Просмотр кода страницы Английская Википедия:Archaeology of Northern Europe

{{Английская Википедия/Панель перехода}}
{{short description|Archaeological region and period}}
{{see also|Scandinavian prehistory|History of Germany#Prehistory}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2023}}
The archaeology of [[Northern Europe]] studies the prehistory of [[Scandinavian Peninsula|Scandinavia]] and the adjacent [[North European Plain]], 
roughly corresponding to the territories of modern [[Sweden]], [[Norway]], [[Denmark]], northern [[Germany]], [[Poland]] and the [[Netherlands]].

The region entered the [[Mesolithic]] around the 7th millennium BC. The transition to the [[Neolithic Europe|Neolithic]] is characterized by the [[Funnelbeaker culture]] in the 4th millennium BC. The [[Chalcolithic Europe|Chalcolithic]] is marked by the arrival of the [[Corded Ware culture]], possibly the first influence in the region of [[Kurgan hypothesis|Indo-European expansion]]. The [[Nordic Bronze Age]] proper began roughly one millennium later, around 1500 BC. The end of the Bronze Age is characterized by cultural contact with the Central European [[La Tène culture]] ([[Celts]]), contributing to the development of the [[Iron Age Scandinavia|Iron Age]] by the 4th century BC, presumably the locus of [[Common Germanic]] culture. Northern Europe enters the [[protohistorical]] period in the early centuries AD, with the adoption of [[Elder Futhark|writing]] and [[Germania|ethnographic accounts]] by [[Roman Empire|Roman]] authors.

==Periodization==
The following is a refined listing of Northern European [[archaeology|archaeological]] periods, expanded from the basic [[three-age system]] with finer subdivisions and extension into the modern [[history|historical]] period.

{| class="wikitable"
|rowspan=3|'''[[Nordic Stone Age|Stone Age]]''' <br /> (to {{Circa|1500 BC}})
|Palaeolithic
| to {{Circa|8000 BC}}
|- 
|Mesolithic
| {{Circa|8000|3000 BC}}
|- 
|Neolithic 
| {{Circa|3000|1750 BC}}
|-
|colspan=2|'''[[Nordic Bronze Age|Bronze Age]]'''
|{{Circa|1750|500 BC}}
|-
|rowspan=3| '''[[Iron Age Scandinavia|Iron Age]]''' <br /> ({{Circa|500 BC|800 AD}})
| [[Pre-Roman Iron Age]]
| {{Circa|500 BC|1 AD}}
|-
|[[Roman Iron Age]]
| {{Circa|1|400 AD}}
|-
|[[Germanic Iron Age]] 
| {{Circa|400|800 AD}}
|-
|colspan=2| '''[[Viking Age]]'''
 
| {{Circa|800|1066 AD}}
|-
|colspan=2| '''Medieval''' 
| {{Circa|1066|1500}}
|-
|colspan=2| '''Post-medieval'''
| {{Circa|1500|1800}}
|-
|rowspan=2| '''Industrial/Modern'''
| Industrial period
| {{Circa|1800|1917}}
|-
|Modern period
| {{Circa|1917}} – present
|}

==Stone Age==
{{main|Nordic Stone Age}}

During the [[6th millennium BC]], the climate of Scandinavia was generally warmer and more humid than today. The bearers of the  [[Nøstvet and Lihult cultures]] and the [[Kongemose culture]] were mesolithic hunter-gatherers. The Kongemose culture was replaced by the [[Ertebølle culture]], adapting to the [[Atlantic (period)|climatic changes]] and gradually adopting the [[Neolithic Revolution]], transitioning to the [[megalith]]ic [[Funnelbeaker culture]].

