref>

Bragg's second invasion of Kentucky in the [[Confederate Heartland Offensive]] included initial successes such as [[Edmund Kirby Smith|Kirby Smith]]'s triumph at the [[Battle of Richmond]] and the capture of the Kentucky capital of Frankfort on September 3, 1862.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Brown |first1=Kent Masterson |title=The Civil War in Kentucky: Battle for the Bluegrass State |page=95}}</ref> However, the campaign ended with a meaningless victory over Maj. Gen. [[Don Carlos Buell]] at the [[Battle of Perryville]]. Bragg was forced to end his attempt at invading Kentucky and retreat due to lack of logistical support and lack of infantry recruits for the Confederacy in that state.{{sfn|McPherson|1988|pp=419–20}}

Bragg was narrowly defeated by Maj. Gen. [[William Rosecrans]] at the [[Battle of Stones River]] in Tennessee, the culmination of the [[Stones River Campaign]].{{sfn|McPherson|1988|pp=480–83}}

Naval forces assisted Grant in the long, complex [[Vicksburg Campaign]] that resulted in the Confederates surrendering at the [[Siege of Vicksburg|Battle of Vicksburg]] in July 1863, which cemented Union control of the Mississippi River and is considered one of the turning points of the war.<ref>Ronald Scott Mangum, "The Vicksburg Campaign: A Study In Joint Operations", ''Parameters: U.S. Army War College'' (1991) 21#3, pp.&nbsp;74–86 [https://carlisle-www.army.mil/usawc/Parameters/Articles/1991/1991%20mangum.pdf online] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121127192600/https://carlisle-www.army.mil/usawc/Parameters/Articles/1991/1991%20mangum.pdf |date=November 27, 2012}}</ref>

The one clear Confederate victory in the West was the [[Battle of Chickamauga]]. After Rosecrans' successful [[Tullahoma Campaign]], Bragg, reinforced by Lt. Gen. James Longstreet's corps (from Lee's army in the east), defeated Rosecrans, despite the heroic defensive stand of Maj. Gen. [[George Henry Thomas]].{{citation needed|date=January 2022}}

Rosecrans retreated to [[Chattanooga, Tennessee|Chattanooga]], which Bragg then besieged in the [[Chattanooga Campaign]]. Grant marched to the relief of Rosecrans and defeated Bragg at the Third Battle of Chattanooga,{{sfn|McPherson|1988|pp=677–80}} eventually causing Longstreet to abandon his [[Knoxville Campaign]] and driving Confederate forces out of Tennessee and opening a route to Atlanta and the heart of the Confederacy.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.battlefields.org/learn/articles/shermans-march-sea|title=Sherman's March to the Sea|date=September 17, 2014|website=American Battlefield Trust}}</ref>

==Trans-Mississippi theater==
{{further|Trans-Mississippi Theater of the American Civil War}}

=== Background ===
The Trans-Mississippi theater refers to military operations west of the Mississippi River, encompassing most of Missouri, Arkansas, most of Louisiana, and Indian Territory (now Oklahoma). The Trans-Mississippi District was formed by the Confederate Army to better coordinate [[Ben McCulloch]]'s command of troops in Arkansas and Louisiana, [[Sterling Price]]'s [[Missouri State Guard]], as well as the portion of Earl Van Dorn's command that included the Indian Territory and excluded the Army of the West. The Union's command was the Trans-Mississippi Division, or the Military Division of West Mississippi.{{sfn|Jones|2011|p=1476}}

=== Battles ===
[[File:Wilson's Creek charge of 1st Iowa.jpg|thumb|[[Nathaniel Lyon]] secured St. Louis docks and arsenal, led Union forces to expel Missouri Confederate forces and government.{{sfn|Keegan|2009|p=100}}]]
The first battle of the Trans-Mississippi theater was the [[Battle of Wilson's Creek]] (August 1861). The Confederates were driven from Missouri early in the war as a result of the [[Battle of Pea Ridge]].{{sfn|McPherson|1988|pp=404–05}}

Extensive [[guerrilla warfare]] characterized the trans-Mississippi region, as the Confederacy lacked the troops and the logistics to support regular armies that could challenge Union control.<ref>James B. Martin, ''Third War: Irregular Warfare on the Western Border 1861–1865'' (Combat Studies Institute Leavenworth Paper series, number 23, 2012). See also, Michael Fellman, ''Inside War: The Guerrilla Conflict in Missouri during the Civil War'' (1989). Missouri alone was the scene of over 1,000 engagements between regular units, and uncounted numbers of guerrilla attacks and raids by informal pro-Confederate bands, especially in the recently settled western counties.</ref> Roving Confederate bands such as [[Quantrill's Raiders]] terrorized the countryside, striking both military installations and civilian settlements.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Bohl|first1=Sarah|year=2004|title=A War on Civilians: Order Number 11 and the Evacuation of Western Missouri|journal=Prologue|volume=36|issue=1|pages=44–51}}</ref> The "Sons of Liberty" and "Order of the American Knights" attacked pro-Union people, elected officeholders, and unarmed uniformed soldiers. These partisans could not be entirely driven out of the state of Missouri until an entire regular Union infantry division was engaged. By 1864, these violent activities harmed the nationwide anti-war movement organizing against the re-election of Lincoln. Missouri not only stayed in the Union, but Lincoln took 70 percent of the vote for re-election.{{sfn|Keegan|2009|p=270}}

Numerous small-scale military actions south and west of Missouri sought to control [[Indian Territory in the American Civil War|Indian Territory]] and [[New Mexico Territory in the American Civil War|New Mexico Territory]] for the Union. The [[Battle of Glorieta Pass]] was the decisive [[battle]] of the [[New Mexico Campaign]]. The Union repulsed Confederate incursions into New Mexico in 1862, and the exiled Arizona government withdrew into Texas. In the Indian Territory, civil war broke out within tribes. About 12,000 Indian warriors fought for the Confederacy and smaller numbers for the Union.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Graves|first1=William H.|year=1991|title=Indian Soldiers for the Gray Army: Confederate Recruitment in Indian Territory|journal=Chronicles of Oklahoma|volume=69|issue=2|pages=134–45}}</ref> The most prominent Cherokee was Brigadier General [[Stand Watie]], the last Confederate general to surrender.<ref name="StandWatie">{{cite journal |last1=Neet |first1=J. Frederick Jr. |year=1996 |title=Stand Watie: Confederate General in the Cherokee Nation |journal=Great Plains Journal |volume=6 |issue=1 |pages=36–51}}</ref>

After the fall of Vicksburg in July 1863, General Kirby Smith in Texas was informed by Jefferson Davis that he could expect no further help from east of the Mississippi River. Although he lacked resources to beat Union armies, he built up a formidable arsenal at Tyler, along with his own Kirby Smithdom economy, a virtual "independent fiefdom" in Texas, including railroad construction and international smuggling. The Union, in turn, did not directly engage him.{{sfn|Keegan|2009|pp=220–21}} Its 1864 [[Red River Campaign]] to take Shreveport, Louisiana, was a failure and Texas remained in Confederate hands throughout the war.<ref>Red River Campaign. Encyclopedia Britannica. [https://www.britannica.com/event/Red-River-Campaign online] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220327234657/https://www.britannica.com/event/Red-River-Campaign |date=March 27, 2022 }}.</ref>

== Lower Seaboard theater ==
{{further|Lower Seaboard Theater of the American Civil War}}

=== Background ===
The Lower Seaboard theater refers to military and naval operations that occurred near the coastal areas of the Southeast (Alabama, Florida, Louisiana, Mississippi, South Carolina, and Texas) as well as the southern part of the Mississippi River (Port Hudson and south). Union Naval activities were dictated by the Anaconda Plan.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Symonds |first=Craig L. |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/777948477 |title=The Civil War at sea |date=2012 |isbn=978-0-19-993168-2 |location=New York |pages=110 |oclc=777948477|publisher=Oxford University Press}}</ref>

=== Battles ===
[[File:New Orleans h76369k.jpg|thumb|left|[[Battle of Forts Jackson and St. Philip#Surrender of New Orleans and the forts|New Orleans captured]]]]

One of the earliest battles of the war was fought at [[Battle of Port Royal|Port Royal Sound]] (November 1861), south of Charleston. Much of the war along the South Carolina coast concentrated on capturing [[Charleston, South Carolina|Charleston]]. In attempting to capture Charleston, the Union military tried two approaches: by land over James or Morris Islands or through the harbor. However, the Confederates were able to drive back each Union attack. One of the most famous of the land attacks was the [[Second Battle of Fort Wagner]], in which the [[54th Massachusetts Volunteer Infantry|54th Massachusetts Infantry]] took part. The Union suffered a serious defeat in this battle, losing 1,515 soldiers while the Confederates lost only 174.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Second Battle of Fort Wagner {{!}} Summary {{!}} Britannica|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Second-Battle-of-Fort-Wagner|access-date=January 25, 2022|website=www.britannica.com|language=en}}</ref> However, the 54th was hailed for its valor in that battle, which encouraged the general acceptance of the recruitment of African American soldiers into the Union Army, which reinforced the Union's numerical advantage.

Fort Pulaski on the Georgia coast was an early target for the Union navy. Following the capture of Port Royal, an expedition was organized with engineer troops under the command of Captain [[Quincy Adams Gillmore|Quincy A. Gillmore]], forcing a Confederate surrender. The Union army occupied the fort for the rest of the war after repairing it.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Lattimore |first=Ralston B. |title=Battle for Fort Pulaski – Fort Pulaski National Monument (U.S. National Park Service) |url=https://www.nps.gov/fopu/learn/historyculture/battle-for-fort-pulaski.htm |access-date=2022-04-20 |website=www.nps.gov |language=en}}</ref>

In April 1862, a Union naval task force commanded by Commander [[David Dixon Porter|David D. Porter]] attacked [[Battle of Forts Jackson and St. Philip|Forts Jackson and St. Philip]], which guarded the river approach to [[New Orleans]] from the south. While part of the fleet bombarded the forts, other vessels forced a break in the obstructions in the river and enabled the rest of the fleet to steam upriver to the city. A Union army force commanded by Major General [[Benjamin Butler (politician)|Benjamin Butler]] landed near the forts and forced their surrender. Butler's controversial command of New Orleans earned him the nickname "Beast".<ref>{{cite book|last=Trefousse|first=Hans L.|author-link=Hans L. Trefousse|title=Ben Butler: The South Called Him Beast!|location=New York|publisher=Twayne|year=1957|oclc=371213}}</ref>

The following year, the Union [[Army of the Gulf]] commanded by Major General Nathaniel P. Banks laid [[Siege of Port Hudson|siege to Port Hudson]] for nearly eight weeks, the longest siege in US military history. The Confederates attempted to defend with the [[Bayou Teche Campaign]] but surrendered after Vicksburg. These two surrenders gave the Union control over the entire Mississippi.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Vicksburg |url=https://www.battlefields.org/learn/civil-war/battles/vicksburg |access-date=March 12, 2022 |website=American Battlefield Trust |language=en-US}}</ref>

Several small skirmishes were fought in Florida, but no major battles. The biggest was the [[Battle of Olustee]] in early 1864.{{citation needed|date=January 2022}}

==Pacific Coast theater==
{{further|Pacific Coast Theater of the American Civil War}}
The Pacific Coast theater refers to military operations on the Pacific Ocean and in the states and Territories west of the Continental Divide.<ref>{{Cite web |title=War in the West · Civil War · Digital Exhibits |url=http://digitalexhibits.wsulibs.wsu.edu/exhibits/show/civilwar/war-in-the-west/war-in-the-west |access-date=March 7, 2022 |website=digitalexhibits.wsulibs.wsu.edu}}</ref>

==Conquest of Virginia==
[[File:William-Tecumseh-Sherman.jpg|thumb|upright|[[William Tecumseh Sherman]]]]
At the beginning of 1864, Lincoln made Grant commander of all Union armies. Grant made his headquarters with the Army of the Potomac and put Maj. Gen. [[William Tecumseh Sherman]] in command of most of the western armies. Grant understood the concept of [[total war]] and believed, along with Lincoln and Sherman, that only the utter defeat of Confederate forces and their economic base would end the war.<ref name="history" /> This was total war not in killing civilians but rather in taking provisions and forage and destroying homes, farms, and railroads, that Grant said "would otherwise have gone to the support of secession and rebellion. This policy I believe exercised a material influence in hastening the end."<ref>{{cite book |author=U.S. Grant |title=Personal Memoirs of U.S. Grant; Selected Letters |year=1990 |publisher=Library of America |page=[https://archive.org/details/memoirsselectedl00gran_0/page/247 247] |isbn=978-0-940450-58-5 |url=https://archive.org/details/memoirsselectedl00gran_0/page/247}}</ref> Grant devised a coordinated strategy that would strike at the entire Confederacy from multiple directions. Generals Meade and [[Benjamin Butler]] were ordered to move against Lee near Richmond, General [[Franz Sigel]] (and later [[Philip Sheridan]]) were to [[Valley Campaigns of 1864|attack the Shenandoah Valley]], General Sherman was to capture Atlanta and march to the sea (the Atlantic Ocean), Generals [[George Crook]] and [[William W. Averell]] were to operate against railroad supply lines in West Virginia, and Maj. Gen. Nathaniel P. Banks was to capture [[Mobile, Alabama|Mobile]], Alabama.<ref>{{cite book|author=Ron Field|title=Petersburg 1864–65: The Longest Siege|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=kLf3Mua-IQwC|page=6}}|year=2013|publisher=Osprey Publishing|page=6|isbn=978-1-4728-0305-4}}{{Dead link|date=August 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>

=== Grant's Overland Campaign ===

Grant's army set out on the [[Overland Campaign]] intending to draw Lee into a defense of Richmond, where they would attempt to pin down and destroy the Confederate army. The Union army first attempted to maneuver past Lee and fought several battles, notably at the [[Battle of the Wilderness|Wilderness]], [[Battle of Spotsylvania Court House|Spotsylvania]], and [[Battle of Cold Harbor|Cold Harbor]]. These battles resulted in heavy losses on both sides and forced Lee's Confederates to fall back repeatedly.{{sfn|McPherson|1988|pp=724–35}} At the [[Battle of Yellow Tavern]], the Confederates lost Jeb Stuart.{{sfn|McPherson|1988|p=728}}

An attempt to outflank Lee from the south failed under Butler, who was trapped inside the [[Bermuda Hundred Campaign|Bermuda Hundred]] river bend. Each battle resulted in setbacks for the Union that mirrored those they had suffered under prior generals, though, unlike those prior generals, Grant chose to fight on rather than retreat. Grant was tenacious and kept pressing Lee's Army of Northern Virginia back to Richmond. While Lee was preparing for an attack on Richmond, Grant unexpectedly turned south to cross the James River and began the protracted [[Siege of Petersburg]], where the two armies engaged in [[trench warfare]] for over nine months.{{sfn|McPherson|1988|pp=724–42}}

=== Sheridan's Valley Campaign ===
[[File:Philip Sheridan 1-restored.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Philip Sheridan]]]]
Grant finally found a commander, General Philip Sheridan, aggressive enough to prevail in the Valley Campaigns of 1864. Sheridan was initially repelled at the [[Battle of New Market]] by former U.S. vice president and Confederate Gen. [[John C. Breckinridge]]. The Battle of New Market was the Confederacy's last major victory of the war and included a charge by teenage VMI cadets. After redoubling his efforts, Sheridan defeated Maj. Gen. [[Jubal Early|Jubal A. Early]] in a series of battles, including a final decisive defeat at the [[Battle of Cedar Creek]]. Sheridan then proceeded to destroy the agricultural base of the Shenandoah Valley, a strategy similar to the tactics Sherman later employed in Georgia.{{sfn|McPherson|1988|pp=778–79}}

