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{{Short description|Persian polymath, physician and philosopher (c.980–1037)}}
{{for|the crater|Avicenna (crater)}}
{{redirect-distinguish|Ibn Sīnā|Ali Sina (disambiguation){{!}}Ali Sina|Ibn Sina Peak}}
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{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2023}}
{{Infobox person
| name               = Avicenna<br />{{transliteration|fa|Ibn Sina}}
| native_name        = ابن سینا
| native_name_lang   = fa
| image              = 1950 "Avicenna" stamp of Iran.jpg
| caption            = Portrait of Avicenna on an Iranian [[postage stamp]]
| birth_date         = 980
| birth_place        = Afshana, [[Transoxiana]], [[Samanid Empire]]
| death_date         = {{death date and age|1037|6|22|980||df=y}}<ref name="Islam p. 562">Encyclopedia of Islam: Vol 1, p. 562, Edition I, 1964, Lahore, Pakistan</ref>
| death_place        = [[Hamadan]], [[Kakuyid dynasty]]<br/>(present-day Iran)
| monuments          = [[Avicenna Mausoleum]]
| other_names        = {{flatlist |<!--[Already above:] Avicenna--> 
*Sharaf al-Mulk ({{lang|fa|شرف الملك}})
*Hujjat al-Haq ({{lang|fa|حجة الحق}})
*al-Sheikh al-Ra'is ({{lang|ar|الشيخ الرئيس}})
*{{lang|uz|Ibn-Sino (Abu Ali Abdulloh Ibn-Sino)|italics=no}}
*Bu Alī Sīnā&nbsp;({{lang|fa|بو علی سینا}})
 }}
| module             = {{Infobox philosopher
|embed =yes
| region = [[Middle Eastern philosophy]]
* [[Persian philosophy]]
| era = [[Islamic Golden Age]]
| main_interests = {{startplainlist|class=nowrap}}
* {{hlist |[[Medicine in the medieval Islamic world|Medicine]] |[[History of aromatherapy|Aromatherapy]]}}
* [[Early Islamic philosophy#Avicennism|Philosophy and logic]]
* ''[[Ilm al-Kalam|Kalām]]'' ([[Islamic theology]])
* {{hlist |[[Science in the medieval Islamic world|Science]] |[[Islamic poetry|Poetry]]}}
{{endplainlist}}
| notable_works = {{startplainlist|class=nowrap}}
* ''[[The Book of Healing]]''
* ''[[The Canon of Medicine]]''
{{endplainlist}}
| school_tradition   = [[Aristotelianism]], [[Avicennism]]
| influences = {{hlist|list_style=line-height:1.3em; |[[Hippocrates]] |[[Aristotle]] |[[Galen]] |[[Neoplatonism]]|[[al-Farabi]] |[[Muhammad ibn Zakariya al-Razi|Rhazes]] |[[Al-Biruni]] |[[Abu Sahl 'Isa ibn Yahya al-Masihi|al-Masihi]]| [[Abul Hasan Hankari]]}}
| influenced = {{hlist|list_style=line-height:1.3em; |[[Al-Biruni]] |[[Omar Khayyám]] |[[Al-Ghazali]] |[[Ibn Rushd]] |[[Shahab al-Din Suhrawardi]] |[[Nasīr al-Dīn al-Tūsī|Tusi]] |[[Ibn al-Nafis]] |[[Ibn Tufail]] |[[René Descartes]] |[[Albertus Magnus]] |[[Maimonides]]|[[Duns Scotus]]<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HQ7K_-W7qhIC&q=Duns+Scotus+Avicenna&pg=PA130 |title=The Sheed & Ward Anthology of Catholic Philosophy |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |isbn=978-0-7425-3198-7|year=2005 }}</ref>|[[Aquinas]] |[[William of Ockham]]| |[[Abu 'Ubayd al-Juzjani]] |[[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment philosophers]] |[[Hossein Nasr]]<ref>[[Ramin Jahanbegloo]], ''In Search of the Sacred : A Conversation with Seyyed Hossein Nasr on His Life and Thought'', [[ABC-CLIO]] (2010), p. 59</ref>}}
}}
}}
{{special characters}}
{{Avicenna sidebar}}