==Pottery Neolithic==
{{main|Nordic Stone Age#Neolithic}}
The Pezmog 4 archaeological site along the [[Vychegda River]] ([[Komi Republic]]) was discovered in 1994. Pottery of early comb ware type appears there already at the beginning of the 6th millennium BC.<ref name="KarmanovZaretskaya2016">{{cite journal|last1=Karmanov|first1=Victor N|last2=Zaretskaya|first2=Natalia E|last3=Volokitin|first3=Alexander V|title=Another Way of Early Pottery Distribution in Eastern Europe? Case Study of the Pezmog 4 Site, European Far Northeast|journal=Radiocarbon|volume=56|issue=2|year=2016|url=https://journals.uair.arizona.edu/index.php/radiocarbon/article/viewFile/16952/pdf|pages=733–741|issn=0033-8222|doi=10.2458/56.16952|s2cid=67797935|access-date=11 March 2018|archive-date=11 March 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180311141323/https://journals.uair.arizona.edu/index.php/radiocarbon/article/viewFile/16952/pdf|url-status=live|url-access=subscription}}</ref>

[[Pit–Comb Ware culture]] appeared in northern Europe as early 4200 BC, and continued until {{Circa|2000 BC}}. Some scholars argue that it is associated with the area of the Uralic languages.

During the [[4th millennium BC]], the Funnelbeaker culture expanded into Sweden up to [[Uppland]]. The Nøstvet and Lihult cultures were succeeded by the [[Pitted Ware culture]]

Early Indo-European presence likely dates to the early 3rd millennium BC, introducing branches of the [[Corded Ware culture]] (such as the [[Battle Axe Culture]]), later be followed by the [[Nordic Bronze Age]].

==Bronze Age==
[[File:Solvognen-00100.jpg|thumb|The [[Trundholm Sun Chariot]], Denmark, {{Circa|1400 BC}}]]
{{main|Nordic Bronze Age}}
{{further|Nordwestblock}}

==Iron Age==
{{main|Iron Age Scandinavia}}

The tripartite division of the Nordic Iron Age into "Pre-Roman Iron Age", "Roman Iron Age" and "Germanic Iron Age" is due to Swedish archaeologist [[Oscar Montelius]].

===Pre-Roman Iron Age===
{{Germanic tribes (750 BC – 1 AD)}}

The Pre-Roman Iron Age (5th/4th–1st centuries BC) was the earliest part of the [[Iron Age Scandinavia|Iron Age in Scandinavia]] and the [[North European Plain]]. Succeeding the [[Nordic Bronze Age]], the [[Iron Age]] developed in contact with the [[Hallstatt culture]] in Central Europe.<ref>Dina P. Dobson, "Roman Influence in the North" ''Greece & Rome'' '''5'''.14 (February 1936:73–89).</ref>

Archaeologists first decided to divide the Iron Age of Northern Europe into distinct pre-Roman and [[Roman Iron Age]]s after Emil Vedel unearthed a number of Iron Age artifacts in 1866 on the island of [[Bornholm]].<ref>Vedel, ''Bornholms Oldtidsminder og Oldsager'', (Copenhagen 1886).</ref> They did not exhibit the same permeating Roman influence seen in most other artifacts from the early centuries AD, indicating that parts of [[northern Europe]] had not yet come into contact with the Romans at the beginning of the Iron Age.

Out of the [[Bronze Age Europe|Late Bronze Age]] [[Urnfield culture]] of the 12th century BC developed the Early Iron Age [[Hallstatt culture]] of Central Europe from the 8th to 6th centuries BC, which was followed by the [[La Tène culture]] of Central Europe (450&nbsp;BC to 1st century BC). Although the metal iron came into wider use by [[metalsmith]]s in the Mediterranean as far back as {{circa}} 1300&nbsp;BC due to the [[Late Bronze Age collapse]], the Pre-Roman Iron Age of Northern Europe covered the 5th/4th to the 1st centuries BC.

[[File:DO-1885.jpg|thumb|left|Sword from Lindholmgård, Denmark|221x221px]]

The Iron Age in northern Europe is markedly distinct from the Celtic [[La Tène culture]] south of it. The old long-range trading networks south–north between the Mediterranean cultures and Northern Europe had broken down at the end of the [[Nordic Bronze Age]] and caused a rapid and deep cultural change in Scandinavia. Bronze, which was an imported alloy, suddenly became very scarce; and iron, which was a local natural resource, slowly became more abundant, as the techniques for extracting, smelting and smithing it were acquired from their Central European Celtic neighbours. Iron was extracted from [[bog iron]] in peat bogs, and the first iron objects to be fabricated were needles and edged tools such as swords and sickles. The rise of iron use in Scandinavia was slow: bog ore was only abundant in southwestern [[Jutland]] and it was not until 200–100&nbsp;BC that iron-working techniques were generally mastered and a productive smithing industry had evolved in the larger settlements. Iron products were also known in Scandinavia during the Bronze Age, but they were a scarce imported material. Similarly, imported bronze continued to be used during the Iron Age in Scandinavia, but it was now much scarcer and mostly used for decoration.<ref>Jørgen Jensen: ''I begyndelsen''</ref>