=== Sherman's March to the Sea ===

Meanwhile, Sherman maneuvered from Chattanooga to Atlanta, defeating Confederate Generals Joseph E. Johnston and [[John Bell Hood]] along the way. The [[Battle of Atlanta|fall of Atlanta]] on September 2, 1864, guaranteed the reelection of Lincoln as president.{{sfn|McPherson|1988|pp=773–76}} Hood left the Atlanta area to swing around and menace Sherman's supply lines and invade Tennessee in the [[Franklin–Nashville Campaign]]. Union Maj. Gen. [[John Schofield]] defeated Hood at the [[Battle of Franklin (1864)|Battle of Franklin]], and George H. Thomas dealt Hood a massive defeat at the [[Battle of Nashville]], effectively destroying Hood's army.{{sfn|McPherson|1988|pp=812–15}}

Leaving Atlanta, and his base of supplies, Sherman's army marched, with no destination set, laying waste to about 20 percent of the farms in Georgia in his "[[Sherman's March to the Sea|March to the Sea]]". He reached the Atlantic Ocean at [[Savannah, Georgia|Savannah]], Georgia, in December 1864. Sherman's army was followed by thousands of freed slaves; there were no major battles along the march. Sherman turned north through South Carolina and North Carolina to approach the Confederate Virginia lines from the south, increasing the pressure on Lee's army.{{sfn|McPherson|1988|pp=825–30}}

=== The Waterloo of the Confederacy ===
Lee's army, thinned by desertion and casualties, was now much smaller than Grant's. One last Confederate attempt to break the Union hold on Petersburg failed at the decisive [[Battle of Five Forks]] (sometimes called "the Waterloo of the Confederacy") on April 1. This meant that the Union now controlled the entire perimeter surrounding Richmond-Petersburg, completely cutting it off from the Confederacy. Realizing that the capital was now lost, Lee's army and the Confederate government were forced to evacuate. The Confederate capital fell on April 2–3, to the [[XXV Corps (Union Army)|Union XXV Corps]], composed of black troops. The remaining Confederate units fled west after a defeat at [[Battle of Sayler's Creek|Sayler's Creek]] on April 6.{{sfn|McPherson|1988|pp=846–47}}

==End of the war==
{{Main|Conclusion of the American Civil War}}
{{multiple image
| align     = right
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| image1    = 18650410 Surrender of General Lee and His Whole Army - The New York Times.png
| alt1      =
| width1    =
| caption1  = This ''New York Times'' front page celebrated Lee's surrender, headlining how Grant let Confederate officers retain their sidearms and "paroled" the Confederate officers and men.<ref name=NYTimes_18650410>{{cite news |title=Union / Victory! / Peace! / Surrender of General Lee and His Whole Army. |url=https://newspaperarchive.com/new-york-times-apr-10-1865-p-1/ |work=The New York Times |date=April 10, 1865 |page=1 }}</ref>

| image2    = 18650416 Lee Has Surrendered to Grant - Savannah Daily Herald.png
| caption2  = News of Lee's April 9 surrender reached this southern newspaper (Savannah, Georgia) on April 15—after the April 14 shooting of President Lincoln.<ref name=SavannahDailyHerald_18650416/> The article quotes Grant's terms of surrender.<ref name=SavannahDailyHerald_18650416>{{cite news |title=Most Glorious News of the War / Lee Has Surrendered to Grant ! / All Lee's Officers and Men Are Paroled |url=https://newspaperarchive.com/savannah-daily-herald-apr-16-1865-p-1/ |work=Savannah Daily Herald |date=April 16, 1865 |location=Savannah, Georgia, U.S. |pages=1, 4}}</ref>
}}
Initially, Lee did not intend to surrender but planned to regroup at [[Appomattox Station]], where supplies were to be waiting and then continue the war. Grant chased Lee and got in front of him so that when Lee's army reached the [[Appomattox Court House National Historical Park|village of Appomattox Court House]], they were surrounded. After [[Battle of Appomattox Court House|an initial battle]], Lee decided that the fight was now hopeless, and surrendered his Army of Northern Virginia to Grant on April 9, 1865, during a conference at the [[McLean House (Appomattox, Virginia)|McLean House]]<ref>Simpson, Brooks D., ''Let Us Have Peace: Ulysses S. Grant and the Politics of War and Reconstruction, 1861–1868'', Chapel Hill and London: The University of North Carolina Press, 1991, p. 84.</ref><ref name="appomattox" /> In an untraditional gesture and as a sign of Grant's respect and anticipation of peacefully restoring Confederate states to the Union, Lee was permitted to keep his sword and his horse, [[Traveller (horse)|Traveller]]. His men were [[parole]]d, and a chain of Confederate surrenders began.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Winik|first=Jay|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/46543709|title=April 1865 : the month that saved America|date=2001|publisher=HarperCollins Publishers|isbn=0-06-018723-9|edition=|location=New York|pages=188–189|oclc=46543709}}</ref>

On April 14, 1865, President Lincoln [[Assassination of Abraham Lincoln|was shot]] by [[John Wilkes Booth]], a Confederate sympathizer. Lincoln died early the next morning. Lincoln's vice president, [[Andrew Johnson]], was unharmed, because his would-be assassin, [[George Atzerodt]], lost his nerve, so Johnson was immediately sworn in as president. Meanwhile, Confederate forces across the South surrendered as news of Lee's surrender reached them.<ref name="surrender" /> On April 26, 1865, the same day Sergeant [[Boston Corbett]] killed Booth at a tobacco barn, Johnston surrendered nearly 90,000 troops of the Army of Tennessee to Sherman at [[Bennett Place]] near present-day Durham, North Carolina. It proved to be the largest surrender of Confederate forces. On May 4, all remaining Confederate forces in Alabama, Louisiana east of the Mississippi River, and Mississippi under Lieutenant General [[Richard Taylor (Confederate general)|Richard Taylor]] surrendered.<ref>Long, p. 685.</ref>

Davis was captured at [[Irwinville, Georgia]] on May 10, 1865.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Arnold |first1=James R. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=35LvCgAAQBAJ&q=on+may+9+10+1865+president+johnson+declared+civil+war |title=Understanding U.S. Military Conflicts through Primary Sources [4 volumes] |last2=Wiener |first2=Roberta |publisher=ABC-CLIO |year=2016 |isbn=978-1-61069-934-1 |location=American Civil War |page=15 |language=en}}</ref>

On May 13, 1865, the last land battle of the war was fought at the [[Battle of Palmito Ranch]] in Texas.{{sfn|Long|1971|p=688}}<ref>{{Cite book |first = Mark L. |last = Bradley |url= https://history.army.mil/html/books/075/75-17/cmhPub_75-17.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://history.army.mil/html/books/075/75-17/cmhPub_75-17.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live|title = The Civil War Ends |date=2015 |page =68 |publisher =US Army, Center of Military History|access-date=26 May 2022}}</ref>{{sfn|Hunt|2015|p=5}}

On May 26, 1865, Confederate Lt. Gen. [[Simon Bolivar Buckner|Simon B. Buckner]], acting for Edmund Smith, signed a military convention surrendering the Confederate trans-Mississippi Department forces.{{sfn|Long|1971|p=690}}{{sfn|Dunkerly|2015|p=117}} This date is often cited by contemporaries and historians as the end date of the American Civil War.<ref name=End/><ref name=End2/> On June 2, 1865, with most of his troops having already gone home, technically deserted, a reluctant Kirby Smith had little choice but to sign the official surrender document.{{sfn|Long|1971|p=692}}<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.battlefields.org/learn/articles/ulysses-s-grant-myth-unconditional-surrender-begins-fort-donelson|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160207004144/http://www.civilwar.org/education/history/end-of-war/smith-surrenders.html|url-status=dead|title=Ulysses S. Grant: The Myth of 'Unconditional Surrender' Begins at Fort Donelson|date=April 17, 2009|archive-date=February 7, 2016|website=American Battlefield Trust}}</ref> On June 23, 1865, Cherokee leader and Confederate Brig. Gen. Stand Watie became the last Confederate general to surrender his forces.<ref>{{Cite book|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=fSqmnpHFEF0C|page=68}}|title=Ghost Towns of Oklahoma|last=Morris|first=John Wesley|date=1977|publisher=University of Oklahoma Press|isbn=978-0-8061-1420-0|language=en|page=68}}</ref><ref>"The 58-year-old Cherokee chieftain was the last Confederate general to lay down his arms. The last Confederate-affiliated tribe to surrender was the Chickasaw nation, which capitulated on 14 July." Bradley, 2015, p. 69.</ref>

On June 19, 1865, Union Maj. Gen. [[Gordon Granger]] announced [[General Order No. 3]], bringing the Emancipation Proclamation into effect in Texas and freeing the last slaves of the Confederacy.<ref>Conner, Robert C. ''General Gordon Granger: The Savior of Chickamauga and the Man Behind "Juneteenth"''. Havertown, PA: Casemate Publishers, 2013. {{ISBN|978-1-61200-186-9}}. p. 177.</ref> The anniversary of this date is now celebrated as [[Juneteenth]].<ref name="gates">{{cite web |last=Gates |first=Henry Louis Jr. |author-link=Henry Louis Gates Jr. |date=January 16, 2013 |title=What Is Juneteenth? |url=https://www.pbs.org/wnet/african-americans-many-rivers-to-cross/history/what-is-juneteenth/ |access-date=June 12, 2020 |publisher=[[PBS]]}}</ref>

The naval portion of the war ended more slowly. It had begun on April 11, 1865, two days after Lee's surrender, when President Lincoln proclaimed that foreign nations had no further "claim or pretense" to deny equality of maritime rights and hospitalities to U.S. warships and, in effect, that rights extended to Confederate ships to use neutral ports as safe havens from U.S. warships should end.<ref>Abraham Lincoln, Proclamation 128—Claiming Equality of Rights with All Maritime Nations. Dated April 11, 1865. Online by Gerhard Peters and John T. Woolley, The American Presidency Project [https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/node/202896] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221116151716/https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/proclamation-128-claiming-equality-rights-with-all-maritime-nations|date=November 16, 2022}}. University of California, Santa Barbara. Retrieved July 25, 2022. The proclamation did not use the term "belligerent rights."</ref>{{sfn|Neff|2010|p=205}} Having no response to Lincoln's proclamation, President Andrew Johnson issued a similar proclamation dated May 10, 1865, more directly stating the premise that the war was almost at an end ("armed resistance...may be regarded as virtually at an end") and that insurgent cruisers still at sea and prepared to attack U.S. ships should not have rights to do so through use of safe foreign ports or waters and warned nations which continued to do so that their government vessels would be denied access to U.S. ports. He also "enjoined" U.S. officers to arrest the cruisers and their crews so "that they may be prevented from committing further depredations on commerce and that the persons on board of them may no longer enjoy impunity for their crimes".<ref>Andrew Johnson, Proclamation 132—Ordering the Arrest of Insurgent Cruisers. Dated May 10, 1865. Online by Gerhard Peters and John T. Woolley, The American Presidency Project [https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/node/203414] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221116151715/https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/proclamation-132-ordering-the-arrest-insurgent-cruisers|date=November 16, 2022}}. University of California, Santa Barbara. Retrieved July 25, 2022. The proclamation did not use the term "belligerent rights".</ref> Britain finally responded on June 6, 1865, by transmitting a June 2, 1865 letter from Foreign Secretary [[John Russell, 1st Earl Russell]] to the Lords of the [[Admiralty (United Kingdom)|Admiralty]] withdrawing rights to Confederate warships to enter British ports and waters but with exceptions for a limited time to allow a captain to enter a port to "divest his vessel of her warlike character" and for U.S. ships to be detained in British ports or waters to allow Confederate cruisers twenty-four hours to leave first.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Withdrawal of Belligerent Rights by Great Britain |journal=[[Armed Forces Journal|Army and Navy Journal]] |volume=2 |issue=44 |page=695 |url= https://archive.org/details/sim_armed-forces-journal_1865-06-24_2_44 |date=June 24, 1865 |location=New York |publisher=American News Company |access-date=July 25, 2022}}</ref> U.S. Secretary of State Seward welcomed the withdrawal of concessions to the Confederates but objected to the exceptions.<ref>{{cite journal |title=England and the Termination of the Rebellion |journal=[[Armed Forces Journal|Army and Navy Journal]] |volume=2 |issue=48 |page=763 |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_armed-forces-journal_1865-07-22_2_48 |date=July 22, 1865 |location=New York |publisher=American News Company |access-date=July 25, 2022}}</ref> Finally, on October 18, 1865, Russell advised the Admiralty that the time specified in his June 2, 1865 message had elapsed and "all measures of a restrictive nature on vessels of war of the United States in British ports, harbors, and waters, are now to be considered as at an end".<ref>{{cite journal|title=Withdrawal of British Restrictions Upon American Naval Vessels |journal=[[Armed Forces Journal|Army and Navy Journal]] |volume=3 |issue=11 |page=172 | url=https://archive.org/details/sim_armed-forces-journal_1865-11-04_3_11 |date=November 4, 1865 |location=New York |publisher=American News Company |access-date=July 25, 2022 }}</ref> Nonetheless, the final Confederate surrender was in Liverpool, England where [[James Iredell Waddell]], the captain of CSS ''Shenandoah'', surrendered the cruiser to British authorities on November 6, 1865.<ref name="heidler703">Heidler, pp. 703–706.</ref>

Legally, the war did not end until August 20, 1866, when President Johnson issued a proclamation that declared "that the said insurrection is at an end and that peace, order, tranquillity, and civil authority now exist in and throughout the whole of the United States of America".<ref name="murray">{{cite book |last1=Murray |first1=Robert B. |title=The End of the Rebellion |date=Autumn 1967 |publisher=The North Carolina Historical Review |page=336 |url=https://archive.org/details/northcarolinahis1967nort/page/336/mode/1up |access-date=6 May 2022}}</ref>{{sfn|Neff|2010|p=207}}<ref>{{cite book|last=Trudeau |first=Noah Andre |author-link=Noah Andre Trudeau |title=Out of the Storm: The End of the Civil War, April–June 1865 |page=396 |year=1994 |publisher=Little, Brown and Company |location=Boston |isbn=978-0-316-85328-6}} In ''United States v. Anderson'', 76 U.S. 56 (1869), "The U.S. attorneys argued that the Rebellion had been suppressed following the surrender of the Trans-Mississippi Department, as established in the surrender document negotiated on May 26, 1865." p. 396. The Supreme Court decided that the "legal end of the American Civil War had been decided by Congress to be August 20, 1866—the date of Andrew Johnson's final proclamation on the conclusion of the Rebellion." p. 397.</ref>

==Union victory and aftermath==

[[File:Civil war 1861-1865.png|thumb|left|upright=1.35|Map of Confederate territory losses year by year|alt=A map of the U.S. South showing shrinking territory under rebel control]]
The [[Origins of the American Civil War|causes of the war]], the reasons for its outcome, and even [[Naming the American Civil War|the name of the war itself]] are subjects of lingering contention today. The North and West grew rich while the once-rich South became poor for a century. The national political power of the slaveowners and rich Southerners ended. Historians are less sure about the results of the postwar Reconstruction, especially regarding the second-class citizenship of the freedmen and their poverty.{{sfn|McPherson|1988|p=851}}

Historians have debated whether the Confederacy could have won the war. Most scholars, including [[James M. McPherson]], argue that Confederate victory was at least possible.{{sfn|McPherson|1988|p=855}} McPherson argues that the North's advantage in population and resources made Northern victory likely but not guaranteed. He also argues that if the Confederacy had fought using unconventional tactics, it would have more easily been able to hold out long enough to exhaust the Union.<ref name="confederacy" />

Confederates did not need to invade and hold enemy territory to win but only needed to fight a defensive war to convince the North that the cost of winning was too high. The North needed to conquer and hold vast stretches of enemy territory and defeat Confederate armies to win.<ref name="confederacy" /> Lincoln was not a military dictator and could continue to fight the war only as long as the American public supported a continuation of the war. The Confederacy sought to win independence by outlasting Lincoln; however, after Atlanta fell and Lincoln defeated McClellan in the election of 1864, all hope for a political victory for the South ended. At that point, Lincoln had secured the support of the Republicans, War Democrats, the border states, emancipated slaves, and the neutrality of Britain and France. By defeating the Democrats and McClellan, he also defeated the [[Copperheads (politics)|Copperheads]], who had wanted a negotiated peace with the Confederate States of America.{{sfn|McPherson|1988|pp=771–772}}