'''Ibn Sina''' ({{lang-ar|اِبْن سِینَا|translit=Ibn Sīnā}}; 980&nbsp;– June 1037 CE), commonly known in the West as '''Avicenna''' ({{IPAc-en|ˌ|æ|v|ɪ|ˈ|s|ɛ|n|ə|,_|ˌ|ɑː|v|ɪ|-}}), was the preeminent [[philosopher]] and [[physician]] of the [[Muslim world]],<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia|url=https://iep.utm.edu/avicenna-ibn-sina/|title=Avicenna (Ibn Sina)|encyclopedia=Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy|access-date=13 October 2022|archive-date=6 October 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221006135059/https://iep.utm.edu/avicenna-ibn-sina/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/ibn-sina/ |encyclopedia=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |title=Ibn Sina [Avicenna] |date=15 September 2016}}</ref> flourishing during the [[Islamic Golden Age]], serving in the courts of various [[Iranian peoples|Iranian]] rulers.<ref>* {{harvnb|Adamson|2016|pp=113,117,206}}.<br/>(page 113) "For one thing, it means that he[Avicenna] had a Persian cultural background...he spoke Persian natively and did use it to write philosophy."<br/>(page 117) "But for the time being, it was a Persian from Khurasan who would have commentaries lavished upon him. Avicenna would be known by the honorific of "leading master" (al-shaykh al-raʾis)."<br/>(page 206) "Persians like Avicenna"
* {{harvnb|Bennison|2009|p=[https://archive.org/details/greatcaliphsgold00benn/page/n205 195]}}. "Avicenna was a Persian whose father served the Samanids of Khurasan and Transoxania as the administrator of a rural district outside Bukhara."
* {{cite book |title=A brief history of medicine: from Hippocrates to gene therapy |author=Paul Strathern |publisher=Running Press |year=2005 |page=58 |url=https://archive.org/details/briefhistoryofme0000stra/page/58/mode/ |isbn=978-0-7867-1525-1}}
* {{cite book |title=Medieval Philosophy |author=Brian Duignan |publisher=The Rosen Publishing Group |year=2010 |page=89 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=p9eh18dRTwAC&q=Avicenna+ethnic&pg=PA89 |isbn=978-1-61530-244-4 }}
* {{cite book |title=Central Asian republics |author=Michael Kort |publisher=Infobase Publishing |page=24 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EPCcSZ2dzckC&q=Avicenna+ethnic&pg=PA24 |isbn=978-0-8160-5074-1 |year=2004 }}
* {{harvnb|Goichon|1986|p=941}}. "He was born in 370/980 in Afshana, his mother's home, near Bukhara. His native language was Persian."
* "Avicenna was the greatest of all Persian thinkers; as physician and metaphysician&nbsp;..." ([https://books.google.com/books?id=A8PzaQZwzZQC excerpt] from A.J. Arberry, ''Avicenna on Theology'', Kazi Publications Inc, 1995).
* {{harvnb|Corbin|1998|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=A8PzaQZwzZQC&q=is%20generally%20listed%20as%20chronologically%20first%20among%20noteworthy%20Iranian%20philosophers&pg=PA74 74]}}. "Whereas the name of Avicenna (Ibn Sina, died 1037) is generally listed as chronologically first among noteworthy Iranian philosophers, recent evidence has revealed previous existence of Ismaili philosophical systems with a structure no less complete than of Avicenna."</ref> He is often described as the father of early modern medicine.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Did You Know?: Silk Roads Exchange and the Development of the Medical Sciences {{!}} Programme des Routes de la Soie |url=https://fr.unesco.org/silkroad/node/10757 |access-date=14 January 2023 |website=fr.unesco.org |quote=Scholars from this period include Avicenna (Ibn Sina, 980-1037 CE), who is often described as the father of early modern medicine, the polymath Al-Biruni (973-1050 CE), and the botanist and pharmacist Ibn al-Baitar (1197-1248 CE). |archive-date=14 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114145935/https://fr.unesco.org/silkroad/node/10757 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Saffari |first1=Mohsen |last2=Pakpour |first2=Amir |date=1 December 2012 |title=Avicenna's Canon of Medicine: A Look at Health, Public Health, and Environmental Sanitation |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/233825605 |journal=Archives of Iranian Medicine |volume=15 |issue=12 |pages=785–9 |quote=Avicenna was a well-known Persian and a Muslim scientist who was considered to be the father of early modern medicine. |pmid=23199255 |access-date=11 August 2018 |archive-date=29 March 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200329203255/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/233825605 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DoMVs4HuDAoC&q=avicenna+father+of+modern+medicine&pg=PA33 |title=Advice to the Young Physician: On the Art of Medicine |last=Colgan |first=Richard |date=19 September 2009 |publisher=Springer Science & Business Media |isbn=978-1-4419-1034-9 |page=33 |language=en |quote=Avicenna is known as the father of early modern medicine.}}</ref> His philosophy was of the [[Muslim]] [[Peripatetic school]] derived from [[Aristotelianism]].<ref name="MacTutor Biography|id=Avicenna"/>