[[File:Dejbjergvognen DO-621 original.jpg|thumb|228x228px|The [[Dejbjerg wagon]], 1st century BC, in the [[National Museum of Denmark]]]]

Funerary practices continued the Bronze Age tradition of burning corpses and placing the remains in [[urn]]s, a characteristic of the Urnfield culture. During the previous<!--previous to what?--> centuries, influences from the Central European [[La Tène culture]] had spread to Scandinavia from north-western Germany, and there are finds from this period from all the provinces of southern Scandinavia. [[Archaeology|Archaeologist]]s have found swords, shield bosses, spearheads, scissors, sickles, pincers, knives, needles, buckles, kettles, etc. from this time. Bronze continued to be used for [[torc]]s and kettles, the styles of which were continuous from the Bronze Age. Some of the most prominent finds from the pre-Roman Iron Age in northern Europe are the [[Gundestrup cauldron]] and the [[Dejbjerg wagons]], two four-wheeled wagons of wood with bronze parts.

The cultural change that ended the Nordic Bronze Age was influenced by the expansion of Hallstatt culture from the south and accompanied by a changing climate, which caused a dramatic change in the flora and fauna. In Scandinavia, this period is often called the "Findless Age", due to the lack of archaeological finds. While the archaeological record from Scandinavia is consistent with an initial decline in population, the southern part of the culture, the [[Jastorf culture]], was in expansion southwards. It consequently appears that climate change played an important role in this southward expansion into continental Europe. It is debated why cultural innovation spread geographically during this time: whether the new material culture reflects a possibly warlike movement of [[Germanic peoples]] ("[[demic diffusion]]") southwards or whether innovations found at the Pre-Roman Iron Age sites represent a more peaceful [[trans-cultural diffusion]]. The current view in the Netherlands is that Iron Age innovations, starting with Hallstatt (800&nbsp;BC), did not involve intrusions and featured a local development from Bronze Age culture.<ref>{{cite book|last=Verhart|first=Leo|title=Op zoek naar de Kelten: nieuwe archeologische ontdekkingen tussen Noordzee en Rijn|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4owINQAACAAJ|year=2006|publisher=Matrijs|isbn=978-90-5345-303-2}}, p. 67</ref> Another Iron Age nucleus considered to represent a local development is the [[Wessenstedt]] culture (800–600&nbsp;BC).

The bearers of this northern Iron Age culture were likely speakers of Germanic languages. The stage of development of this Germanic is not known, although [[Proto-Germanic language|Proto-Germanic]] has been proposed. The late phase of this period sees the beginnings of the [[Migration Period]], starting with the invasions of the [[Teutons]] and the [[Cimbri]] until their defeat at the [[Battle of Aquae Sextiae]] in 102 BC, presaging the more turbulent Roman Iron Age and Migration Period.
{{clear|left}}
<gallery>
File:Huldremosekvindens dragt Huldremose-00002.tif|Clothing worn by the [[:de:Frau von Huldremose|Huldremose Woman]], Denmark, 2nd century BC.
File:Model-af-Hjortspringbåden DO-2304 original.jpg|[[Hjortspring boat]], Denmark, {{Circa|400 BC}}<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://en.natmus.dk/historical-knowledge/denmark/prehistoric-period-until-1050-ad/the-early-iron-age/the-army-from-hjortspring-bog/the-hjortspring-boat/ |title=The Hjortspring Boat |access-date=1 May 2022 |archive-date=1 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220501220757/https://en.natmus.dk/historical-knowledge/denmark/prehistoric-period-until-1050-ad/the-early-iron-age/the-army-from-hjortspring-bog/the-hjortspring-boat/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
File:Silver cauldron.jpg|[[Gundestrup cauldron|Gundestrup Caudron]], Denmark, 2nd-1st century BC
File:ALB - Hortfund Jastorf Kultur.jpg|[[Jastorf culture]] gold ornaments, Germany (replicas)
File:Iron Age Jastorf Culture of Germany (28138423114).jpg|Various artefacts, northern Germany
File:Funkenburg (Westgreußen), the longhouse.jpg|Reconstructed Iron Age house at [[:de:Archäologisches Freilichtmuseum Funkenburg|Funkenburg]], Germany, {{Circa|200 BC}}.
File:Eburones.jpg|Fortified settlement of the [[Eburones]], Germany, {{Circa|50 BC}}
File:Hodde Iron Age village, Denmark, c. 100 BC.png|Model of Hodde Iron Age village, Denmark, c. 100 BC.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://danmarksoldtid.lex.dk/Bag_landsbyens_hegn |title=Hodde Iron Age village |website=danmarksoldtid.lex.dk |access-date=7 August 2023 |archive-date=1 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230801135026/https://danmarksoldtid.lex.dk/Bag_landsbyens_hegn |url-status=live }}</ref></gallery>