{| class="wikitable floatright"
|+ Comparison of Union and Confederacy, 1860–1864<ref name="census74" />
!
! scope="col" | Year
! scope="col" | Union
! scope="col" | Confederacy
|-
|rowspan="2"|'''Population'''
|1860
| 22,100,000 (71%)
| 9,100,000 (29%)
|-
|1864
| 28,800,000 (90%){{refn|name=UnionPop|group=lower-alpha|"Union population 1864" aggregates 1860 population, average annual immigration 1855–1864, and population governed formerly by CSA per Kenneth Martis source. Contrabands and after the Emancipation Proclamation freedmen, migrating into Union control on the coasts and to the advancing armies, and natural increase are excluded.}}
| 3,000,000 (10%)<ref>{{cite book|last=Martis|first=Kenneth C. |title=The Historical Atlas of the Congresses of the Confederate States of America: 1861–1865 |publisher=Simon & Schuster |year=1994 |isbn=978-0-13-389115-7 |page= 27}} At the beginning of 1865, the Confederacy controlled one third of its congressional districts, which were apportioned by population. The major slave populations found in Louisiana, Mississippi, Tennessee, and Alabama were effectively under Union control by the end of 1864.</ref>
|-
| '''Free'''
|1860
| 21,700,000 (98%)
| 5,600,000 (62%)
|-
|rowspan="2"| '''Slave'''
|1860
| 490,000 (2%)
| 3,550,000 (38%)
|-
|1864
| ''negligible''
| 1,900,000{{refn|name=CSASlaves|group=lower-alpha|"Slave 1864, CSA" aggregates 1860 slave census of Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia and Texas. It omits losses from contraband and after the Emancipation Proclamation, freedmen migrating to the Union controlled coastal ports and those joining advancing Union armies, especially in the Mississippi Valley.}}
|-
| '''Soldiers'''
| 1860–64
| 2,100,000 (67%)
| 1,064,000 (33%)
|-
|rowspan="2"| '''Railroad miles'''
|1860
| 21,800 (71%)
| 8,800 (29%)
|-
|1864
| 29,100 (98%)<ref>Digital History Reader, [http://www.dhr.history.vt.edu/modules/us/mod05_industry/images/railroad_construction.jpg U.S. Railroad Construction, 1860–1880] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160611102443/http://www.dhr.history.vt.edu/modules/us/mod05_industry/images/railroad_construction.jpg |date=June 11, 2016 }} Virginia Tech, Retrieved August 21, 2012. "Total Union railroad miles" aggregates existing track reported 1860 @ 21800 plus new construction 1860–1864 @ 5000, plus southern railroads administered by USMRR @ 2300.</ref>
| ''negligible''
|-
|rowspan="2"| '''Manufactures'''
|1860
| 90%
| 10%
|-
|1864
| 98%
| 2%
|-
|rowspan="2"| '''Arms production'''
|1860
| 97%
| 3%
|-
|1864
| 98%
| 2%
|-
|rowspan="2"| '''Cotton bales'''
|1860
| ''negligible''
| 4,500,000
|-
|1864
| 300,000
| ''negligible''
|-
|rowspan="2"| '''Exports'''
|1860
| 30%
| 70%
|-
|1864
| 98%
| 2%
|}
Some scholars argue that the Union held an insurmountable long-term advantage over the Confederacy in industrial strength and population. Confederate actions, they argue, only delayed defeat.{{sfn|Murray|Bernstein|Knox|1996|p=235}}{{sfn|Heidler|Heidler|Coles|2002|pp=1207–10}} Civil War historian [[Shelby Foote]] expressed this view succinctly: {{blockquote|I think that the North fought that war with one hand behind its back&nbsp;.... If there had been more Southern victories, and a lot more, the North simply would have brought that other hand out from behind its back. I don't think the South ever had a chance to win that War.{{sfn|Ward|1990|p=272}}}}

A minority view among historians is that the Confederacy lost because, as [[E. Merton Coulter]] put it, "people did not will hard enough and long enough to win."<ref>E. Merton Coulter, ''The Confederate States of America, 1861–1865'' (1950), p. 566.</ref><ref>Richard E. Beringer, Herman Hattaway, Archer Jones and William N. Still Jr, ''Why the South Lost the Civil War'' (1991), ch 1.</ref> However, most historians reject the argument.<ref>see Alan Farmer, [http://www.historytoday.com/alan-farmer/why-was-confederacy-defeated ''History Review'' (2005)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140323165319/http://www.historytoday.com/alan-farmer/why-was-confederacy-defeated |date=March 23, 2014 }}, No. 52: 15–20.</ref> McPherson, after reading thousands of letters written by Confederate soldiers, found strong patriotism that continued to the end; they truly believed they were fighting for freedom and liberty. Even as the Confederacy was visibly collapsing in 1864–65, he says most Confederate soldiers were fighting hard.{{sfn|McPherson|1997|pp=169–72}} Historian [[Gary Gallagher]] cites General Sherman, who in early 1864 commented, "The devils seem to have a determination that cannot but be admired." Despite their loss of slaves and wealth, with starvation looming, Sherman continued, "yet I see no sign of let-up—some few deserters—plenty tired of war, but the masses determined to fight it out."{{sfn|Gallagher|1999|p=57}}

Also important were Lincoln's eloquence in rationalizing the national purpose and his skill in keeping the border states committed to the Union cause. The Emancipation Proclamation was an effective use of the President's war powers.<ref name="WarLeader" /> The Confederate government failed in its attempt to get Europe involved in the war militarily, particularly [[Great Britain]] and [[France]]. Southern leaders needed to get European powers to help break up the blockade the Union had created around the Southern ports and cities. Lincoln's naval blockade was 95% effective at stopping trade goods; as a result, imports and exports to the South declined significantly. The abundance of European cotton and Britain's hostility to the institution of slavery, along with Lincoln's Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico naval blockades, severely decreased any chance that either Britain or France would enter the war.{{sfn|McPherson|1988|pp=382–88}}

Historian Don Doyle has argued that the Union victory had a major impact on the course of world history.<ref>Don H. Doyle, ''The Cause of All Nations: An International History of the American Civil War'', New York: Basic Books (2015).</ref> The Union victory energized popular democratic forces. A Confederate victory, on the other hand, would have meant a new birth of slavery, not freedom. Historian Fergus Bordewich, following Doyle, argues that:

{{blockquote|The North's victory decisively proved the durability of democratic government. Confederate independence, on the other hand, would have established an American model for reactionary politics and race-based repression that would likely have cast an international shadow into the twentieth century and perhaps beyond."<ref>Fergus M. Bordewich, [https://www.wsj.com/articles/book-review-the-cause-of-all-nations-by-don-h-doyle-1423260658 "The World Was Watching: America's Civil War slowly came to be seen as part of a global struggle against oppressive privilege"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170221081620/https://www.wsj.com/articles/book-review-the-cause-of-all-nations-by-don-h-doyle-1423260658 |date=February 21, 2017 }}, ''Wall Street Journal'' (February 7–8, 2015).</ref>}}Scholars have debated what the effects of the war were on political and economic power in the South.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last1=Dupont|first1=Brandon|last2=Rosenbloom|first2=Joshua L.|title=The Economic Origins of the Postwar Southern Elite|journal=Explorations in Economic History|volume=68|pages=119–31|doi=10.1016/j.eeh.2017.09.002|year=2018|url=https://lib.dr.iastate.edu/econ_las_pubs/644}}</ref> The prevailing view is that the southern planter elite retained its powerful position in the South.<ref name=":0" /> However, a 2017 study challenges this, noting that while some Southern elites retained their economic status, the turmoil of the 1860s created greater opportunities for economic mobility in the South than in the North.<ref name=":0" />

== Casualties ==
{{multiple image
| align             = right
| image1            = Alfred A. Stratton.jpg
| width1            = 110
| alt1              =
| caption1          = One in thirteen veterans were amputees.
| image2            = Cold Harbor, Va. African Americans collecting bones.jpg
| width2            = 153
| alt2              =
| caption2          = Remains of both sides were reinterred.
| image3            = Andersonville National Cemetery.jpg
| width3            = 192
| alt3              =
| caption3          = [[Andersonville Prison#Andersonville National Cemetery|Andersonville National Cemetery]], Georgia
| footer            =
}}

The war resulted in at least 1,030,000 casualties (3 percent of the population), including about 620,000 soldier deaths—two-thirds by disease—and 50,000 civilians.<ref name="StatsWarCost" /> Binghamton University historian J. David Hacker believes the number of soldier deaths was approximately 750,000, 20 percent higher than traditionally estimated, and possibly as high as 850,000.<ref name="hacker">{{cite web |url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2011/09/110921120124.htm |title=U.S. Civil War Took Bigger Toll Than Previously Estimated, New Analysis Suggests |date=September 22, 2011 |website=Science Daily |access-date=September 22, 2011}}</ref><ref name="recounting" /> A novel way of calculating casualties by looking at the deviation of the death rate of men of fighting age from the norm through analysis of census data found that at least 627,000 and at most 888,000 people, but most likely 761,000 people, died in the war.{{sfn|Hacker|2011|pp=307–48}} As historian McPherson notes, the war's "cost in American lives was as great as in all of the nation's other wars combined through [[Vietnam War|Vietnam]]."{{Sfn|McPherson|1988|p=854}}

Based on 1860 census figures, 8 percent of all white men aged 13 to 43 died in the war, including 6 percent in the North and 18 percent in the South.{{sfn|Vinovskis|1990|p=7}}<ref name="slate" /> About 56,000 soldiers [[American Civil War prison camps|died in prison camps]] during the War.<ref name="nationalgeographic" /> An estimated 60,000 soldiers lost limbs in the war.<ref name="NYT TR">{{cite web|last=Riordan|first=Teresa|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2004/03/08/business/technology-when-necessity-meets-ingenuity-art-of-restoring-what-s-missing.html|title=When Necessity Meets Ingenuity: Art of Restoring What's Missing|website=The New York Times|agency=[[Associated Press]]|date=March 8, 2004|access-date=December 23, 2013}}</ref>

Of the 359,528 Union Army dead, amounting to 15 percent of the over two million who served:<ref name="civilwarhome.com" />
* 110,070 were killed in action (67,000) or died of wounds (43,000).
* 199,790 died of disease (75 percent was due to the war, the remainder would have occurred in civilian life anyway)
* 24,866 died in Confederate prison camps
* 9,058 were killed by accidents or drowning
* 15,741 other/unknown deaths

In addition, there were 4,523 deaths in the Navy (2,112 in battle) and 460 in the Marines (148 in battle).<ref name="Official DOD data" />

After the Emancipation Proclamation authorized freed slaves to "be received into the armed service of the United States", former slaves who escaped from plantations or were liberated by the Union Army were recruited into the [[United States Colored Troops]] regiments of the Union Army, as were black men who had not been slaves. The U.S. Colored Troops made up 10 percent of the Union death toll—15 percent of Union deaths from disease and less than 3 percent of those killed in battle.<ref name="civilwarhome.com" /> Losses among [[African American]]s were high. In the last year and a half and from all reported casualties, approximately 20 percent of all African Americans enrolled in the military died during the Civil War. Notably, their mortality rate was significantly higher than that of white soldiers. While 15.2% of United States Volunteers and just 8.6% of white Regular Army troops died, 20.5% of [[United States Colored Troops]] died.<ref name=Aptheker>Herbert Aptheker, "Negro Casualties in the Civil War", ''The Journal of Negro History'', Vol. 32, No. 1. (January 1947).</ref>{{Rp|16}}

The United States National Park Service uses the following figures in its official tally of war losses:<ref name="nps.gov" />

===Union===
{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders"
|+ Casualties
|-
! scope="col" | Category
! scope="col" | Number
|-
! scope="row" | Killed in action
| 110,100
|-
! scope="row" | Disease
| 224,580 
|-
! scope="row" | Wounded in action
| 275,154 
|-
! scope="row" | Captured
| 211,411 (including 30,192 who died as POWs)
|-
! scope="row" | '''Total'''
| 853,838
|}

===Confederate===
{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders"
|+ Casualties
|-
! scope="col" | Category
! scope="col" | Number
|-
! scope="row" | Killed in action
| 94,000
|-
! scope="row" | Disease
| 164,000
|-
! scope="row" | Wounded in action
| 275,154 
|-
! scope="row" | Captured
| 194,026 (including 31,000 who died as POWs)
|-
! scope="row" | '''Total'''
| 914,660
|}

[[File:Burial of the dead on the Antietam battlefield army.mil-2008-09-10-145638.jpg|thumb|left|An illustration of the war dead following the [[Battle of Antietam]] battlefield in  1862]]

While the figures of 360,000 army deaths for the Union and 260,000 for the Confederacy remained commonly cited, they are incomplete. In addition to many Confederate records being missing, partly as a result of Confederate widows not reporting deaths due to being ineligible for benefits, both armies only counted troops who died during their service and not the tens of thousands who died of wounds or diseases after being discharged. This often happened only a few days or weeks later. [[Francis Amasa Walker]], superintendent of the 1870 census, used census and surgeon general data to estimate a minimum of 500,000 Union military deaths and 350,000 Confederate military deaths, for a total death toll of 850,000 soldiers. While Walker's estimates were originally dismissed because of the 1870 census's undercounting, it was later found that the census was only off by 6.5% and that the data Walker used would be roughly accurate.<ref name="recounting"/>

Analyzing the number of dead by using census data to calculate the deviation of the death rate of men of fighting age from the norm suggests that at least 627,000 and at most 888,000, but most likely 761,000 soldiers, died in the war.{{sfn|Hacker|2011|pp=307–48}} This would break down to approximately 350,000 Confederate and 411,000 Union military deaths, going by the proportion of Union to Confederate battle losses.{{citation needed|date=January 2022}}

Deaths among former slaves has proven much harder to estimate, due to the lack of reliable census data at the time, though they were known to be considerable, as former slaves were set free or escaped in massive numbers in areas where the Union army did not have sufficient shelter, doctors, or food for them. University of Connecticut Professor [[Jim Downs]] states that tens of thousands to hundreds of thousands of slaves died during the war from disease, starvation, or exposure, and that if these deaths are counted in the war's total, the death toll would exceed 1&nbsp;million.<ref>Jim Downs, ''Sick from Freedom: African-American Illness and Suffering during the Civil War and Reconstruction'', Oxford University Press, 2012.</ref>

It is estimated that during the Civil War, of the [[Equus (genus)|equines]] killed, including [[Horse|horses]], [[Mule|mules]], [[Donkey|donkeys]] and even confiscated children's [[Pony|ponies]], over 32,600 of them belonged to the Union Army and 45,800 the Confederacy. However, there are other estimates that place the total equine loss at 1,000,000.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2013-06-25 |title=The Battle of Gettysburg & the History of the Civil War Horse |url=https://thehorsemenscorral.com/2013/06/25/the-battle-of-gettysburg-the-history-of-the-cival-war-horse/ |access-date=2024-01-02 |language=en-US}}</ref>

It is estimated that 544 [[Flags of the Confederate States of America|Confederate flags]] were captured during the Civil War by the Union. The flags were sent to the [[United States Department of War|War Department]] in Washington.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Southern Historical Society Papers, Volume 32., Confederate States' flags. |url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:2001.05.0290:chapter=1.37 |access-date=2024-01-09 |website=www.perseus.tufts.edu}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Returned Flags Booklet, 1905 {{!}} A State Divided |url=https://www.pbslearningmedia.org/resource/ket-history-civilwar58/returned-flags-booklet/ |access-date=2024-01-09 |website=PBS LearningMedia |language=en}}</ref> The Union flags captured by the Confederates were sent to Richmond.