His most famous works are ''[[The Book of Healing]]'', a philosophical and scientific encyclopedia, and ''[[The Canon of Medicine]]'', a [[medical encyclopedia]]<ref name="Britannica">{{Cite encyclopedia |year=2007 |title=Avicenna |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica Online |url=https://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9011433/Avicenna |access-date=5 November 2007 |last=Nasr |first=Seyyed Hossein |author-link=Seyyed Hossein Nasr |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071031092920/https://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9011433/Avicenna |archive-date=31 October 2007 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>Edwin Clarke, Charles Donald O'Malley (1996), [https://books.google.com/books?id=Q_rO4ZFpUcgC&pg=PA20 ''The human brain and spinal cord: a historical study illustrated by writings from antiquity to the twentieth century''], Norman Publishing, p.&nbsp;20 ({{ISBN|0-930405-25-0}}).</ref><ref>Iris Bruijn (2009), [https://books.google.com/books?id=2UT89SgQHGgC&pg=PA26 ''Ship's Surgeons of the Dutch East India Company: Commerce and the progress of medicine in the eighteenth century''], [[Amsterdam University Press]], p.&nbsp;26 ({{ISBN|90-8728-051-3}}).</ref> which became a standard medical text at many medieval [[University|universities]]<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://hcs.osu.edu/hort/history/023.html |title=Avicenna 980–1037 |publisher=Hcs.osu.edu |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081007070250/http://hcs.osu.edu/hort/history/023.html |archive-date=7 October 2008 |access-date=19 January 2010}}</ref> and remained in use as late as 1650.<ref>e.g. at the universities of [[University of Montpellier|Montpellier]] and [[Catholic University of Leuven (1834–1968)|Leuven]] (see {{Cite web |url=http://www.indiana.edu/~liblilly/etexts/medicine/#MD02007 |title=Medicine: an exhibition of books relating to medicine and surgery from the collection formed by J.K. Lilly |publisher=Indiana.edu |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091214041352/http://www.indiana.edu/~liblilly/etexts/medicine/ |archive-date=14 December 2009 |access-date=19 January 2010|date=31 August 2004 }}).</ref> Besides philosophy and medicine, Avicenna's corpus includes writings on [[Astronomy in medieval Islam|astronomy]], [[Alchemy and chemistry in medieval Islam|alchemy]], [[Geography and cartography in medieval Islam|geography and geology]], [[Psychology in medieval Islam|psychology]], [[Islamic theology]], [[Logic in Islamic philosophy|logic]], [[Mathematics in medieval Islam|mathematics]], [[Physics in medieval Islam|physics]], and works of [[Islamic poetry|poetry]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/avicenna-index |title=Avicenna", in Encyclopædia Iranica, Online Version 2006 |publisher=Iranica.com |access-date=19 January 2010 |archive-date=29 April 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110429170220/http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/avicenna-index |url-status=live }}</ref>

Avicenna wrote most of his philosophical and scientific works in [[Arabic]], but also wrote several key works in [[Persian language|Persian]], while his poetic works were written in both languages. Of the 450 works <!--[implied by "polymath":] across a wide range of subjects--> he is believed to have written, around 240 have survived, including 150 on philosophy and 40 on medicine.<ref name="MacTutor Biography|id=Avicenna">{{MacTutor Biography|id=Avicenna}}</ref>

== Name ==
''{{lang|la|Avicenna}}'' is a [[Latinisation of names|Latin corruption]] of the [[Arabic name#Nasab|Arabic patronym]] '''Ibn Sīnā''' ({{lang|ar|ابن سينا|rtl=yes}}),<ref>{{Citation |last=Byrne |first=Joseph Patrick |title=Encyclopedia of the Black Death, ''Vol. I'' |date=2012 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5KtDfvlSrDAC |contribution=Avicenna |contribution-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5KtDfvlSrDAC&pg=PA29 |place=[[Santa Barbara, California|Santa Barbara, CA]] |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-1-59884-253-1}}.</ref> meaning "Son of Sina". However, Avicenna was not the son but the great-great-grandson of a man named Sina.<ref>{{Citation |title=Classical Arabic Literature |date=2013 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rpM266Jd4OoC |editor-last=Van Gelder |editor-first=Geert Jan |series=Library of Arabic Literature |contribution=Introduction |place=New York |publisher=New York University Press |isbn=978-0-8147-7120-4 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=rpM266Jd4OoC&pg=PR22 xxii]}}</ref> His formal [[Arabic name]] was '''Abū ʿAlī al-Ḥusayn bin ʿAbdullāh ibn al-Ḥasan bin ʿAlī bin Sīnā al-Balkhi al-Bukhari''' ({{lang|ar|أبو علي الحسين بن عبد الله بن الحسن بن علي بن سينا البلخي البخاري}}).<ref>{{Citation| title=Avicenna| url=https://data.cerl.org/thesaurus/cnp01316451| website=[[Consortium of European Research Libraries]]| access-date=19 August 2021| archive-date=19 August 2021| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210819161217/https://data.cerl.org/thesaurus/cnp01316451| url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |author=Avicenna |title=Majmoo' rasaa'il al-sheikh al-ra'iis abi Ali al-Hussein ibn Abdullah ibn Sina al-Bukhari |script-title=ar:مجموع رسائل الشيخ الرئيس اب علي الحسين ابن عبدالله ابن سينا البخاري |trans-title=The Grand Sheikh Ibn Sina's Collection of Treatises |publisher=Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Press |place=[[Hyderabad State|Haydarabad Al-Dakan]] |edition=first |url=https://www.wdl.org/en/item/7461/ |website=[[World Digital Library]] |year=1935 |access-date=19 August 2021 |archive-date=19 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210819161215/https://www.wdl.org/en/item/7461/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

== Circumstances ==
Avicenna created an extensive corpus of works during what is commonly known as the [[Islamic Golden Age]], in which the translations of [[Byzantine]] [[Greco-Roman]], [[Persia]]n and [[India]]n texts were studied extensively. Greco-Roman ([[Middle Platonism|Mid-]] and [[Neoplatonism|Neo-Platonic]], and [[Aristotelianism|Aristotelian]]) texts translated by the [[Al-Kindi|Kindi]] school were commented, redacted and developed substantially by Islamic intellectuals, who also built upon Persian and [[Indian mathematics|Indian mathematical]] systems, [[Indian astronomy|astronomy]], [[algebra]], [[trigonometry]] and [[Ancient Iranian Medicine|medicine]].<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |year=2007 |title=Major periods of Muslim education and learning |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica Online |url=https://www.britannica.com/eb/article-47496/education |access-date=16 December 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071212112030/https://www.britannica.com/eb/article-47496/education |archive-date=12 December 2007 |url-status=live}}</ref>