===Roman Iron Age===
{{further|Roman imperial period (chronology)}}
[[File:Nydamboat.2.jpg|thumb|The [[Nydam Mose|Nydam boat]], Denmark, {{Circa|310 AD}}]]
The Roman Iron Age (1–400&nbsp;AD) is a part of the [[Iron Age]]. The name comes from the hold that the [[Roman Empire]] had begun to exert on the [[Germanic tribes]] of [[Northern Europe]].

In Scandinavia, there was a great import of goods, such as [[coin]]s, [[Packaging and labelling|vessel]]s, [[bronze]] images, [[glass]] beakers, enameled [[buckle]]s, weapons, etc. Moreover, the style of metal objects and clay vessels was markedly Roman. Objects such as shears and pawns appear for the first time. In the 3rd and 4th centuries, some elements are imported from Germanic tribes that had settled north of the [[Black Sea]], such as the [[runes]].

There are also many [[bog body|bog bodies]] from this time in [[Denmark]], [[Schleswig]] and southern Sweden. Together with the bodies, there are weapons, household wares and clothes of [[wool]]. The prime burial tradition was cremation, but the third century and thereafter saw an increase in inhumation. Great ships made for rowing have been found from the 4th century in [[Nydam Mose]] in southern Denmark. 

The Gudme Hall complex, a ruling elite residence and cult site, was built in Denmark in the 3rd century.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://vikingekult.natmus.dk/en/foerkristne-kultpladser/noeglepladserne/gudme/ |title=Gudme |website=National Museum of Denmark}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://danmarkshistorien.lex.dk/Gudmebygden |title=Gudmebygden |website=danmarkshistorien.lex.dk |date=2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://slks.dk/fileadmin/user_upload/kulturarv/fortidsminder/dokumenter/doil_gudme.pdf |title=Gudme |website=Kulturarv I Danmark}}</ref> In Norway the large chiefly hall at [[Lofotr Viking Museum|Borg (Lofotr)]] was built around 500 AD. At Upkåkra in Sweden, the largest Iron Age settlement in Scandinavia developed from c. 200 AD onwards.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.uppakra.se/faktasidor/uppakra-maktens-centrum/ |title=Upkåkra - The center of power |website=www.uppakra.se}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.lunduniversity.lu.se/article/modern-archaeology-reveals-secrets-iron-age-power-centre |title=Modern archaeology reveals the secrets of Iron age power centre |website=lunduniversity.lu.se |date=2022}}</ref> A wooden temple was built at [[Uppåkra temple|Upkåkra]] in the 3rd century and continued to be used and rebuilt over 600 years, into the early Viking Age.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.academia.edu/36887857/The_Iron_Age_ritual_building_at_Upp%C3%A5kra_southern_Sweden |title=The Iron Age ritual building at Uppåkra, southern Sweden |date=2006}}</ref>

Through the 5th and 6th centuries, [[gold]] and [[silver]] become more and more common. This time saw the ransack of the Roman Empire by Germanic tribes, from which many Scandinavians returned with gold and silver. A new Iron Age had begun in Northern Europe, the Germanic Iron Age.