Losses were far higher than during the recent war with Mexico, which saw roughly thirteen thousand American deaths, including fewer than two thousand killed in battle, between 1846 and 1848. One reason for the high number of battle deaths during the war was the continued use of tactics similar to those of the [[Napoleonic Wars]] at the turn of the century, such as [[charge (warfare)|charging]]. With the advent of more accurate rifled barrels, [[Minié ball]]s, and (near the end of the war for the [[Union army]]) repeating firearms such as the [[Spencer repeating rifle]] and the [[Henry rifle|Henry repeating rifle]], soldiers were mowed down when standing in lines in the open. This led to the adoption of trench warfare, a style of fighting that defined much of [[World War I]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://ospreypublishing.com/american-civil-war-fortifications-2|title=American Civil War Fortifications (2)|website=United States}}</ref>

== Emancipation ==
[[File:Abolition of slavery in the United States SVG map.svg|thumb|upright=1.3|Abolition of slavery in the various states of the United States over time:{{Legend|#84c6c9|Abolition of slavery during or shortly after the American Revolution}}
{{Legend|#7be3de|The Northwest Ordinance, 1787}}
{{Legend|#64e5c5|Gradual emancipation in New York (starting 1799, completed 1827) and New Jersey (starting 1804, completed by Thirteenth Amendment, 1865)}}
{{Legend|#7ab377|The Missouri Compromise, 1821}}
{{Legend|#5f9b4a|Effective abolition of slavery by Mexican or joint US/British authority}}
{{Legend|#97cf2d|Abolition of slavery by Congressional action, 1861}}
{{Legend|#c7dd47|Abolition of slavery by Congressional action, 1862}}
{{Legend|#ffe86d|Emancipation Proclamation as originally issued, January 1, 1863}}
{{Legend|#f1c84e|Subsequent operation of the Emancipation Proclamation in 1863}}
{{Legend|#d39c59|Abolition of slavery by state action during the Civil War}}
{{Legend|#f7b360|Operation of the Emancipation Proclamation in 1864}}
{{Legend|#f6a89a|Operation of the Emancipation Proclamation in 1865}}
{{Legend|#d3595f|Thirteenth Amendment to the US constitution, December 18, 1865}}
{{Legend|#bca4b1|Territory incorporated into the US after the passage of the Thirteenth Amendment}}]]
Abolishing slavery was not a Union war goal from the outset, but it quickly became one.{{Sfn|McPherson|1988|pp=vii–viii}} Lincoln's initial claims were that preserving the Union was the central goal of the war.{{sfn|Foner|2010|p=74}} In contrast, the South saw itself as fighting to preserve slavery.{{Sfn|McPherson|1988|pp=vii–viii}} While not all Southerners saw themselves as fighting for slavery, most of the officers and over a third of the rank and file in Lee's army had close family ties to slavery. To Northerners, in contrast, the motivation was primarily to preserve the Union, not to abolish slavery.{{sfn|Foner|1981|p=?}} However, as the war dragged on, and it became clear that slavery was central to the conflict, and that emancipation was (to quote from the Emancipation Proclamation) "a fit and necessary war measure for suppressing [the] rebellion," Lincoln and his cabinet made ending slavery a war goal, culminating in the Emancipation Proclamation.{{Sfn|McPherson|1988|pp=vii–viii}}<ref name=":2" /> Lincoln's decision to issue the Emancipation Proclamation angered both [[Peace Democrats]] ("Copperheads") and [[War Democrats]], but energized most Republicans.<ref name=":2">McPherson, pp.&nbsp;506–08.</ref> By warning that free blacks would flood the North, Democrats made gains in the [[1862 congressional elections|1862 elections]], but they did not gain control of Congress. The Republicans' counterargument that slavery was the mainstay of the enemy steadily gained support, with the Democrats losing decisively in the 1863 elections in the Northern state of Ohio when they tried to resurrect anti-black sentiment.<ref>McPherson, p.&nbsp;686.</ref>

=== Emancipation Proclamation ===
{{Main|Emancipation Proclamation}}
Slavery for the Confederacy's 3.5&nbsp;million blacks effectively ended in each area when Union armies arrived; they were nearly all freed by the Emancipation Proclamation. The last Confederate slaves were freed on June 19, 1865, celebrated as the modern holiday of Juneteenth. Slaves in the border states and those located in some former Confederate territory occupied before the Emancipation Proclamation were freed by state action or (on December 6, 1865) by the [[Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution|Thirteenth Amendment]].<ref>{{Cite web|last=Cathey|first=Libby|date=June 17, 2021|title=Biden signs bill making Juneteenth, marking the end of slavery, a federal holiday|url=https://abcnews.go.com/Politics/biden-sign-bill-making-juneteenth-federal-holiday-commemorating/story?id=78335485|access-date=June 17, 2021|publisher=[[ABC News]]}}</ref><ref>[[Claudia Goldin]], "The economics of emancipation." ''The Journal of Economic History'' 33#1 (1973): 66–85.</ref> The Emancipation Proclamation enabled African Americans, both free blacks and escaped slaves, to join the Union Army. About 190,000 volunteered, further enhancing the numerical advantage the Union armies enjoyed over the Confederates, who did not dare emulate the equivalent manpower source for fear of fundamentally undermining the legitimacy of slavery.{{refn|name=SlavesinConfedArmy|group=lower-alpha|In spite of the South's shortage of soldiers, most Southern leaders—until 1865—opposed enlisting slaves. They used them as laborers to support the war effort. As [[Howell Cobb]] said, "If slaves will make good soldiers our whole theory of slavery is wrong." Confederate generals [[Patrick Cleburne]] and [[Robert E. Lee]] argued in favor of arming blacks late in the war, and [[Jefferson Davis]] was eventually persuaded to support plans for arming slaves to avoid military defeat. The Confederacy surrendered at [[Appomattox, Virginia|Appomattox]] before this plan could be implemented.{{sfn|McPherson|1988|pp=831–37}}}}

During the Civil War, sentiment concerning slaves, enslavement, and emancipation in the United States was divided. Lincoln's fears of making slavery a war issue were based on a harsh reality: abolition did not enjoy wide support in the west, the territories, and the border states.{{Sfn|Donald|1995|pp=417–19}}<ref name=":4" /> In 1861, Lincoln worried that premature attempts at emancipation would mean the loss of the border states, and that "to lose Kentucky is nearly the same as to lose the whole game."<ref name=":4">Lincoln's letter to O. H. Browning, September 22, 1861. Sentiment among [[German Americans]] was largely antislavery especially among [[Forty-Eighters]], resulting in hundreds of thousands of German Americans volunteering to fight for the Union."{{cite book |last=Wittke |first=Carl |year=1952 |title=Refugees of Revolution |location=Philadelphia |publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press |isbn=978-1-5128-0874-2}}" Christian B. Keller, "Flying Dutchmen and Drunken Irishmen: The Myths and Realities of Ethnic Civil War Soldiers", ''Journal of Military History'', Vol. 73, No. 1, January 2009, pp. 117–145; for primary sources, see Walter D. Kamphoefner and Wolfgang Helbich, eds., ''Germans in the Civil War: The Letters They Wrote Home'' (2006). "On the other hand, many of the recent immigrants in the North viewed freed slaves as competition for scarce jobs, and as the reason why the Civil War was being fought." Baker, Kevin (March 2003). [https://web.archive.org/web/20101019000238/http://americanheritage.com/articles/magazine/ah/2003/1/2003_1_17.shtml "Violent City"], ''[[American Heritage (magazine)|American Heritage]]''. Retrieved July 29, 2010. "Due in large part to this fierce competition with free blacks for labor opportunities, the poor and working class [[Irish American|Irish Catholics]] generally opposed emancipation. When the draft began in the summer of 1863, they launched [[New York Draft Riots|a major riot in New York City]] that was suppressed by the military, as well as much smaller protests in other cities." Barnet Schecter, ''The Devil's Own Work: The Civil War Draft Riots and the Fight to Reconstruct America'' (2007), ch. 6. Many Catholics in the North had volunteered to fight in 1861, sending thousands of soldiers to the front and suffering high casualties, especially at [[Battle of Fredericksburg|Fredericksburg]]; their volunteering fell off after 1862.</ref> Copperheads and some War Democrats opposed emancipation, although the latter eventually accepted it as part of the total war needed to save the Union.<ref>Baker, Kevin (March 2003). [https://web.archive.org/web/20101019000238/http://americanheritage.com/articles/magazine/ah/2003/1/2003_1_17.shtml "Violent City"], ''[[American Heritage (magazine)|American Heritage]]''. Retrieved July 29, 2010.</ref>

At first, Lincoln reversed attempts at emancipation by Secretary of War [[Simon Cameron]] and Generals Frémont (in Missouri) and [[David Hunter]] (in South Carolina, Georgia, and Florida) to keep the loyalty of the border states and the War Democrats. Lincoln warned the border states that a more radical type of emancipation would happen if his plan of gradual compensated emancipation and [[back-to-Africa movement|voluntary colonization]] was rejected.<ref>McPherson, James M., "Lincoln and the Strategy of Unconditional Surrender", in [[Gabor Boritt|Boritt, Gabor S.]], ed., ''Lincoln, the War President'', pp. 52–54; also in McPherson, James M., ''Abraham Lincoln and the Second American Revolution'', pp. 83–85.</ref> But compensated emancipation occurred only in the District of Columbia, where Congress had the power to enact it. When Lincoln told his cabinet about his proposed emancipation proclamation, which would apply to the states still in rebellion on January 1, 1863, Seward advised Lincoln to wait for a Union military victory before issuing it, as to do otherwise would seem like "our last shriek on the retreat".<ref>[[Stephen B. Oates|Oates, Stephen B.]], ''Abraham Lincoln: The Man Behind the Myths'', p.&nbsp;106.</ref> Walter Stahr, however, writes, "There are contemporary sources, however, that suggest others were involved in the decision to delay", and Stahr quotes them.<ref>Stahr, Walter, ''Stanton: Lincoln's War Secretary'', New York: Simon & Schuster, 2017, p. 226.</ref>

{{multiple image
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| caption1 = [[Contraband (American Civil War)|Contrabands]], who were fugitive slaves, including cooks, laundresses, laborers, teamsters, railroad repair crews, fled to the [[Union Army]], but were not legally freed until the [[Emancipation Proclamation]], which Lincoln signed on January 1, 1863, more than two years before the end of the Civil War.
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Lincoln laid the groundwork for public support in an open letter published in response to [[Horace Greeley]]'s "The Prayer of Twenty Millions".<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bartleby.com/400/prose/1279.html|title=Horace Greeley (1811–1872). "The Prayer of Twenty Millions". Stedman and Hutchinson, eds. 1891. A Library of American Literature: An Anthology in 11 Volumes|website=www.bartleby.com|date=June 14, 2022 }}</ref><ref>Lincoln's letter was published first in the ''Washington National Intelligencer'' on August 23, 1862. [[Harold Holzer|Holzer, Harold]], ''Lincoln and the Power of the Press: The War for Public Opinion'', New York: Simon & Schuster, 2014, p. 401.</ref><ref><!-- Lincoln (1862-08-23) A LETTER FROM PRESIDENT LINCOLN.; Reply to Horace Greeley. Slavery and the Union The Restoration of the Union the Paramount Object.-->{{cite Q|Q116965145}}</ref> He also laid the groundwork at a meeting at the White House with five African American representatives on August 14, 1862. Arranging for a reporter to be present, he urged his visitors to agree to the voluntary colonization of black people, apparently to make his forthcoming preliminary Emancipation Proclamation more palatable to racist [[white people]].<ref>White, Jonathan W., ''A House Built by Slaves: African American Visitors to the Lincoln White House'', Lanham, Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield, 2022, ch. 3.</ref> A Union victory in the Battle of Antietam on September 17, 1862, provided Lincoln with an opportunity to issue the preliminary Emancipation Proclamation, and the subsequent [[War Governors' Conference]] added support for the proclamation.<ref>Pulling, Sr. Anne Frances, ''Altoona: Images of America'', Arcadia Publishing, 2001, 10.</ref>

Lincoln issued his preliminary Emancipation Proclamation on September 22, 1862. It stated that the slaves in all states in rebellion on January 1, 1863, would be free. He issued his final Emancipation Proclamation on January 1, 1863, keeping his promise. In his letter to Albert G. Hodges, Lincoln explained his belief that "If slavery is not wrong, nothing is wrong&nbsp;.... And yet I have never understood that the Presidency conferred upon me an unrestricted right to act officially upon this judgment and feeling&nbsp;.... I claim not to have controlled events, but confess plainly that events have controlled me."<ref>Lincoln's Letter to A. G. Hodges, April 4, 1864.</ref>{{efn|In late March 1864 Lincoln met with [[Thomas E. Bramlette|Governor Bramlette]], Archibald Dixon, and Albert G. Hodges, to discuss recruitment of African American soldiers in the state of Kentucky. In a letter dated April 4, 1864, Lincoln summarized his stance on slavery, at Hodges' request.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Lincoln Lore – Albert G. Hodges |url=https://apps.legislature.ky.gov/LegislativeMoments/moments08RS/49_web_leg_moments.htm |access-date=January 20, 2022 |website=apps.legislature.ky.gov}}</ref>}}

Lincoln's moderate approach succeeded in inducing the border states to remain in the Union and War Democrats to support the Union. The border states, which included Kentucky, Missouri, Maryland, Delaware, and Union-controlled regions around New Orleans, [[Norfolk, Virginia]], and elsewhere, were not covered by the Emancipation Proclamation. Nor was Tennessee, which had come under Union control.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nps.gov/anjo/learn/historyculture/johnson-and-tn-emancipation.htm|title=Andrew Johnson and Emancipation in Tennessee – Andrew Johnson National Historic Site (U.S. National Park Service)|website=www.nps.gov}}</ref> Missouri and Maryland abolished slavery on their own; Kentucky and Delaware did not.<ref>{{cite web|last=Harper|first=Douglas|title=Slavery in Delaware |url=http://www.slavenorth.com/delaware.htm|year=2003|access-date=October 16, 2007| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20071016062740/http://slavenorth.com/delaware.htm| archive-date= October 16, 2007| url-status=live}}</ref> Still, the proclamation did not enjoy universal support. It caused much unrest in what were then considered western states, where racist sentiments led to a great fear of abolition. There was some concern that the proclamation would lead to the secession of western states, and its issuance prompted the stationing of Union troops in Illinois in case of rebellion.{{Sfn|Donald|1995|pp=417–419}}

Since the Emancipation Proclamation was based on the President's war powers, it applied only in territory held by Confederates at the time it was issued. However, the Proclamation became a symbol of the Union's growing commitment to add emancipation to the Union's definition of liberty.<ref>[[James M. McPherson|McPherson, James]], "A War that Never Goes Away", [https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/50084714 ''American Heritage'', Vol. 41, no. 2 (Mar 1990).] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220218030817/https://www.worldcat.org/title/war-that-never-goes-away/oclc/50084714 |date=February 18, 2022 }}</ref> The Emancipation Proclamation greatly reduced the Confederacy's hope of being recognized or otherwise aided by Britain or France.{{sfn|Asante|Mazama|2004|p=82}} By late 1864, Lincoln was playing a leading role in getting the House of Representatives to vote for the Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution, which mandated the ending of chattel slavery.{{sfn|Holzer|Gabbard|2007|pp=172–74}}

== Reconstruction ==
{{Main|Reconstruction era}}
[[File:Freedmen richmond sewing women.jpg|thumb|Through the supervision of the [[Freedmen's Bureau]], Northern teachers traveled into the South to provide education and training for the newly freed population.]]