The [[Samanid dynasty]] in the eastern part of [[Persia]], [[Greater Khorasan]] and Central Asia as well as the [[Buyid dynasty]] in the western part of Persia and [[Iraq]] provided a thriving atmosphere for scholarly and cultural development. Under the Samanids, [[Bukhara]] rivaled [[Baghdad]] as a cultural capital of the [[Islamic world]].<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |year=2007 |title=Iran |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica Online |url=http://p2.www.britannica.com/oscar/print?articleId=106324&fullArticle=true&tocId=9106324 |access-date=16 December 2007 |last=Afary |first=Janet |author-link=Janet Afary |archive-date=13 August 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130813184232/http://p2.www.britannica.com/oscar/print?articleId=106324&fullArticle=true&tocId=9106324 |url-status=live }}</ref> There, Avicenna had access to the great libraries of [[Balkh]], [[Khwarezm]], [[Gorgan]], [[Ray, Iran|Rey]], [[Isfahan]] and [[Hamadan]].

Various texts (such as the 'Ahd with Bahmanyar) show that Avicenna debated philosophical points with the greatest scholars of the time. [[Aruzi Samarqandi]] describes how before Avicenna left [[Khwarezm]] he had met [[Al-Biruni]] (a famous scientist and astronomer), [[Abu Nasr Mansur|Abu Nasr Iraqi]] (a renowned mathematician), [[Abu Sahl Masihi]] (a respected philosopher) and Abu al-Khayr Khammar (a great physician). The study of the [[Quran]] and the [[Hadith]] also thrived, and Islamic philosophy, ''[[fiqh]]'' and [[theology]] (''[[kalaam]]'') were all further developed by Avicenna and his opponents at this time.

== Biography ==
=== Early life and education ===
Avicenna was born in {{circa|980}} in the village of Afshana in [[Transoxiana]] to a Persian family.<ref>According to {{harvnb|El-Bizri|2006|p=369}}, Avicenna was "of Persian descent". According to {{harvnb|Khalidi|2005|p=xviii}}, Avicenna was "born of Persian parentage". According to {{harvnb|Copleston|1993|p=190}}, Avicenna was "Persian by birth". {{harvnb|Gutas|2014|pp=xi,310}}, mentions Avicenna as an example for "Persian-born authors" and speaks of "presumed Persian origins" for Avicenna. {{harvnb|Glick|Livesey|Wallis|2005|p=256}}, states "An ethnic Persian, he [Avicenna] was born in Kharmaithen, near Bukhara".</ref> The village was near the [[Samanid Empire|Samanid]] capital of [[Bukhara]], which was his mother's hometown.{{sfn|Goichon|1986|p=941}} His father Abd Allah was a native of the city of [[Balkh]] in [[Tukharistan]].{{sfn|Gutas|2014|p=11}} An official of the Samanid bureaucracy, he had served as the governor of a village of the royal estate of Harmaytan (near Bukhara) during the reign of [[Nuh II]] ({{reign|976|997}}).{{sfn|Gutas|2014|p=11}} Avicenna also had a younger brother. A few years later, the family settled in Bukhara, a center of learning, which attracted many scholars. It was there that Avicenna was educated, which early on was seemingly administered by his father.{{sfn|Gutas|1987|pp=67–70}}{{sfn|Gutas|2014|p=12}}{{sfn|Adamson|2013|p=8}} Although both Avicenna's father and brother had converted to [[Ismailism]], he himself did not follow the faith.{{sfn|Daftary|2017|p=191}}{{sfn|Daftary|2007|pp=202–203}} He was instead an adherent of the [[Sunni]] [[Hanafi]] school, which was also followed by the Samanids.{{sfn|Gutas|1988|pp=330–331}}

Avicenna was first schooled in the [[Quran]] and literature, and by the age of 10, he had [[Hafiz (Quran)|memorized the entire Quran]].{{sfn|Gutas|2014|p=12}} He was later sent by his father to an Indian greengrocer, who taught him [[arithmetic]].{{sfn|Gutas|2014|p=13}} Afterwards, he was schooled in [[Jurisprudence]] by the Hanafi [[jurist]] Ismail al-Zahid. Some time later, Avicenna's father invited the physician and philosopher Abu Abdallah al-Natili to their house to educate Avicenna.{{sfn|Gutas|2014|p=12}}{{sfn|Adamson|2013|p=8}} Together, they studied the ''[[Isagoge]]'' of [[Porphyry (philosopher)|Porphyry]] (died 305) and possibly the [[Categories (Aristotle)|''Categories'']] of [[Aristotle]] (died 322 BC) as well. After Avicenna had read the ''[[Almagest]]'' of [[Ptolemy]] (died 170) and ''[[Euclid's Elements]]'', Natili told him to continue his research independently.{{sfn|Adamson|2013|p=8}} By the time Avicenna was eighteen, he was well-educated in Greek sciences. Although Avicenna only mentions Natili as his teacher in his [[autobiography]], he most likely had other teachers as well, such as the physicians Abu Mansur Qumri and [[Abu Sahl 'Isa ibn Yahya al-Masihi|Abu Sahl al-Masihi]].{{sfn|Gutas|1987|pp=67–70}}{{sfn|Gutas|2014|p=13}}