<gallery>
File:Järnåldern, Romersk bronsstatyett, Nordisk familjebok.png|Roman bronze figurine, Öland, Sweden. Possibly [[Venus (mythology)|Venus]] or [[Juno (mythology)|Juno]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://lup.lub.lu.se/luur/download?func=downloadFile&recordOId=9036664&fileOId=9036665 |title=Vestiges of Roman Cult Religion and Household Deities in the Northern Barbaricum |date=2021 |quote=The Öland statuette of a woman has been interpreted as either a Roman deity, such as Venus and Juno, or possibly a Roman empress}}</ref>
File:Langhuset Veien kulturminnepark 20070722.JPG|Reconstructed Iron Age hall at [[:no:Veien kulturminnepark|Veien]], Norway, 1st-2nd century AD.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://exarc.net/members/venues/veien-kulturminnepark-no |title=Veien Kulturminnepark |access-date=1 May 2022 |archive-date=26 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220526165732/https://exarc.net/members/venues/veien-kulturminnepark-no |url-status=live }}</ref>
File:Fürstengrab Marwedel Grabinventar.jpg|Princely grave of [[:de:Fürstengräber von Marwedel|Marwedel]], Germany, 2nd c. AD
File:Burial goods from the Hoby chieftain's grave, Denmark. Photo by John Lee and Arnold Mikkelsen, Nationalmuseet, Denmark (cropped).jpg|[[Hoby treasure|Hoby chieftain's grave]], Denmark, 1st c. AD.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://en.natmus.dk/historical-knowledge/denmark/prehistoric-period-until-1050-ad/the-early-iron-age/the-chieftains-grave-from-hoby/ |title=The chieftain's grave from Hoby |access-date=1 May 2022 |archive-date=21 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220721080454/https://en.natmus.dk/historical-knowledge/denmark/prehistoric-period-until-1050-ad/the-early-iron-age/the-chieftains-grave-from-hoby/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
File:Halle (Saale), Landesmuseum für Vorgeschichte, Grabinventar eines germanischen Stammesfürsten.jpg|Princely grave of [[:de:Fürstengrab von Gommern|Gommern]], Germany, 3rd c. AD.<ref>{{cite AV media|title=Harald Meller, Halle State Museum of Prehistory, 'Das Fürstengrab von Gommern' (2021)|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VysIyzjMQxM|access-date=2 May 2022|archive-date=27 February 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220227134724/https://www.youtube.com/watch?app=desktop&v=VysIyzjMQxM|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Das germanische Fürstengrab von Gommern|url=http://www.landschaftsmuseum.de/Seiten/Lexikon/Fuerstengrab_Gommern.htm|access-date=21 June 2022|archive-date=5 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305140054/http://www.landschaftsmuseum.de/Seiten/Lexikon/Fuerstengrab_Gommern.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>
File:Krieger von Kemathen Grabnachbildung 1.jpg|alt=|[[:de:Krieger von Kemathen|Warrior of Kemathen]] burial reconstruction, Germany
File:Archäologisches Landesmuseum Schloss Gottorf 035.JPG|alt=
File:Archäologisches Landesmuseum Schloss Gottorf 036.JPG|alt=
File:Bronze figure of a German Bibliothèque Nationale.jpg|alt=
File:Feddersen Wierde Hofmodell.jpg|Farm at [[:de:Feddersen Wierde|Feddersen Wierde]], north Germany, 1st c. BC–5th c. AD
File:02019 1572 (2) Vandals material culture, Vandalic weapons, Subcarpathia between 200 AD and the late Roman Period.jpg|alt=
File:Archäologisches Landesmuseum Schloss Gottorf 037.JPG|alt=
File:Archäologisches Landesmuseum Schloss Gottorf 034.JPG|alt=
File:Smac Römische Kaiserzeit 018.jpg|alt=
File:Himlingøje grave 1878-1 Nationalmuseet.jpg|alt=
File:Germanic shoe.jpg|alt=
</gallery>

===Germanic Iron Age===
The Germanic Iron Age is divided into the Early Germanic Iron Age (EGIA) and the late Germanic Iron Age (LGIA). In [[Sweden]], the LGIA (550–800) is usually called the [[Vendel era]]; in Norway and Finland, the Merovinger ([[Merovingian]]) Age.{{citation needed|date=April 2014}}

The Germanic Iron Age begins with the fall of the [[Roman Empire]] and the rise of the [[Germanic king]]doms in Western Europe.<ref>Early Man in Britain and His Place in the Tertiary Period. By Boyd Dawkins. [https://archive.org/details/earlymaninbrita02dawkgoog/page/n453 p423]</ref> It is followed, in Northern Europe and [[Scandinavia]], by the [[Viking Age]].