The war devastated the South and posed serious questions of how the South would be reintegrated into the Union. The war destroyed much of the wealth that had existed in the South, in part because wealth held in enslaved people (valued at a minimum of $1,000 each for a healthy adult prior to the war) was wiped off the books.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Rhodes-Pitts |first=Sharifa |date=2014-10-09 |title=The Worth of Black Men, From Slavery to Ferguson |language=en-US |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2014/10/12/magazine/the-worth-of-black-men-from-slavery-to-ferguson.html |access-date=2023-12-25 |issn=0362-4331}}</ref> All accumulated investment in Confederate bonds was forfeited; most banks and railroads were bankrupt. The income per capita in the South dropped to less than 40 percent of that of the North, an economic condition that lasted into the 20th century. Southern influence in the [[Federal government of the United States|federal government]], previously considerable, was greatly diminished until the latter half of the 20th century.<ref name="economist" /> Reconstruction began during the war, with the Emancipation Proclamation of January 1, 1863, and it continued until 1877.<ref>[[Hans L. Trefousse]], ''Historical Dictionary of Reconstruction'' (Greenwood, 1991) covers all the main events and leaders.</ref> It comprised multiple complex methods to resolve the outstanding issues of the war's aftermath, the most important of which were the three "[[Reconstruction Amendments]]" to the Constitution: the 13th outlawing slavery (1865), the 14th guaranteeing citizenship to former slaves (1868), and the 15th ensuring voting rights to former male slaves (1870). From the Union perspective, the goals of Reconstruction were to consolidate the Union victory on the battlefield by reuniting the Union, to guarantee a "republican form of government" for the ex-Confederate states, and to permanently end slavery—and prevent semi-slavery status.<ref>Eric Foner's ''A Short History of Reconstruction'' (1990) is a brief survey.</ref>

President Johnson, who took office on April 15, 1865, took a lenient approach and saw the achievement of the main war goals as realized in 1865 when each ex-rebel state repudiated secession and ratified the [[Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution|Thirteenth Amendment]]. [[Radical Republicans]] demanded proof that Confederate nationalism was dead and that the slaves were truly free. They [[Freedmen's Bureau bills|overrode Johnson's vetoes]] of [[Civil Rights Act of 1866|civil rights legislation]], and the House [[Impeachment of Andrew Johnson|impeached]] him, although the Senate did not convict him. In 1868 and 1872, the Republican candidate Grant won the presidency. In 1872, the [[Liberal Republican Party (United States)|"Liberal Republicans"]] argued that the war goals had been achieved and that Reconstruction should end. They chose [[Horace Greeley 1872 presidential campaign|Horace Greeley]] to head a presidential ticket in 1872 but were decisively defeated. In 1874, Democrats, primarily Southern, took control of Congress and opposed further reconstruction. The [[Compromise of 1877]] closed with a national consensus, except perhaps on the part of former slaves, that the Civil War had finally ended.<ref>[[C. Vann Woodward]], ''Reunion and Reaction: The Compromise of 1877 and the End of Reconstruction'' (2nd ed. 1991).</ref> With the withdrawal of federal troops, however, whites retook control of every Southern legislature, and the Jim Crow era of [[Disfranchisement after the Reconstruction era|disenfranchisement]] and legal segregation was ushered in.<ref>{{cite book|first1=Susan Millar|last1=Williams|first2=Stephen G.|last2=Hoffius|title=Upheaval in Charleston: Earthquake and Murder on the Eve of Jim Crow|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt46nc9q|publisher=University of Georgia Press|date=2011|jstor=j.ctt46nc9q |isbn=978-0-8203-3715-9|via=JSTOR}}</ref>

The Civil War had a demonstrable impact on American politics in the years to come. Many veterans on both sides were subsequently elected to political office, including five U.S. Presidents: General Ulysses Grant, [[Rutherford B. Hayes]], [[James Garfield]], [[Benjamin Harrison]], and [[William McKinley]].<ref>{{Cite web | url=https://www.essentialcivilwarcurriculum.com/presidents-who-were-civil-war-veterans.html | title=Presidents Who Were Civil War Veterans |website=Essential Civil War Curriculum}}</ref>

==Memory and historiography==
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The Civil War is one of the central events in American collective memory. There are innumerable statues, commemorations, books, and archival collections. The memory includes the home front, military affairs, the treatment of soldiers, both living and dead, in the war's aftermath, depictions of the war in literature and art, evaluations of heroes and villains, and considerations of the moral and political lessons of the war.<ref name="controversy" /> The last theme includes moral evaluations of [[racism]] and slavery, heroism in combat and heroism behind the lines, and issues of democracy and minority rights, as well as the notion of an "[[Empire of Liberty]]" influencing the world.<ref name="american83" />

Professional historians have paid much more attention to the causes of the war than to the war itself. Military history has largely developed outside academia, leading to a proliferation of studies by non-scholars who nevertheless are familiar with the primary sources and pay close attention to battles and campaigns and who write for the general public. [[Bruce Catton]] and Shelby Foote are among the best known.{{sfn|Woodworth|1996|p=208}}<ref>{{cite book|last=Cushman|first=Stephen|title=Belligerent Muse: Five Northern Writers and How They Shaped Our Understanding of the Civil War|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=95l6BAAAQBAJ|page=5}}|year=2014|pages=5–6|publisher=UNC Press Books |isbn=978-1-4696-1878-4}}</ref> Practically every major figure in the war, both North and South, has had a serious biographical study.<ref>Charles F. Ritter and Jon L. Wakelyn, eds., ''Leaders of the American Civil War: A Biographical and Historiographical Dictionary'' (1998). Provides short biographies and historiographical summaries.</ref>

Even the name used for the conflict has been controversial, with many [[Names of the American Civil War|names for the American Civil War]]. During and immediately after the war, Northern historians often used a term like "War of the Rebellion".  Writers in rebel states often referred to the "War for Southern Independence".  More recently, some Southerners have described it as the "War of Northern Aggression".<ref><!-- Harvard Guide to American History-->{{cite Q|Q118746838|pages = 385–98}}</ref>

===Lost Cause===
{{main|Lost Cause of the Confederacy}}
The memory of the war in the white South crystallized in the myth of the "Lost Cause": that the Confederate cause was just and heroic. The myth shaped regional identity and race relations for generations.<ref name="confederacy84" /> [[Alan T. Nolan]] notes that the Lost Cause was expressly a rationalization, a cover-up to vindicate the name and fame of those in rebellion. Some claims revolve around the insignificance of slavery as a cause of the war; some appeals highlight cultural differences between North and South; the military conflict by Confederate actors is idealized; in any case, secession was said to be lawful.<ref>Nolan, Alan T., in Gallagher, Gary W., and Alan T. Nolan, ''The Myth of the Lost Cause and Civil War History'' (2000), pp. 14–19.</ref> Nolan argues that the adoption of the Lost Cause perspective facilitated the reunification of the North and the South while excusing the [[Nadir of American race relations|"virulent racism" of the 19th century]], sacrificing black American progress to white man's reunification. He also deems the Lost Cause "a caricature of the truth. This caricature wholly misrepresents and distorts the facts of the matter" in every instance.<ref>Nolan, ''The Myth of the Lost Cause'', pp. 28–29.</ref> The Lost Cause myth was formalized by Charles A. Beard and Mary R. Beard, whose ''The Rise of American Civilization'' (1927) spawned "Beardian historiography". The Beards downplayed slavery, abolitionism, and issues of morality. Though this interpretation was abandoned by the Beards in the 1940s, and by historians generally by the 1950s, Beardian themes still echo among Lost Cause writers.<ref>Charles A. Beard and Mary R. Beard, ''The Rise of American Civilization'' (1927), 2:54.</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Richard Hofstadter|title=Progressive Historians|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=iLdMzbv2IDQC|page=459}}|orig-year=1968|year=2012|publisher=Knopf Doubleday|page=304|isbn=978-0-307-80960-5}}</ref>{{additional citation needed|reason=Pinning the "formalization" of the Lost Cause myth on the Beards is a very bold claim; at best, other sources state that their orthogonal economic perspective served as an element for others to synthesize.|date=July 2023}}

===Battlefield preservation===
{{Main|American Civil War battlefield preservation}}
[[File:Civil War centennial issues.jpg|thumb|Beginning in 1961, the [[United States Postal Service|U.S. Post Office]] released [[commemorative stamp]]s for five famous battles, each issued on the 100th anniversary of the respective battle.]]
The first efforts at Civil War battlefield preservation and memorialization came during the war itself with the establishment of National Cemeteries at Gettysburg, Mill Springs and Chattanooga. Soldiers began erecting markers on battlefields beginning with the First Battle of Bull Run in July 1861. The oldest surviving monument is the [[Hazen Brigade Monument]] near [[Murfreesboro, Tennessee|Murfreesboro]] in [[Central Tennessee]], built in the summer of 1863 by soldiers in Union Col. [[William Babcock Hazen|William B. Hazen's]] brigade to mark the spot where they buried their dead following the Battle of Stones River.<ref>[https://www.murfreesboropost.com/community/hazen-s-monument-a-rare-historic-treasure/article_0498c498-c95b-5569-8d8a-ce0830be17d7.html] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181118185935/https://www.murfreesboropost.com/community/hazen-s-monument-a-rare-historic-treasure/article_0498c498-c95b-5569-8d8a-ce0830be17d7.html|date=November 18, 2018}} Murfreesboro Post, April 27, 2007, "Hazen's Monument a rare, historic treasure." Accessed May 30, 2018.</ref> 

In the 1890s, the U.S. government established five Civil War battlefield parks under the jurisdiction of the War Department, beginning with the creation of the [[Chickamauga and Chattanooga National Military Park]] at [[Fort Oglethorpe, Georgia]], and the [[Antietam National Battlefield]] in Sharpsburg, Maryland, in 1890. The [[Shiloh National Military Park]] was established in 1894 in [[Shiloh, Hardin County, Tennessee|Shiloh, Tennessee]], followed by the [[Gettysburg National Military Park]] in [[Gettysburg, Pennsylvania]] in 1895, and [[Vicksburg National Military Park]] in Vicksburg, Mississippi, in 1899. 

In 1933, these five parks and other national monuments were transferred to the jurisdiction of the National Park Service.<ref>Timothy B. Smith, "The Golden Age of Battlefield Preservation" (2008; The University of Tennessee Press).</ref> Chief among modern efforts to preserve Civil War sites has been the [[American Battlefield Trust]], with more than 130 battlefields in 24 states.<ref>Bob Zeller, "Fighting the Second Civil War: A History of Battlefield Preservation and the Emergence of the Civil War Trust", (2017: Knox Press)</ref><ref>[https://www.battlefields.org/preserve/saved-land] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190812162007/https://www.battlefields.org/preserve/saved-land|date=August 12, 2019}} [[American Battlefield Trust]] "Saved Land" page. Accessed May 30, 2018.</ref> The five major Civil War battlefield parks operated by the National Park Service (Gettysburg, Antietam, Shiloh, Chickamauga/Chattanooga and Vicksburg) had a combined 3.1&nbsp;million visitors in 2018, down 70% from 10.2&nbsp;million in 1970.<ref>Cameron McWhirter, "Civil War Battlefields Lose Ground as Tourist Draws" [https://www.wsj.com/articles/civil-war-battlefields-lose-ground-as-tourist-draws-11558776600?mod=searchresults&page=1&pos=2 ''The Wall Street Journal'' May 25, 2019] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191010233320/https://www.wsj.com/articles/civil-war-battlefields-lose-ground-as-tourist-draws-11558776600?mod=searchresults&page=1&pos=2 |date=October 10, 2019 }}</ref>

===Civil War commemoration===
{{Further|Commemoration of the American Civil War|Commemoration of the American Civil War on postage stamps}}{{multiple image
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The American Civil War has been commemorated in many capacities, ranging from the reenactment of battles to statues and memorial halls erected, to films being produced, to stamps and coins with Civil War themes being issued, all of which helped to shape public memory. These commemorations occurred in greater numbers on the 100th and 150th anniversaries of the war.<ref name="gallagher" />
[[Cinema of the United States|Hollywood]]'s take on the war has been especially influential in shaping public memory, as in such film classics as ''[[The Birth of a Nation]]'' (1915), ''[[Gone with the Wind (film)|Gone with the Wind]]'' (1939), and ''[[Lincoln (film)|Lincoln]]'' (2012). [[Ken Burns]]'s [[PBS]] television series ''[[The Civil War (TV series)|The Civil War]]'' (1990) is especially well-remembered, though criticized for its historical inaccuracy.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Debate over Ken Burns Civil War doc continues over decades {{!}} The Spokesman-Review|url=https://www.spokesman.com/stories/2017/nov/04/debate-over-ken-burns-civil-war-doc-continues-over/|website=spokesman.com|access-date=May 4, 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Why We Need a New Civil War Documentary|url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/why-we-need-new-civil-war-documentary-180971996/|last=Merritt|first=Keri Leigh|website=Smithsonian Magazine|language=en|access-date=May 4, 2020}}</ref>

===Technological significance===
Numerous technological innovations during the Civil War had a great impact on 19th-century science. The Civil War was one of the earliest examples of an "[[Industrial warfare|industrial war]]", in which technological might is used to achieve military supremacy in a war.<ref>Bailey, Thomas and David Kennedy: ''The American Pageant'', p. 434. 1987</ref> New inventions, such as the [[Military railways|train]] and [[Telegraphy|telegraph]], delivered soldiers, supplies and messages at a time when horses were considered to be the fastest way to travel.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Dome |first=Steam |year=1974 |title=A Civil War Iron Clad Car |journal=Railroad History |volume=130 |issue=Spring 1974 |pages=51–53 |publisher=The Railway & Locomotive Historical Society}}</ref><ref>William Rattle Plum, ''The Military Telegraph During the Civil War in the United States'', ed. Christopher H. Sterling(New York: Arno Press, 1974) vol. 1:63.</ref> It was also in this war that aerial warfare, in the form of reconnaissance [[History of aerial warfare#American Civil War|balloons]], was first used.<ref>{{Cite book|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=YSSPAgAAQBAJ|page=6}}|pages=6, 24|title=Air Power in the Age of Total War|last=Buckley|first=John|year=2006|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-135-36275-1|language=en}}</ref> It saw the first action involving steam-powered [[ironclad warships]] in naval warfare history.<ref>Sondhaus, ''Naval Warfare 1815–1914'' p. 77.</ref> [[Repeating rifle|Repeating firearms]] such as the Henry rifle, Spencer rifle, [[Colt revolving rifle]], [[Triplett & Scott carbine]] and others, first appeared during the Civil War; they were a revolutionary invention that would soon replace [[Muzzleloader|muzzle-loading]] and [[single-shot]] firearms in warfare. The war also saw the first appearances of rapid-firing weapons and [[machine gun]]s such as the [[Agar gun]] and the [[Gatling gun]].<ref>{{cite book|url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=A7O0FYunvPwC|page=75}}|title=The American Civil War|last=Keegan|first=John|date= 2009|publisher=Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group|isbn=978-0-307-27314-7|language=en|page=75|ref=none}}</ref>

==In works of culture and art==
[[File:The_Forlorn_Hope—the_ship_Secession_is_on_the_breakers,_the_Chicago_wreckers_rushing_to_the_rescue_(Theodore_Jones,_Harper's_Weekly,_October_29,_1864).jpg|thumb|[[Woodblock printing|Woodblock etching]] (note the faint lines where smaller blocks meet to form the larger image) depicting a foundering Confederacy and the upcoming [[1864 United States presidential election|1864 U.S. presidential election]]    ("The Forlorn Hope—the ship ''Secession'' is on the breakers, the Chicago wreckers rushing to the rescue" by Theodore Jones, ''[[Harper's Weekly]]'', October 29, 1864)]]
The Civil War is one of the most studied events in American history, and the collection of cultural works around it is enormous.<ref name=":1">{{cite book|last=Hutchison|first=Coleman|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=ovYTCwAAQBAJ|page=278}}|title=A History of American Civil War Literature|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2015|isbn=978-1-316-43241-9}}</ref> This section gives an abbreviated overview of the most notable works.