=== Career ===
==== In Bukhara and Gurganj ====
[[File:Transoxiana 8th century.svg|thumb|right|300px|alt=Geophysical map of southern Central Asia (Khurasan and Transoxiana) with the major settlements and regions|Map of [[Khurasan]] and [[Transoxiana]]]]
At the age of seventeen, Avicenna was made a physician of [[Nuh II]]. By the time Avicenna was at least 21 years old, his father died. He was subsequently given an administrative post, possibly succeeding his father as the governor of Harmaytan. Avicenna later moved to [[Gurganj]], the capital of [[Khwarazm]], which he reports that he did due to "necessity". The date he went to the place is uncertain, as he reports that he served the ''[[Khwarazmshah]]'' (ruler) of the region, the [[Ma'munids|Ma'munid]] [[Abu al-Hasan Ali]]. The latter ruled from 997 to 1009, which indicates that Avicenna moved sometime during that period. He may have moved in 999, the year which the Samanid state fell after the Turkic [[Qarakhanids]] captured Bukhara and imprisoned the Samanid ruler [[Abd al-Malik II (Samanid emir)|Abd al-Malik II]]. Due to his high position and strong connection with the Samanids, Avicenna may have found himself in an unfavorable position after the fall of his suzerain.{{sfn|Gutas|1987|pp=67–70}} It was through the minister of Gurganj, Abu'l-Husayn as-Sahi, a patron of Greek sciences, that Avicenna entered into the service of Abu al-Hasan Ali.{{sfn|Gutas|2014|p=19 (see also note 28)}} Under the Ma'munids, Gurganj became a centre of learning, attracting many prominent figures, such as Avicenna and his former teacher Abu Sahl al-Masihi, the mathematician [[Abu Nasr Mansur]], the physician [[Ibn al-Khammar]], and the [[philologist]] [[al-Tha'alibi]].{{sfn|Bosworth|1978|p=1066}}{{sfn|Bosworth|1984a|pp=762–764}}

==== In Gurgan ====
Avicenna later moved due to "necessity" once more (in 1012), this time to the west. There he travelled through the [[Khurasan]]i cities of [[Nisa, Turkmenistan|Nasa]], [[Abivard]], [[Tus, Iran|Tus]], [[Samangan, Torbat-e Jam|Samangan]] and [[Jajarm]]. He was planning to visit the ruler of the city of [[Gurgan]], the [[Ziyarid dynasty|Ziyarid]] [[Qabus]] ({{reign|977|981|997|1012}}), a cultivated patron of writing, whose court attracted many distinguished poets and scholars. However, when Avicenna eventually arrived, he discovered that the ruler had been dead since the winter of 1013.{{sfn|Gutas|1987|pp=67–70}}{{sfn|Madelung|1975|p=215}} Avicenna then left Gurgan for [[Dihistan]], but returned after becoming ill. There he met [[Abu 'Ubayd al-Juzjani]] (died 1070) who became his pupil and companion.{{sfn|Gutas|1987|pp=67–70}}{{sfn|Gutas|2014|pp=19, 29}} Avicenna stayed briefly in Gurgan, reportedly serving Qabus's son and successor [[Manuchihr]] ({{reign|1012|1031}}) and resided in the house of a patron.{{sfn|Gutas|1987|pp=67–70}}

==== In Ray and Hamadan ====
[[File:Gold dinar of Majd al-Dawla, the last ruler of the Buyid amirate of Ray.jpg|thumb|Coin of [[Majd al-Dawla]] ({{reign|997|1029}}), the ''[[amir]]'' (ruler) of the [[Buyid]] branch of [[Ray, Iran|Ray]]]]
In {{circa|1014}}, Avicenna went to the city of [[Ray, Iran|Ray]], where he entered into the service of the [[Buyid]] ''[[amir]]'' (ruler) [[Majd al-Dawla]] ({{reign|997|1029}}) and his mother [[Sayyida Shirin]], the ''de facto'' ruler of the realm. There he served as the physician at the court, treating Majd al-Dawla, who was suffering from [[melancholia]]. Avicenna reportedly later served as the "business manager" of Sayyida Shirin in [[Qazvin]] and [[Hamadan]], though details regarding this tenure are unclear.{{sfn|Gutas|1987|pp=67–70}}{{sfn|Adamson|2013|p=14}} During this period, Avicenna finished his ''[[The Canon of Medicine|Canon of Medicine]]'', and started writing his ''[[Book of Healing]]''.{{sfn|Adamson|2013|p=14}}

In 1015, during Avicenna's stay in Hamadan, he participated in a public debate, as was custom for newly arrived scholars in western Iran at that time. The purpose of the debate was to examine one's reputation against a prominent local resident.{{sfn|Adamson|2013|pp=15–16}} The person whom Avicenna debated against was Abu'l-Qasim al-Kirmani, a member of the school of philosophers of [[Baghdad]].{{sfn|Adamson|2013|p=15}} The debate became heated, resulting in Avicenna accusing Abu'l-Qasim of lack of basic knowledge in [[logic]], while Abu'l-Qasim accused Avicenna of impoliteness.{{sfn|Adamson|2013|pp=15–16}} After the debate, Avicenna sent a letter to the Baghdad Peripatetics, asking if Abu'l-Qasim's claim that he shared the same opinion as them was true. Abu'l-Qasim later retaliated by writing a letter to an unknown person, in which he made accusations so serious, that Avicenna wrote to a deputy of Majd al-Dawla, named Abu Sa'd, to investigate the matter. The accusation made towards Avicenna may have been the same as he had received earlier, in which he was accused by the people of Hamadan of copying the stylistic structures of the Quran in his ''Sermons on Divine Unity''.{{sfn|Adamson|2013|pp=16–18}} The seriousness of this charge, in the words of the historian Peter Adamson, "cannot be underestimated in the larger Muslim culture."{{sfn|Adamson|2013|p=17}}