During the [[decline of the Roman Empire]], an abundance of gold flowed into Scandinavia;  there are excellent works in gold from this period. Gold was used to make [[scabbard]] mountings and [[bracteate]]s.

After the [[Western Roman Empire]] fell, gold became scarce and Scandinavians began to make objects of gilded bronze, with decorative figures of [[animal style|interlacing animals]]. During the EGIA, decorations tended to be representational; the animal figures were drawn in more basic forms. In the LGIA, artistic styles became more abstract, symbolic, and intricate, including figures with [[interlace (visual arts)|interlaced]] shapes and limbs.

The LGIA in the 8th century blends into the [[Viking Age]] and the proto-historical period, with legendary or semi-legendary oral tradition recorded a few centuries later in the ''[[Gesta Danorum]]'', [[Germanic Heroic Age|heroic legend]] and [[saga]]s, and an incipient tradition of primary written documents in the form of [[runestone]]s.

<gallery>
File:Vendel I helmet 456059.jpg|[[Vendel Period]] helmet, Sweden
File:Germanic bracteate from Funen, Denmark (DR BR42).jpg|Gold [[bracteate]] from [[Funen]], Denmark, with [[Runes|runic]] inscription to [[Odin]]
File:Grab Schleitheim Museum SH.jpg|Burial reconstruction, Germany, 420 AD
File:Guldhornene DO-10765 original.jpg|alt=|[[Golden Horns of Gallehus]], Denmark, 5th century AD
File:The tempel of Uppakra Sweden.jpg|Temple at [[Uppåkra temple|Uppåkra]] in Sweden
</gallery>

==See also==
*[[Archaeology of Denmark]]
*[[List of archaeological periods]] 
*[[Prehistoric Europe]]

==References==
;Notes
{{reflist}}
;Bibliography
* Jørgen Jensen (2002): ''I begyndelsen'', Gyldendal og Politikens Danmarks Historie (Vol. 1), {{ISBN|87-89068-26-2}} {{in lang|da}}
* J. Brandt, ''Jastorf und Latène''. Internat. Arch. 66 (2001)
* John Collis, ''The European Iron Age'' (London and New York: Routledge) 1997. The European Iron Age set in a broader context that includes the Mediterranean and Anatolia.
* W. Künnemann, ''Jastorf – Geschichte und Inhalt eines archäologischen Kulturbegriffs'', Die Kunde N. F. 46 (1995), 61–122.
* Herwig Wolfram, ''Die Germanen'', Beck (1999).
* Ove Eriksson, B, Sara, O. Cousins, and Hans Henrik Bruun, "Land-use history and fragmentation of traditionally managed grasslands in Scandinavia" ''Journal of Vegetation Science'' pp.&nbsp;743–748 ([http://www.bioone.org/perlserv/?request=get-document&issn=1100-9233&volume=013&issue=05&page=0743 On-line abstract])

==External links==
*[https://www.spiegel.de/international/zeitgeist/mapping-ancient-germania-berlin-researchers-crack-the-ptolemy-code-a-720513.html Mapping Ancient Germania: Researchers crack the Ptolemy code (Spiegel International 2010)]
*[https://www.researchgate.net/publication/328996487_Fighting_wars_gaining_status_on_the_rise_of_Germanic_elites_In_Duncan_Sayer_u_Howard_Williams_Hrsg_Mortuary_Practices_and_Social_Identities_in_the_Middle_Ages_Essays_in_Burial_Archaeology_in_Honour_of Fighting wars, gaining status: on the rise of Germanic elites (Burmeister 2018)]

{{Timeline of Prehistoric Scandinavia}}
{{Germanic peoples}}

[[Category:Archaeology of Northern Europe| ]]
[[Category:Periods and stages in archaeology|Northern Europe]]
[[Category:Archaeology in Europe|Northern Europe]]
[[Category:Prehistoric Scandinavia| ]]
[[Category:Archaeological cultures of Europe| ]]
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