===Literature===
* ''[[When Lilacs Last in the Dooryard Bloom'd]]'' and ''[[O Captain! My Captain!]]'' (1865) by [[Walt Whitman]], famous eulogies to Lincoln
* ''[[Battle-Pieces and Aspects of the War]]'' (1866) poetry by [[Herman Melville]]
* ''[[The Rise and Fall of the Confederate Government]]'' (1881) by [[Jefferson Davis]]
* ''[[The Private History of a Campaign That Failed]]'' (1885) by [[Mark Twain]]
* ''[[Texar's Revenge, or, North Against South]]'' (1887) by [[Jules Verne]]
* ''[[An Occurrence at Owl Creek Bridge]]'' (1890) by [[Ambrose Bierce]]
* ''[[The Red Badge of Courage]]'' (1895) by [[Stephen Crane]]
* ''The Challenge to Sirius'' (1917) by [[Sheila Kaye-Smith]]
* ''[[Gone with the Wind (novel)|Gone with the Wind]]'' (1936) by [[Margaret Mitchell]]
* ''[[North and South (trilogy)|North and South]]'' (1982) by [[John Jakes]]
* ''[[The March (novel)|The March: A Novel]]'' (2005) by [[E. L. Doctorow]], fictionalized account of [[Sherman's March to the Sea]]

===Film===
{{colbegin}}
* ''[[The Birth of a Nation]]'' (1915, US)
* ''[[The General (1926 film)|The General]]'' (1926, US)
* ''[[Operator 13]]'' (1934, US)
* ''[[Gone with the Wind (film)|Gone with the Wind]]'' (1939, US)
* ''[[The Red Badge of Courage (1951 film)|The Red Badge of Courage]]'' (1951, US)
* ''[[The Horse Soldiers]]'' (1959, US)
* ''[[Shenandoah (film)|Shenandoah]]'' (1965, US)
* ''[[The Good, the Bad and the Ugly]]'' (1966, Italy-Spain-FRG)
* ''[[The Beguiled (1971 film)|The Beguiled]]'' (1971, US)
* ''[[The Outlaw Josey Wales]]'' (1976, US)
* ''[[Glory (1989 film)|Glory]]'' (1989, US)
* ''[[The Civil War (miniseries)|The Civil War]]'' (1990, US)
* ''[[Gettysburg (1993 film)|Gettysburg]]'' (1993, US)
* ''[[The Last Outlaw (1993 film)|The Last Outlaw]]'' (1993, US)
* ''[[Cold Mountain (film)|Cold Mountain]]'' (2003, US)
* ''[[Gods and Generals (film)|Gods and Generals]]'' (2003, US)
* ''[[North and South (miniseries)|North and South]]'' (miniseries)
* ''[[Lincoln (film)|Lincoln]]'' (2012, US)
* ''[[Free State of Jones (film)|Free State of Jones]]'' (2016, US)
{{colend}}

===Music===
{{See also|Music of the American Civil War}}
* "[[Dixie (song)|Dixie]]"
* "[[Battle Cry of Freedom]]"
* "[[Battle Hymn of the Republic]]"
* "[[The Bonnie Blue Flag]]"
* "[[John Brown's Body]]"
* "[[When Johnny Comes Marching Home]]"
* "[[Marching Through Georgia]]"
* "[[The Night They Drove Old Dixie Down]]"

===Video games===
{{colbegin}}
* ''[[North & South (video game)|North & South]]'' (1989, FR)
* ''[[Sid Meier's Gettysburg!]]'' (1997, US)
* ''[[Sid Meier's Antietam!]]'' (1999, US)
* ''[[American Conquest#American Conquest: Divided Nation|American Conqest: Divided Nation]]'' (2006, US)
* ''[[Forge of Freedom: The American Civil War]]'' (2006, US)
* ''[[The History Channel: Civil War – A Nation Divided]]'' (2006, US)
* ''[[Ageod's American Civil War]]'' (2007, US/FR)
* ''[[History Civil War: Secret Missions]]'' (2008, US)
* ''[[Call of Juarez: Bound in Blood]]'' (2009, US)
* ''[[Darkest of Days]]'' (2009, US)
* ''[[Victoria II: A House Divided]]'' (2011, US)
* ''[[Ageod's American Civil War II]]'' (2013, US/FR)
* ''[[Ultimate General#Ultimate General: Gettysburg|Ultimate General: Gettysburg]]'' (2014, UKR)
* ''[[Ultimate General#Ultimate General: Civil War|Ultimate General: Civil War]]'' (2016, UKR)
* ''[[War of Rights]]'' (2018, US)
{{colend}}
{{clear}}

==See also==
{{col-begin}}
{{col-2}}

===General reference===
* [[American Civil War Corps Badges]]
* [[List of costliest American Civil War land battles]]
* [[List of weapons in the American Civil War]]

===Union===
* [[Presidency of Abraham Lincoln]]
* [[Uniforms of the Union Army]]

===Confederacy===
* [[Central Confederacy]]
* [[Uniforms of the Confederate States Armed Forces]]

===Ethnic articles===
* [[Military history of African Americans in the American Civil War|African Americans in the American Civil War]]
* [[German Americans in the American Civil War]]
* [[Irish Americans in the American Civil War]]
* [[Italian Americans in the Civil War|Italian Americans in the American Civil War]]
* [[Native Americans in the American Civil War (disambiguation)|Native Americans in the American Civil War]]

===Topical articles===
* [[Commemoration of the American Civil War]]
* [[Commemoration of the American Civil War on postage stamps]]
* [[Dorothea Dix]]
* [[Education of freed people during the Civil War]]
* {{Section link|History of espionage|American Civil War 1861–1865}}
** [[American Civil War spies|Spies in the American Civil War]]
* [[Gender issues in the American Civil War]]
* [[Infantry in the American Civil War]]
* {{section link|List of ships captured in the 19th century|American Civil War}}
* [[Slavery during the American Civil War]]
{{col-break}}

===National articles===
* [[Canada in the American Civil War]]
* [[Foreign enlistment in the American Civil War]]
* [[Prussia and the American Civil War|Prussia in the American Civil War]]
* [[United Kingdom and the American Civil War|United Kingdom in the American Civil War]]

===State articles===
* [[:Category:American Civil War by state]]
* [[:Category:Populated places destroyed during the American Civil War]]

===Memorials===
* [[List of Confederate monuments and memorials]]
* [[List of memorials and monuments at Arlington National Cemetery]]
* [[List of memorials to Jefferson Davis]]
* [[List of memorials to Robert E. Lee]]
* [[List of memorials to Stonewall Jackson]]
* [[List of monuments erected by the United Daughters of the Confederacy]]
* [[List of monuments of the Gettysburg Battlefield]]
* [[List of Union Civil War monuments and memorials]]
* [[Memorials to Abraham Lincoln]]
* [[Removal of Confederate monuments and memorials]]

===Other civil wars in modern history===
{{Main|List of civil wars}}
* [[Boxer Rebellion]]
* [[Chinese Civil War]]
* [[Finnish Civil War]]
* [[Mexican Revolution]]
* [[Russian Civil War]]
* [[Spanish Civil War]]
* [[Taiping Rebellion]]
{{col-end}}

==Notes==
{{reflist|30em|group=lower-alpha}}

==References==
{{reflist|22em|refs=
<!--<ref name="Civil War Refugees">{{cite web |url=http://digital.library.okstate.edu/encyclopedia/entries/C/CI013.html| title=Civil War Refugees|publisher=Oklahoma Historical Society, [[Oklahoma State University]] |access-date=August 10, 2008}}</ref>-->

<ref name="Forrest McDonald 2002">Forrest McDonald, ''States' Rights and the Union: Imperium in Imperio, 1776–1876'' (2002).</ref>

<!--ref name="Lincoln's Call for Troops">{{cite web |url=http://www.civilwarhome.com/lincolntroops.htm |title=Lincoln's Call for Troops}}</ref-->

<!--ref name="Lincoln's Call to Arms">{{cite web|last=Bornstein |first=David |url=http://opinionator.blogs.nytimes.com/2011/04/14/lincoln-declares-war/ |title=Lincoln's Call to Arms |work=[[The New York Times]] |date=April 14, 2011 |access-date=August 11, 2011}}</ref-->

<ref name="Proclamation 83 – Increasing the Size of the Army and Navy">{{cite web|url=http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=70123 |title=Abraham Lincoln: Proclamation 83 – Increasing the Size of the Army and Navy |publisher=Presidency.ucsb.edu |access-date=November 3, 2011}}</ref>

<ref name="StatsWarCost">{{cite web|last=Nofi|first=Al|author-link=Albert Nofi|title=Statistics on the War's Costs|publisher=Louisiana State University|date=June 13, 2001|url=http://www.cwc.lsu.edu/other/stats/warcost.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070711050249/http://www.cwc.lsu.edu/other/stats/warcost.htm|archive-date=July 11, 2007|access-date=October 14, 2007}}</ref>

<!--<ref name="United States Volunteers – Indian Troops">{{cite web |date=January 28, 2008 |url=http://www.civilwararchive.com/Unreghst/unindtr.htm |title=United States Volunteers – Indian Troops |work=civilwararchive.com |access-date=August 10, 2008}}</ref>-->

<ref name="WarLeader">{{cite journal|last=Fehrenbacher|first=Don|title=Lincoln's Wartime Leadership: The First Hundred Days|journal=Journal of the Abraham Lincoln Association|volume=9|issue=1|url=http://quod.lib.umich.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=jala;view=text;rgn=main;idno=2629860.0009.103|year=2004|publisher=University of Illinois|access-date=October 16, 2007}}</ref>

<ref name="american83">[[David W. Blight]], ''Race and Reunion: The Civil War in American Memory'' (2001).</ref>

<ref name="appomattox">William Marvel, ''Lee's Last Retreat: The Flight to Appomattox'' (2002), pp. 158–181.</ref>

<ref name="approaching">[[Stephen B. Oates]], ''The Approaching Fury: Voices of the Storm 1820–1861'', p.&nbsp;125.</ref>

<ref name="census74">Railroad length is from: [[Chauncey Depew]] (ed.), ''One Hundred Years of American Commerce 1795–1895'', p.&nbsp;111; For other data see: [http://www2.census.gov/prod2/decennial/documents/1860c-01.pdf 1860 U.S. Census] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170817153653/https://www2.census.gov/prod2/decennial/documents/1860c-01.pdf |date=August 17, 2017 }} and Carter, Susan B., ed. ''The Historical Statistics of the United States: Millennial Edition'' (5 vols), 2006.</ref>

<ref name="charleston">Snell, Mark A., ''West Virginia and the Civil War'', History Press, Charleston, SC, 2011, p. 28.</ref>

<ref name="confederacy">[[Gabor S. Boritt]], ed., ''Why the Confederacy Lost''.</ref>

<ref name="confederacy84">Gaines M. Foster (1988), ''Ghosts of the Confederacy: Defeat, the Lost Cause and the Emergence of the New South, 1865–1913''.</ref>

<!--ref name="confederate36">Mark A. Weitz (2005), ''More Damning than Slaughter: Desertion in the Confederate Army''.</ref-->

<ref name="controversy">[[Joan Waugh]] and [[Gary W. Gallagher]], eds. (2009), ''Wars within a War: Controversy and Conflict over the American Civil War'' (University of North Carolina Press).</ref>

<ref name="copperhead">Curry, Richard Orr (1964), ''A House Divided: A Study of the Statehood Politics and the Copperhead Movement in West Virginia'', University of Pittsburgh Press, map on p. 49.</ref>

<!--<ref name="counterpoint">C. Vann Woodward (1971), ''American Counterpoint: Slavery and Racism in the North-South Dialogue'', p. 281.</ref>-->

<!--ref name="desertion">Ella Lonn, ''Desertion During the Civil War'' (1928), pp.&nbsp;205–06.</ref-->

<ref name="desertion37">Robert Fantina, ''Desertion and the American Soldier, 1776–2006'' (2006), p.&nbsp;74.</ref>

<ref name="economist">''[[The Economist]]'', "[http://www.economist.com/node/18486035?story_id=18486035 The Civil War: Finally Passing] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110420045142/http://www.economist.com/node/18486035?story_id=18486035 |date=April 20, 2011 }}", April 2, 2011, pp. 23–25.</ref>

<ref name="gallagher">Gary Gallagher, ''Causes Won, Lost, and Forgotten: How Hollywood and Popular Art Shape What We Know about the Civil War'' (Univ of North Carolina Press, 2008).</ref>

<ref name="history">Mark E. Neely Jr.; "Was the Civil War a Total War?" ''Civil War History'', Vol. 50, 2004, pp.&nbsp;434+.</ref>

<ref name="inaugural">Abraham Lincoln, First Inaugural Address, Monday, March 4, 1861.</ref>

<!--ref name="infantry">Mark Johnson, ''That Body of Brave Men: the U.S. regular infantry and the Civil War in the West'' (2003), p. 575.</ref-->

<ref name="murdock">Eugene Murdock, ''One Million Men: the Civil War draft in the North'' (1971).</ref>

<ref name="nationalgeographic">"[http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2003/07/0701_030701_civilwarprisons.html U.S. Civil War Prison Camps Claimed Thousands] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100225182610/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2003/07/0701_030701_civilwarprisons.html |date=February 25, 2010 }}". ''National Geographic News''. July 1, 2003.</ref>

<ref name="nationalism">Avery Craven, ''The Growth of Southern Nationalism, 1848–1861'' (1953).</ref>

<ref name="nationalism19">Susan-Mary Grant, ''North over South: Northern Nationalism and American Identity in the Antebellum Era'' (2000); Melinda Lawson, ''Patriot Fires: Forging a New American Nationalism in the Civil War North'' (2005).</ref>

<ref name="nevins">Nevins, ''The War for the Union'' (1959), 1:119–29.</ref>

<ref name="nevins26">Nevins, ''The War for the Union'' (1959), 1:129–36.</ref>

<ref name="nevins73">Allan Nevins, ''War for the Union 1862–1863'', pp. 263–264.</ref>
<!--
<ref name="proclamation">Frank J. Williams, "Doing Less and Doing More: The President and the Proclamation – Legally, Militarily and Politically", in Harold Holzer, ed. ''The Emancipation Proclamation'' (2006), pp. 74–75.</ref>
-->
<ref name="progressive">Kenneth M. Stampp, ''The Imperiled Union: Essays on the Background of the Civil War'' (1981), p. 198; Richard Hofstadter, ''The Progressive Historians: Turner, Beard, Parrington'' (1969).</ref>

<ref name="reconstruct">Barnet Schecter, ''The Devil's Own Work: The Civil War Draft Riots and the Fight to Reconstruct America'' (2007).</ref>

<ref name="recounting">{{cite news|url=http://opinionator.blogs.nytimes.com/2011/09/20/recounting-the-dead/|title=Recounting the Dead|last=Hacker|first=J. David|date=September 20, 2011|work=The New York Times|agency=[[Associated Press]]|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110925090025/http://opinionator.blogs.nytimes.com/2011/09/20/recounting-the-dead/|archive-date=September 25, 2011|access-date=September 22, 2011|url-access=subscription|ref=none}}</ref>

<ref name="republican18">"Republican Platform of 1860", in Kirk H. Porter, and Donald Bruce Johnson, eds. ''National Party Platforms, 1840–1956'', (University of Illinois Press, 1956). p. 32.</ref>

<ref name="sectionalism">Charles S. Sydnor, ''The Development of Southern Sectionalism 1819–1848'' (1948).</ref>

<ref name="sectionalism17">Robert Royal Russel, ''Economic Aspects of Southern Sectionalism, 1840–1861'' (1973).</ref>

<ref name="slate">Richard Wightman Fox (2008). "[https://web.archive.org/web/20110716083839/http://www.slate.com/toolbar.aspx?action=read&id=2180856 National Life After Death]". [[Slate.com]].</ref>

<ref name="southern">Bertram Wyatt-Brown, ''The Shaping of Southern Culture: Honor, Grace, and War, 1760s–1880s'' (2000).</ref>

<ref name="surrender">Unaware of the surrender of Lee, on April 16 the last major battles of the war were fought at the [[Battle of Columbus, Georgia]], and the [[Battle of West Point]].</ref>

<ref name="taussig">Frank Taussig, ''The Tariff History of the United States'' (1931), pp.&nbsp;115–61</ref>

<!--ref name="teachinghistory">Hamner, Christopher. "[http://teachinghistory.org/history-content/ask-a-historian/24413 Great Expectations for the Civil War]." [http://www.teachinghistory.org/ Teachinghistory.org]. Retrieved July 11, 2011.</ref-->

<ref name="terrible">Bruce Catton, ''Terrible Swift Sword'', pp. 263–296.</ref>

<ref name="ucsb">[http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=29501 President James Buchanan, Message of December 8, 1860] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081220011320/http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=29501 |date=December 20, 2008 }}. Retrieved November 28, 2012.</ref>