Not long afterwards, Avicenna shifted his allegiance to the rising Buyid ''amir'' [[Shams al-Dawla]] (the younger brother of Majd al-Dawla), which Adamson suggests was due to Abu'l-Qasim also working under Sayyida Shirin.{{sfn|Adamson|2013|p=18}}{{sfn|Madelung|1975|p=293}} Avicenna had been called upon by Shams al-Dawla to treat him, but after the latter's campaign in the same year against his former ally, the [[Annazids|Annazid]] ruler Abu Shawk ({{reign|1010|1046}}), he forced Avicenna to become his [[vizier]].{{sfn|Adamson|2013|p=18 (see also note 45)}} Although Avicenna would sometimes clash with Shams al-Dawla's troops, he remained vizier until the latter died of [[colic]] in 1021. Avicenna was asked by Shams al-Dawla's son and successor [[Sama' al-Dawla]] ({{reign|1021|1023}}) to stay as vizier, but instead went into hiding with his patron Abu Ghalib al-Attar, to wait for better opportunities to emerge. It was during this period that Avicenna was secretly in contact with [[Ala al-Dawla Muhammad]] ({{reign|1008|1041}}), the [[Kakuyids|Kakuyid]] ruler of [[Isfahan]] and uncle of Sayyida Shirin.{{sfn|Gutas|1987|pp=67–70}}{{sfn|Adamson|2013|p=22}}{{sfn|Bosworth|1984b|pp=773–774}}

It was during his stay at Attar's home that Avicenna completed his ''Book of Healing'', writing 50 pages a day.{{sfn|Adamson|2013|pp=22–23}} The Buyid court in Hamadan, particularly the [[Kurds|Kurdish]] vizier Taj al-Mulk, suspected Avicenna of correspondence with Ala al-Dawla, and as result had the house of Attar ransacked and Avicenna imprisoned in the fortress of Fardajan, outside Hamadan. Juzjani blames one of Avicenna's informers for his capture. Avicenna was imprisoned for four months, until Ala al-Dawla captured Hamadan, thus putting an end to Sama al-Dawla's reign.{{sfn|Gutas|1987|pp=67–70}}{{sfn|Adamson|2013|p=23}}

==== In Isfahan ====
[[File:MuhammadibnRustamDushmanziyarCoin.jpg|thumb|left|Coin of [[Ala al-Dawla Muhammad]] ({{reign|1008|1041}}), the [[Kakuyids|Kakuyid]] ruler of [[Isfahan]]]]
Avicenna was subsequently released, and went to Isfahan, where he was well received by Ala al-Dawla. In the words of Juzjani, the Kakuyid ruler gave Avicenna "the respect and esteem which someone like him deserved."{{sfn|Gutas|1987|pp=67–70}} Adamson also says that Avicenna's service under Ala al-Dawla "proved to be the most stable period of his life."{{sfn|Adamson|2013|p=25}} Avicenna served as the advisor, if not vizier of Ala al-Dawla, accompanying him in many of his military expeditions and travels.{{sfn|Gutas|1987|pp=67–70}}{{sfn|Adamson|2013|p=25}} Avicenna dedicated two Persian works to him, a philosophical treatise named ''[[Daneshnameh-ye Alai|Danish-nama-yi Ala'i]]'' ("Book of Science for Ala"), and a medical treatise about the pulse.{{sfn|Lazard|1975|p=630}}
[[File:Мавзолей Авиценны 1.JPG|thumb|The [[Avicenna Mausoleum|Mausoleum of Avicenna]], [[Hamadan]], [[Iran]]]]
During the brief occupation of Isfahan by the [[Ghaznavids]] in January 1030, Avicenna and Ala al-Dawla relocated to the southwestern Iranian region of [[Khuzestan Province|Khuzistan]], where they stayed until the death of the Ghaznavid ruler [[Mahmud of Ghazni|Mahmud]] ({{reign|998|1030}}), which occurred two months later. It was seemingly when Avicenna returned to Isfahan that he started writing his ''Pointers and Reminders''.{{sfn|Gutas|2014|p=133}} In 1037, while Avicenna was accompanying Ala al-Dawla to a battle near Isfahan, he contracted a severe colic, which he had been suffering from throughout his life. He died shortly afterwards in Hamadan, where he was buried.{{sfn|Adamson|2013|p=26}}

== Philosophy ==

Avicenna wrote extensively on [[early Islamic philosophy]], especially the subjects [[logic]], [[ethics]] and [[metaphysics]], including treatises named ''Logic'' and ''Metaphysics''. Most of his works were written in [[Arabic]]—then the language of science in the Middle East—and some in [[Persian language|Persian]]. Of linguistic significance even to this day are a few books that he wrote in nearly pure Persian language (particularly the Danishnamah-yi 'Ala', Philosophy for Ala' ad-Dawla'). Avicenna's commentaries on Aristotle often criticized the philosopher,<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Stroumsa |first=Sarah |date=1992 |title=Avicenna's Philosophical Stories: Aristotle's Poetics Reinterpreted |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/4057059 |journal=Arabica |volume=39 |issue=2 |pages=183–206 |doi=10.1163/157005892X00166 |jstor=4057059 |issn=0570-5398 |access-date=13 October 2022 |archive-date=13 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221013112327/https://www.jstor.org/stable/4057059 |url-status=live }}</ref> encouraging a lively debate in the spirit of [[ijtihad]].