<!-- The following references appeared in the reflist but were not used in the prior text. Please return them to the reflist once they have been correctly cited in the main article.
<ref name="abolitionists">David Brion Davis, ''Inhuman Bondage'' (2006). p.&nbsp;197, 409; Stanley Harrold, ''The Abolitionists and the South, 1831–1861'' (1995) p. 62; Jane H. and William H. Pease, "Confrontation and Abolition in the 1850s" ''Journal of American History'' (1972) 58(4): 923–37.</ref>
<ref name="civil-war">[http://www.civil-war.net/pages/1860_census.html 1860 Census Results], The Civil War Home Page.</ref>
<ref name="abraham">Abraham Lincoln, Speech at New Haven, Conn., March 6, 1860.</ref>
<ref name="butterfield">Fox Butterfield; ''All God's Children'', p. 17.</ref>
<ref name="trager">''The People's Chronology'', 1994 by James Trager.</ref>
<ref name="secessionists">William W. Freehling, ''The Road to Disunion: Secessionists Triumphant 1854–1861'', pp. 9–24.</ref>
<ref name="Freehling">William W. Freehling, ''The Road to Disunion, Secessionists Triumphant'', pp. 269–462, p. 274. (The quote about slave states "encircled by fire" is from the ''New Orleans Delta'', May 13, 1860.)</ref>
<ref name="representatives">Most of her slave owners are "decent, honorable people, themselves victims" of that institution. Much of her description was based on personal observation, and the descriptions of Southerners; she herself calls them and Legree representatives of different types of masters.;Gerson, ''Harriet Beecher Stowe'', p. 68; Stowe, ''Key to Uncle Tom's Cabin'' (1953), p. 39.</ref>
<ref name="american">Quoted in Eric Foner, ''The Fiery Trial: Abraham Lincoln and American Slavery'' (2010), p. 100.</ref>
<ref name="Voices from the Gathering Storm: The Coming of the American Civil War">{{cite book |url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=F20ZsA5ZeeEC|page=184}} |title=Voices from the Gathering Storm: The Coming of the American Civil War |last=Linden |first=Glenn M. |year=2001 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |place=United States |page=236 |isbn=978-0-8420-2999-5 |quote=Prevent, as far as possible, any of our friends from demoralizing themselves, and our cause, by entertaining propositions for compromise of any sort, on slavery extension. There is no possible compromise upon it, but which puts us under again, and leaves all our work to do over again. Whether it be a Mo. Line, or Eli Thayer's Pop. Sov. It is all the same. Let either be done, & immediately filibustering and extending slavery recommences. On that point hold firm, as with a chain of steel. – Abraham Lincoln to Elihu B. Washburne, December 13, 1860}}</ref>
<ref name="AvalonProject">Winkler, E. [http://avalon.law.yale.edu/19th_century/csa_texsec.asp "A Declaration of the Causes which Impel the State of Texas to Secede from the Federal Union"]. ''Journal of the Secession Convention of Texas''. Retrieved October 16, 2007.</ref>
<ref name="william">William C. Davis, ''Look Away'', pp. 130–40.</ref>
<ref name="townsend">John Townsend, The Doom of Slavery in the Union, its Safety out of it, October 29, 1860.</ref>
<ref name="secessionist">Lipset looked at the secessionist vote in each Southern state in 1860–61. In each state he divided the counties into high, medium or low proportion of slaves. He found that in the 181 high-slavery counties, the vote was 72% for secession. In the 205 low-slavery counties. the vote was only 37% for secession. (And in the 153 middle counties, the vote for secession was in the middle at 60%). Seymour Martin Lipset, ''Political Man: The Social Bases of Politics'' (Doubleday, 1960), p. 349.</ref>
<ref name="schlesinger">Schlesinger ''Age of Jackson'', p. 190.</ref>
<ref name="sandford">Roger B. Taney: Dred Scott v. Sandford (1857).</ref>
<ref name="reconstruction">James G. Randall and David Donald, '' Civil War and Reconstruction'' (1961), p. 68.</ref>
<ref name="republican">Eric Foner. ''Free Soil, Free Labor, Free Men: The Ideology of the Republican Party Before the Civil War'' (1970), p. 9.</ref>
<ref name="randall">Randall and Donald, p. 67.</ref>
<ref name="mcpherson3">McPherson, ''Battle Cry'', pp. 88–91.</ref>
<ref name="mcpherson10">McPherson, ''Battle Cry'', pp. 242, 255, 282–83. Maps on p. 101 (The Southern Economy) and p. 236 (The Progress of Secession) are also relevant.</ref>
<ref name="mcpherson12">James McPherson, ''Drawn with the Sword'', p. 15.</ref>
<ref name="mcpherson14">McPherson, ''Battle Cry'', p. 195.</ref>
<ref name="mcpherson15">McPherson, ''Battle Cry'', p. 243.</ref>
<ref name="mcpherson33">McPherson, ''Battle Cry'', pp. 378–80.</ref>
<ref name="mcpherson34">McPherson, ''Battle Cry'', pp. 373–77.</ref>
<ref name="impending">David Potter. ''The Impending Crisis'', pp. 201–04, 299–327.</ref>
<ref name="impending11">David Potter. ''The Impending Crisis'', pp. 503–05.</ref>
<ref name="impending13">David Potter. ''The Impending Crisis'', p. 275.</ref>
<ref name="impending16">David Potter. ''The Impending Crisis'', p. 461.</ref>
<ref name="impending4">David Potter. ''The Impending Crisis'', p. 208.</ref>
<ref name="impending5">David Potter. ''The Impending Crisis'', pp. 208–09.</ref>
<ref name="impending6">David Potter. ''The Impending Crisis'', pp. 210–11.</ref>
<ref name="impending7">David Potter. ''The Impending Crisis'', pp. 212–13.</ref>
<ref name="impending8">David Potter, ''The Impending Crisis'', pp. 356–84.</ref>
<ref name="Texas12">A Declaration of the Causes which Impel the State of Texas to Secede from the Federal Union, February 2, 1861 – [http://www2.tsl.state.tx.us/ref/abouttx/secession/2feb1861.html A declaration of the causes which impel the State of Texas to secede from the Federal Union.]</ref>
<ref name="photography">Kathleen Collins, "The Scourged Back", History of Photography 9 (January 1985): 43–45.</ref>
<ref name="secession">Maury Klein, ''Days of Defiance: Sumter, Secession, and the Coming of the Civil War'' (1999).</ref>
<ref name="profession">Allan Peskin, ''Winfield Scott and the profession of arms'' (2003), pp. 249–52.</ref>
<ref name="international">Dean B. Mahin, ''One war at a time: the international dimensions of the American Civil War''(2000) ch 6</ref>
<ref name="heidler">Heidler, 1651–53.</ref>
<ref name="MissFacts">{{cite web|title=Civil War in Missouri Facts|url=http://home.usmo.com/~momollus/MOFACTS.HTM|year=1998|access-date=October 16, 2007|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071016074650/http://home.usmo.com/~momollus/MOFACTS.HTM|archive-date=October 16, 2007|url-status=live}}</ref>
-->
}}

===Bibliography===
{{Main|Bibliography of the American Civil War}}

{{refbegin|30em}}
* {{cite book|last=Ahlstrom|first=Sydney E.|title=A Religious History of the American People|publisher=Yale University Press|year=1972|location=New Haven, Connecticut|isbn=978-0-300-01762-5|url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=5kFF6a1viGcC}}}}
* {{cite book|last=Anderson|first=Bern|title=By Sea and By River: The naval history of the Civil War|publisher=Da Capo Press|year=1989|location=New York|isbn=978-0-306-80367-3|url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=hoCK_yzA8xkC}}}}{{Dead link|date=August 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}
* {{cite book|last1=Asante|first1=Molefi Kete|last2=Mazama|first2=Ama|title=Encyclopedia of Black Studies|url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=RcBkDlJ7qjwC|page=82}}|year=2004|location=Thousand Oaks, California|publisher=SAGE Publications|isbn=978-0-7619-2762-4}}
* Beringer, Richard E., Archer Jones, and Herman Hattaway (1986). ''Why the South Lost the Civil War'', influential analysis of factors; an abridged version is ''The Elements of Confederate Defeat: Nationalism, War Aims, and Religion'' (1988)
* {{cite journal|last=Bestor|first=Arthur|year=1964 |title=The American Civil War as a Constitutional Crisis |journal=[[American Historical Review]] |volume=69 |issue=2 |pages=327–52 |jstor=1844986|doi=10.2307/1844986 }}
* {{cite book|last=Canney|first=Donald L.|title=Lincoln's Navy: The Ships, Men and Organization, 1861–65|publisher=Naval Institute Press|year=1998|location=Annapolis, Maryland|isbn=978-1-55750-519-4|url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=o_fB_SD5QhIC}}}}
* {{cite book|last1=Chambers|first1=John W.|last2=Anderson|first2=Fred|title=The Oxford Companion to American Military History|url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=_Rzy_yNMKbcC}}|year=1999|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford; New York|isbn=978-0-19-507198-6}}
* {{cite book|last=Dinçaslan|first=M. Bahadırhan|title=Amerikan İç Savaşı El Kitabı ''(US Civil War Handbook)''|publisher=Altınordu Yayınları Press|year=2022|location=Ankara, Turkey|isbn=978-6-257-61066-7}}
* {{cite book |last=Donald |first=David Herbert |author-link=David Herbert Donald |year=1995 |title=Lincoln |location=New York |publisher=Simon & Schuster |isbn=978-0-684-80846-8}}
* {{cite book|last= Dunkerly |first= Robert M. |title= To the Bitter End: Appomattox, Bennett Place and the Surrenders of the Confederacy |year= 2015 |publisher= Savas Beatie |location= El Dorado Hills, CA |isbn= 978-1-61121-252-5}}
* {{cite book|last=Foner|first=Eric|author-link=Eric Foner|url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=rQSYk-LWTxcC}}|title=Politics and Ideology in the Age of the Civil War|year=1981|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford; New York|isbn=978-0-19-502926-0|access-date=April 20, 2012}}
* {{cite book|last=Foner|first=Eric|title=The Fiery Trial: Abraham Lincoln and American Slavery|url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=earytjxi6pEC}}|year=2010|publisher=W. W. Norton & Co.|location=New York|isbn=978-0-393-34066-2}}
* {{cite book|last=Foote|first=Shelby|title=The Civil War: A Narrative: Volume 1: Fort Sumter to Perryville|year=1974|publisher=Vintage Books|location=New York|isbn=978-0-394-74623-4|title-link=The Civil War: A Narrative}}
* {{cite book|last1=Frank|first1=Joseph Allan|last2=Reaves|first2=George A.|title=Seeing the Elephant: Raw Recruits at the Battle of Shiloh|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=J_GlcVOb374C|page=170}}|year=2003|location=Urbana|publisher=University of Illinois Press|isbn=978-0-252-07126-3}}
* {{cite book|last=Fuller |first=Howard J.|title=Clad in Iron: The American Civil War and the Challenge of British Naval Power|location=Annapolis, Maryland |publisher=Naval Institute Press| year=2008 |isbn=978-1-59114-297-3}}
* {{cite book|last=Gallagher|first=Gary W.|title=The Confederate War|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=QHNEtpvEB30C|page=57}}|year=1999|location=Cambridge, Massachusetts|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=978-0-674-16056-9}}
* [[Gary W. Gallagher|Gallagher, Gary W.]] (2011). ''The Union War''. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. {{ISBN|978-0-674-06608-3}}.
* Gallagher, Gary W., and [[Elizabeth R. Varon]], eds. (2019). ''New Perspectives on the Union War''. New York: Fordham University Press. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctvh1dnpx online]
* Gara, Larry (1964). "The Fugitive Slave Law: A Double Paradox," in [[Irwin Unger|Unger, Irwin]], ''Essays on the Civil War and Reconstruction'', New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1970 (originally published in ''Civil War History'', Vol. 10, No. 3, September 1964, pp.&nbsp;229–40).
* {{cite journal|last=Hacker|first=J. David|date=December 2011|title=A Census-Based Count of the Civil War Dead|journal=Civil War History|volume=57|issue=4|pages=307–48|doi=10.1353/cwh.2011.0061|pmid=22512048|s2cid=30195230 }}
* {{cite book|last1=Heidler|first1=David S.|last2=Heidler|first2=Jeanne T.|last3=Coles|first3=David J.|title=Encyclopedia of the American Civil War: A Political, Social, and Military History|year=2002|publisher=ABC-CLIO|location=Santa Barbara, California|isbn=978-1-57607-382-7}}
* {{cite book|last=Herring|first=George C.|title=From Colony to Superpower: U.S. Foreign Relations since 1776|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2011|location=Oxford; New York|isbn=978-0-19-976553-9|url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=fODT-qOVoiI}}}}{{Dead link|date=August 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}
* {{cite journal|last=Hofstadter|first=Richard|author-link=Richard Hofstadter|title=The Tariff Issue on the Eve of the Civil War |journal=[[American Historical Review]]|volume=44|issue=1|year=1938|pages=50–55|jstor=1840850|doi=10.2307/1840850}}
* {{cite book|editor1-last=Holzer|editor1-first=Harold|editor-link=Harold Holzer|editor2-last=Gabbard|editor2-first=Sara Vaughn|title=Lincoln and Freedom: Slavery, Emancipation, and the Thirteenth Amendment|url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=xLbkXsn6xHAC|page=174}}|year=2007|location=Carbondale|publisher=Southern Illinois University Press|isbn=978-0-8093-2764-5}}
* {{Cite book |last= Hunt |first = Jeffrey Wm |title = The Last Battle of the Civil War: Palmetto Ranch |date=2015 |publisher =University of Texas Press |location= Austin |isbn=978-0-292-73461-6}}
* {{cite book|last=Johannsen|first=Robert W.|title=Stephen A. Douglas|year=1973|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=New York|isbn=978-0-19-501620-8}}
* {{cite book|last=Johnson|first=Timothy D.|title=Winfield Scott: The Quest for Military Glory|publisher=University Press of Kansas|year=1998|location=Lawrence|isbn=978-0-7006-0914-7}}
* {{cite book|last=Jones|first=Howard|title=Crucible of Power: A History of American Foreign Relations to 1913|url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=TFyLOUrdGFwC|page=225}}|year=2002|location=Wilmington, Delaware|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|isbn=978-0-8420-2916-2}}
* {{Cite book |last=Jones |first=Terry L. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ET6CDfczq9gC&pg=PA203 |title=Historical Dictionary of the Civil War |year=2011 |publisher=Scarecrow Press |isbn=978-0-8108-7953-9 }}
* {{cite book|last=Keegan|first=John|title=The American Civil War: A Military History|year=2009|publisher=Alfred A. Knopf|location=New York|isbn=978-0-307-26343-8|url=https://archive.org/details/americancivilwar00keeg}}
* {{cite book|last=Krannawitter|first=Thomas L.|title=Vindicating Lincoln: defending the politics of our greatest president|year=2008|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield Publishers|location=Lanham, Maryland|isbn=978-0-7425-5972-1|url=https://archive.org/details/vindicatinglinco00kran}}
* {{cite book|last = Long | first = E.B. | publication-date = 1971 |title= The Civil War Day by Day: An Almanac, 1861–1865| publisher= Doubleday | publication-place= Garden City, NY | oclc = 68283123 }}
* {{cite book|last=McPherson|first=James M.|title=Battle Cry of Freedom: The Civil War Era|year=1988|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford; New York|isbn=978-0-19-503863-7|title-link=Battle Cry of Freedom: The Civil War Era}}
* {{cite book|last=McPherson|first=James M.|title=For Cause and Comrades: Why Men Fought in the Civil War|url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=1qhEHVki8tEC}}|year=1997|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford; New York|isbn=978-0-19-974105-2}}
* {{cite book|last=McPherson|first=James M.|author-link=James M. McPherson|title=This Mighty Scourge: Perspectives on the Civil War|url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780195313666|url-access=registration|year=2007|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford; New York|isbn=978-0-19-539242-5}}
* {{cite journal |last=Mendelsohn |first=Adam |title=Samuel and Saul Isaac: International Jewish Arms Dealers, Blockade Runners, and Civil War Profiteers |journal=Journal of the Southern Jewish Historical Society |pages=41–79 |publisher=Southern Jewish Historical Society |volume=15 |year=2012 |url=https://www.jewishsouth.org/sites/default/files/sjh_v._15_2012_mendelsohn.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.jewishsouth.org/sites/default/files/sjh_v._15_2012_mendelsohn.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live |doi= |ref=mendelsohn }}
* {{cite book|last1=Murray|first1=Williamson|last2=Bernstein|first2=Alvin|last3=Knox|first3=MacGregor|title=The Making of Strategy: Rulers, States, and War|url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=ld8NPYqqUnMC|page=235}}|year=1996|location=Cabmbridge; New York|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-56627-8}}
* {{cite book|last=Neely|first=Mark E.|author-link=Mark E. Neely Jr.|title=Confederate Bastille: Jefferson Davis and Civil Liberties|publisher=Marquette University Press|year=1993|location=Milwaukee, Wisconsin|isbn=978-0-87462-325-3|url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=zPV2AAAAMAAJ}}}}
* {{cite book|last= Neff |first= Stephen C. |title= Justice in Blue and Gray: A Legal History of the Civil War |year= 2010 |publisher= Harvard University Press |location= Cambridge, MA |isbn= 978-1-61121-252-5}}
* {{cite book |last=Nelson |first=James L. |title=Reign of Iron: The Story of the First Battling Ironclads, the Monitor and the Merrimack |publisher=HarperCollins |year=2005 |location=New York |isbn=978-0-06-052404-3 |url={{google books|plainurl=y |id=d8XD-j--EVsC|page=149}} }}
* [[Allan Nevins|Nevins, Allan]]. ''[[Ordeal of the Union]]'', an 8-volume set (1947–1971). the most detailed political, economic and military narrative; by Pulitzer Prize-winner
** 1. [https://archive.org/details/ordealofunion00nevi ''Fruits of Manifest Destiny, 1847–1852'' online]; 2. ''A House Dividing, 1852–1857''; 3. ''Douglas, Buchanan, and Party Chaos, 1857–1859''; 4. ''Prologue to Civil War, 1859–1861''; vols 5–8 have the series title ''War for the Union''; 5. ''The Improvised War, 1861–1862''; 6. [https://archive.org/details/warforunionvol202nevi online]; ''War Becomes Revolution, 1862–1863''; 7. ''The Organized War, 1863–1864''; 8. ''The Organized War to Victory, 1864–1865''
* {{cite book|last=Olsen|first=Christopher J.|title=Political Culture and Secession in Mississippi: Masculinity, Honor, and the Antiparty Tradition, 1830–1860|url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=RrBb2ThDuCkC|page=237}}|year=2002|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford; New York|isbn=978-0-19-516097-0}}
* {{cite journal|first=David M. |last=Potter |title=The Historian's Use of Nationalism and Vice Versa |journal=[[American Historical Review]] |volume=67 |issue=4 |year=1962b |pages=924–50 |jstor=1845246|doi=10.2307/1845246 }}
* {{cite book |first1=David M. |last1=Potter |first2=Don E. |last2=Fehrenbacher |title=The Impending Crisis, 1848–1861 |url=https://archive.org/details/impendingcrisis00pott |url-access=registration |publisher=Harper & Row |location=New York |year=1976 |isbn=978-0-06-013403-7 }}
* {{cite book|last=Richter|first=William L.|title=The A to Z of the Civil War and Reconstruction|url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=obFt-MmS6ygC|page=49}}|year=2009|publisher=Scarecrow Press|location=Lanham|isbn=978-0-8108-6336-1}}
* {{cite journal|last=Russell|first=Robert R.|year=1966 |title=Constitutional Doctrines with Regard to Slavery in Territories|journal=[[Journal of Southern History]]|volume=32|issue=4|pages=466–86|doi=10.2307/2204926|jstor=2204926}}
* Sheehan-Dean, Aaron. [https://www.wiley.com/en-us/A+Companion+to+the+U+S+Civil+War%2C+2+Volume+Set-p-9781444351316 A Companion to the U.S. Civil War] 2 vol. (April 2014) Wiley-Blackwell, New York {{ISBN|978-1-444-35131-6}}. 1232 pp; 64 Topical chapters by scholars and experts; emphasis on historiography.
* {{cite book | last= Stampp | first= Kenneth M. | author-link= Kenneth M. Stampp | title= America in 1857: A Nation on the Brink | url= https://archive.org/details/americain185700kenn | url-access= registration | year= 1990 | publisher= Oxford University Press | location= Oxford; New York | isbn= 978-0-19-503902-3 }}
* {{cite book |last=Stern |first=Phillip Van Doren |title=The Confederate Navy |author-link=Philip Van Doren Stern |publisher=Doubleday & Company, Inc |year=1962 |url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=GDeqAAAAIAAJ}} }}
* {{cite book|last1=Symonds|first1=Craig L.|author-link=Craig Symonds|last2=Clipson|first2=William J.|title=The Naval Institute Historical Atlas of the U.S. Navy|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=q_HIcc8n3K4C}}|year=2001|publisher=Naval Institute Press|isbn=978-1-55750-984-0}}
* {{cite book|last1=Thornton|first1=Mark|last2=Ekelund|first2=Robert Burton|title=Tariffs, Blockades, and Inflation: The Economics of the Civil War|year=2004|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield}}
* {{cite book |last1=Tucker |first1=Spencer C. |last2=Pierpaoli |first2=Paul G. |last3=White |first3=William E. |title=The Civil War Naval Encyclopedia |publisher=ABC-CLIO |year=2010 |location=Santa Barbara, California |isbn=978-1-59884-338-5 |url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=q4mwAtj2r3UC|page=462}} }}
* {{cite book|last=Varon|first=Elizabeth R.|author-link=Elizabeth R. Varon|title=Disunion!: The Coming of the American Civil War, 1789–1859|year=2008|publisher=University of North Carolina Press| location= Chapel Hill, North Carolina |isbn= 978-0-8078-3232-5}}
* {{cite book|last=Vinovskis|first=Maris|title=Toward a Social History of the American Civil War: Exploratory Essays|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1990|location=Cambridge|isbn=978-0-521-39559-5|url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=9D4TAwc93VoC}}}}
* {{cite book| last= Ward | first= Geoffrey R.|title=The Civil War: An Illustrated History|year=1990|publisher=Alfred A. Knopf|location=New York|isbn=978-0-394-56285-8}}
* {{cite book|last=Weeks|first=William E.|title=The New Cambridge History of American Foreign Relations|url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=9D4TAwc93VoC}}|year=2013|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge; New York|isbn=978-1-107-00590-7}}
* {{cite book|last=Weigley|first=Frank Russell|title=A Great Civil War: A Military and Political History, 1861–1865|year=2004|publisher=Indiana University Press|location=Bloomington|isbn=978-0-253-33738-2|url=https://archive.org/details/greatcivilwarmil00russ}}
* {{cite book|last=Welles|first=Gideon|author-link=Gideon Welles|title=Secretary of the Navy's Report|publisher=American Seamen's Friend Society|year=1865|volume=37–38|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=u4gfAAAAYAAJ|page=152}}}}
* {{cite book|last=Winters|first=John D.|title=The Civil War in Louisiana|url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=PjicJWUQhPYC&pg=PR3}}|year=1963|publisher=[[Louisiana State University Press]]|location=Baton Rouge|isbn=978-0-8071-0834-5}}
* {{cite book |last=Wise |first=Stephen R. |title=Lifeline of the Confederacy: Blockade Running During the Civil War |publisher=University of South Carolina Press |year=1991 |isbn=978-0-8724-97993 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0i-KzgEACAAJ |ref=wise1991 }} &nbsp;Borrow book at: [https://archive.org/details/lifelineofconfed0000wise archive.org]
* {{cite book|last=Woodworth|first=Steven E.|title=The American Civil War: A Handbook of Literature and Research|url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=rb3ANWoZt1YC}}|year=1996|publisher=Greenwood Press|location=Wesport, Connecticut|isbn=978-0-313-29019-0}}
{{refend}}