Avicenna's [[Platonism in Islamic Philosophy|Neoplatonic]] scheme of "emanations" became fundamental in the ''[[Kalam]]'' (school of theological discourse) in the 12th century.<ref>Nahyan A.G. Fancy (2006), pp.&nbsp;80–81, "Pulmonary Transit and Bodily Resurrection: The Interaction of Medicine, Philosophy and Religion in the Works of Ibn al-Nafīs (d. 1288)", ''Electronic Theses and Dissertations'', [http://etd.nd.edu/ETD-db/theses/available/etd-11292006-152615 University of Notre Dame] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150404020329/http://etd.nd.edu/ETD-db/theses/available/etd-11292006-152615/ |date=4 April 2015 }} {{page needed|date=February 2015}}</ref>

His ''Book of Healing'' became available in Europe in partial Latin translation some fifty years after its composition, under the title ''Sufficientia'', and some authors have identified a "Latin Avicennism" as flourishing for some time, paralleling the more influential Latin [[Averroism]], but suppressed by the [[Condemnations of 1210–1277|Parisian decrees of 1210 and 1215]].<ref><!--there is apparently a whole body of scholarly controversy behind this, and you shouldn't just drop this stuff in passing as if it were factual. Google "Latin Avicennism" and you get material for a giant and involved article in its own right-->
c.f. e.g.
Henry Corbin, ''History of Islamic Philosophy'', Routledge, 2014, [https://books.google.com/books?id=l9bgAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA174 p. 174].
Henry Corbin, ''Avicenna and the Visionary Recital'', Princeton University Press, 2014, [https://books.google.com/books?id=1P3_AwAAQBAJ&pg=PA103 p. 103].</ref>

Avicenna's psychology and theory of knowledge influenced [[William of Auvergne, Bishop of Paris]]<ref name="IEP">{{Cite web |url=http://www.iep.utm.edu/a/avicenna.htm#H5 |title=The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Avicenna (Ibn Sina) (c. 980–1037) |date=6 January 2006 |publisher=Iep.utm.edu |access-date=19 January 2010 |archive-date=6 April 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090406100921/http://iep.utm.edu/a/avicenna.htm#H5 |url-status=live }}</ref> and [[Albertus Magnus]],<ref name=IEP /> while his metaphysics influenced the thought of [[Thomas Aquinas]].<ref name=IEP />

=== Metaphysical doctrine ===
{{Technical|section|date=January 2014}}
Early Islamic philosophy and [[Islamic metaphysics]], imbued as it is with [[Kalam|Islamic theology]], distinguishes between essence and existence more clearly than Aristotelianism. Whereas existence is the domain of the contingent and the accidental, essence endures within a being beyond the accidental. The philosophy of Avicenna, particularly that part relating to metaphysics, owes much to al-Farabi. The search for a definitive Islamic philosophy separate from [[Occasionalism]] can be seen in what is left of his work.

Following al-Farabi's lead, Avicenna initiated a full-fledged inquiry into the question of being, in which he distinguished between essence (''Mahiat'') and existence (''Wujud''). He argued that the fact of existence cannot be inferred from or accounted for by the essence of existing things, and that form and matter by themselves cannot interact and originate the movement of the universe or the progressive actualization of existing things. Existence must, therefore, be due to an [[Causality|agent-cause]] that necessitates, imparts, gives, or adds existence to an essence. To do so, the cause must be an existing thing and coexist with its effect.<ref name="Islam in Britannica">{{Cite encyclopedia |year=2007 |title=Islam |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica Online |url=https://www.britannica.com/eb/article-69190/Islam |access-date=27 November 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071222082832/https://www.britannica.com/eb/article-69190/Islam |archive-date=22 December 2007 |url-status=live}}</ref>

Avicenna's consideration of the essence-attributes question may be elucidated in terms of his ontological analysis of the modalities of being; namely impossibility, contingency and necessity. Avicenna argued that the impossible being is that which cannot exist, while the contingent in itself (''mumkin bi-dhatihi'') has the potentiality to be or not to be without entailing a contradiction. When actualized, the contingent becomes a 'necessary existent due to what is other than itself' (''wajib al-wujud bi-ghayrihi''). Thus, contingency-in-itself is potential beingness that could eventually be actualized by an external cause other than itself. The metaphysical structures of necessity and contingency are different. Necessary being due to itself (''wajib al-wujud bi-dhatihi'') is true in itself, while the contingent being is 'false in itself' and 'true due to something else other than itself'. The necessary is the source of its own being without borrowed existence. It is what always exists.<ref>Avicenna, ''Kitab al-shifa', Metaphysics II'', (eds.) G.C. Anawati, Ibrahim Madkour, Sa'id Zayed (Cairo, 1975), p. 36</ref><ref>[[Nader El-Bizri]], "Avicenna and Essentialism," ''Review of Metaphysics'', Vol. 54 (2001), pp.&nbsp;753–778</ref>