==Further reading==
{{further|Bibliography of the American Civil War|Bibliography of early American naval history#American Civil War|label2=Bibliography of American Civil War naval history}}
{{refbegin|30em}}
* {{cite book|last=Catton|first=Bruce|author-link=Bruce Catton|title=The Civil War|year=1960|publisher=American Heritage Distributed by Houghton Mifflin|location=New York|isbn=978-0-8281-0305-3|url=https://archive.org/details/civilwar00catt_0}}
* {{cite book|last=Davis|first=William C.|author-link=William C. Davis (historian)|title=Stand in the Day of Battle: The Imperiled Union: 1861–1865|year=1983|publisher=Doubleday|location=Garden City, New York|isbn=978-0-385-14895-5|url=https://archive.org/details/standindayofbatt00davi}}
* {{cite book|last=Davis|first=William C.|title=Look Away!: A History of the Confederate States of America|year=2003|publisher=Free Press|location=New York|isbn=978-0-7432-3499-3}}
* {{cite book|last1=Donald|first1=David|author1-link=David Herbert Donald|last2=Baker|first2=Jean H.|author2-link=Jean H. Baker|last3=Holt|first3=Michael F.|title=The Civil War and Reconstruction|year=2001|publisher=W. W. Norton & Company|location=New York|isbn=978-0-393-97427-0}}
* {{cite book|last= Fehrenbacher|first=Don E.|author-link=Don E. Fehrenbacher|title=Slavery, Law, and Politics: The Dred Scott Case in Historical Perspective|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=1981|location=Oxford, New York|isbn=978-0-19-502883-6|url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=3KYFlabs2hQC|page=208}}}}
* {{cite book|last1=Fellman|first1=Michael|last2=Gordon|first2=Lesley J.|author2-link=Lesley J. Gordon|last3=Sunderland|first3=Daniel E.|title=This Terrible War: The Civil War and its Aftermath|year=2007|edition=2nd|publisher=Pearson|location=New York|isbn=978-0-321-38960-2}}
* {{cite book|last=Green|first=Fletcher M.|title=Constitutional Development in the South Atlantic States, 1776–1860: A Study in the Evolution of Democracy|url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=A5c0LKovqJUC}}|year=2008|publisher= University of North Carolina Press|location=Chapel Hill, North Carolina|isbn=978-1-58477-928-5}}
* {{cite book|last=Guelzo|first=Allen C.|author-link=Allen C. Guelzo|title=Lincoln: A Very Short Introduction|url={{google books |plainurl=y|id=XcgqWAt1kZUC}}|year=2009|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford, New York|isbn=978-0-19-536780-5}}
* {{cite book|last=Guelzo|first=Allen C.| title= Fateful Lightning: A New History of the Civil War and Reconstruction|year=2012|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford, New York|isbn=978-0-19-984328-2}}
* {{cite book|last=Holt|first=Michael F.|title=The Fate of Their Country: Politicians, Slavery Extension, and the Coming of the Civil War|year=2005|publisher=Hill and Wang|location=New York|isbn=978-0-8090-4439-9}}
* {{cite book|last=Huddleston|first=John|title= Killing Ground: The Civil War and the Changing American Landscape |publisher= Johns Hopkins University Press|year=2002|location=Baltimore, Maryland|isbn=978-0-8018-6773-6|url-access= registration|url=https://archive.org/details/killinggroundpho0000hudd}}
* {{cite book|last1=Jones|first1=Howard|title=Abraham Lincoln and a New Birth of Freedom: The Union and Slavery in the Diplomacy of the Civil War|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=gVvZb5oeVtwC}}|year=1999 |publisher=University of Nebraska Press|location=Lincoln, Nebraska|isbn=978-0-8032-2582-4}}
* {{cite book|last=Lipset|first=Seymour Martin|author-link=Seymour Martin Lipset|title=Political Man: The Social Bases of Politics|url=https://archive.org/details/politicalmansoci00lips|url-access=registration|year=1960|publisher=Doubleday & Company, Inc.|location=Garden City, NY}}
* {{cite book|last=McPherson|first=James M.|author-link=James M. McPherson|title=Ordeal By Fire: The Civil War and Reconstruction|year=1992|publisher=McGraw-Hill|location=New York|isbn=978-0-07-045842-0|edition=2nd|url=https://archive.org/details/ordealbyfirecivi00mcph}}
* {{Cite book|last=Murray|first=Robert Bruce|url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=I_zi_VhsOcMC}}|title=Legal Cases of the Civil War|date=2003|publisher=Stackpole Books|isbn=978-0-8117-0059-7|language=en}}
* {{cite book|last1=Perman|first1=Michael |last2=Taylor|first2=Amy M.|title=Major Problems in the Civil War and Reconstruction: Documents and Essays|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=5rPbZT_hrncC|page=177}}|edition=3rd|year= 2010|publisher=[[Cengage]] Learning |location= Boston, Massachusetts |isbn=978-0-618-87520-7}}
* {{cite book|first=David M. |last=Potter | author-link=David M. Potter |title=Lincoln and His Party in the Secession Crisis |publisher=Yale University Press |location= New Haven |year=1962a |orig-year=1942}}
* {{cite book|last=Rhodes|first=John Ford|title= History of the Civil War, 1861–1865 | year= 1917 | publisher= The Macmillan Company | location= New York |url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=nY4sAAAAMAAJ}}}}
* {{cite book|last1=Schott|first1=Thomas E.|title=Alexander H. Stephens of Georgia: A Biography|publisher=Louisiana State University Press|year=1996|location=Baton Rouge, Louisiana|isbn=978-0-8071-2106-1}}
{{refend}}

==External links==
{{sister project links|auto=1|wikt=y |commons=y |n=y |q=y |s=y |b=y |voy=y |v=y}}
* [https://westpoint.edu/academics/academic-departments/history/american-civil-war West Point Atlas of Civil War Battles]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20160818205335/http://www.archives.gov/research/civil-war/photos/index.html Civil War photos] at the [[National Archives and Records Administration|National Archives]]
* [https://www.loc.gov/pictures/search?st=grid&c=100&co=cwp View images] from the [https://www.loc.gov/pictures/collection/cwp/ Civil War Photographs Collection] at the Library of Congress
* {{Internet Archive short film|id=gov.archives.arc.54756|name=A House Divided (1960)}}
* [https://persuasivemaps.library.cornell.edu/browse-subject "American Civil World" maps at the Persuasive Cartography, The PJ Mode Collection], [[Cornell University Library]]
* [http://www.shapell.org/Collection/Civil-War Civil War Manuscripts] at [[Shapell Manuscript Foundation]]
* [https://www.battlefields.org/learn/primary-sources/declaration-causes-seceding-states Statements of each state as to why they were seceding], battlefields.org
* [https://www.nps.gov/civilwar/places.htm National Park Service Civil War Places]
* [https://www.nps.gov/subjects/battlefields/civil-war.htm Civil War Battlefield Places] from the [[National Park Service]]
* [http://www.battlefields.org/ American Battlefield Trust] – A non-profit land preservation and educational organization with two divisions, the Civil War Trust and the Revolutionary War Trust, dedicated to preserving America's battlefields through land acquisitions.
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20090811064152/http://www.gettysburg.edu/library/gettdigital/civil_war/civilwar.htm Civil War Era Digital Collection at Gettysburg College] – This collection contains digital images of political cartoons, personal papers, pamphlets, maps, paintings and photographs from the Civil War Era held in Special Collections at Gettysburg College.
* [https://www.washingtonpost.com/lifestyle/civil-war Civil War 150] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191027125044/https://www.washingtonpost.com/lifestyle/civil-war/ |date=October 27, 2019 }} – ''Washington Post'' interactive website on the 150th Anniversary of the American Civil War.
* [http://www.american-south.org/ Civil War in the American South] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210313231903/https://www.american-south.org/ |date=March 13, 2021 }} – An Association of Southeastern Research Libraries (ASERL) portal with links to almost 9,000 digitized Civil War-era items{{snd}}books, pamphlets, broadsides, letters, maps, personal papers, and manuscripts{{snd}}held at ASERL member libraries
* [http://www.sonofthesouth.net/ The Civil War] – site with 7,000 pages, including the complete run of Harper's Weekly newspapers from the Civil War
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{{American conflicts}}
{{United States topics}}
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[[Category:Rebellions against the United States]]
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[[Category:Wars involving the United States|Civil War]]
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[[Category:Civil wars in the United States]]
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