The Necessary exists 'due-to-Its-Self', and has no quiddity/essence (''mahiyya'') other than existence (''wujud''). Furthermore, It is 'One' (''wahid ahad'')<ref>Avicenna, ''Metaphysica of Avicenna'', trans. Parviz Morewedge (New York, 1973), p. 43.</ref> since there cannot be more than one 'Necessary-Existent-due-to-Itself' without differentia (fasl) to distinguish them from each other. Yet, to require differentia entails that they exist 'due-to-themselves' as well as 'due to what is other than themselves'; and this is contradictory. However, if no differentia distinguishes them from each other, then there is no sense in which these 'Existents' are not one and the same.<ref name="Nader El-Bizri 2000">Nader El-Bizri, ''The Phenomenological Quest between Avicenna and Heidegger'' (Binghamton, N.Y.: Global Publications SUNY, 2000)</ref> Avicenna adds that the 'Necessary-Existent-due-to-Itself' has no genus (''jins''), nor a definition (''hadd''), nor a counterpart (''nadd''), nor an opposite (''did''), and is detached (''bari'') from matter (''madda''), quality (''kayf''), quantity (''kam''), place (''ayn''), situation (''wad'') and time (''waqt'').<ref>Avicenna, ''Kitab al-Hidaya'', ed. Muhammad 'Abdu (Cairo, 1874), pp.&nbsp;262–263</ref><ref>Salem Mashran, ''al-Janib al-ilahi 'ind Ibn Sina'' (Damascus, 1992), p. 99</ref><ref>Nader El-Bizri, "Being and Necessity: A Phenomenological Investigation of Avicenna's Metaphysics and Cosmology," in ''Islamic Philosophy and Occidental Phenomenology on the Perennial Issue of Microcosm and Macrocosm'', ed. Anna-Teresa Tymieniecka (Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 2006), pp.&nbsp;243–261</ref>

Avicenna's theology on metaphysical issues (''ilāhiyyāt'') has been criticized by some [[Islamic scholars]], among them [[al-Ghazali]], [[Ibn Taymiyya]] and [[Ibn al-Qayyim]].<ref>Ibn al-Qayyim, ''Eghaathat al-Lahfaan'', Published: Al Ashqar University (2003) Printed by International Islamic Publishing House: Riyadh.</ref>{{page needed|date=April 2016}} While discussing the views of the theists among the Greek philosophers, namely [[Socrates]], [[Plato]] and [[Aristotle]] in ''Al-Munqidh min ad-Dalal'' ("Deliverance from Error"), al-Ghazali noted that the Greek philosophers "must be taxed with unbelief, as must their partisans among the Muslim philosophers, such as Avicenna and al-Farabi and their likes." He added that "None, however, of the Muslim philosophers engaged so much in transmitting Aristotle's lore as did the two men just mentioned. [...] The sum of what we regard as the authentic philosophy of Aristotle, as transmitted by al-Farabi and Avicenna, can be reduced to three parts: a part which must be branded as unbelief; a part which must be stigmatized as innovation; and a part which need not be repudiated at all."<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://www.aub.edu.lb/fas/cvsp/Documents/reading_selections/CVSP%20202/Al-ghazali.pdf |title=al-Munqidh min al-Dalal |last=Ibn Muḥammad al-Ghazālī |first=Abū Ḥāmid Muḥammad |publisher=American University of Beirut |year=1980 |location=Boston |page=10 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304095350/https://www.aub.edu.lb/fas/cvsp/Documents/reading_selections/CVSP%20202/Al-ghazali.pdf |archive-date=4 March 2016 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

=== Argument for God's existence ===
{{Main|Proof of the Truthful}}
Avicenna made an [[argument]] for the [[existence of God]] which would be known as the "[[Proof of the Truthful]]" ([[Arabic]]: ''burhan al-siddiqin''). Avicenna argued that there must be a "necessary existent" (Arabic: ''wajib al-wujud''), an entity that cannot ''not'' exist{{sfn|Adamson|2013|p=170}} and through a series of arguments, he identified it with [[God in Islam|the Islamic conception of God]].{{sfn|Adamson|2013|p=171}} Present-day [[History of philosophy|historian of philosophy]] [[Peter Adamson (philosopher)|Peter Adamson]] called this argument one of the most influential medieval arguments for God's existence, and Avicenna's biggest contribution to the history of philosophy.{{sfn|Adamson|2013|p=170}}

=== Al-Biruni correspondence ===
Correspondence between Avicenna (with his student Ahmad ibn 'Ali al-Ma'sumi) and [[Al-Biruni]] has survived in which they debated [[Aristotelianism|Aristotelian]] [[natural philosophy]] and the [[Peripatetic school]]. Abu Rayhan began by asking Avicenna eighteen questions, ten of which were criticisms of Aristotle's ''[[On the Heavens]]''.<ref>Rafik Berjak and Muzaffar Iqbal, "Ibn Sina—Al-Biruni correspondence", ''Islam & Science'', June 2003.</ref>

=== Theology ===
Avicenna was a devout Muslim and sought to reconcile rational philosophy with Islamic theology. His aim was to prove the existence of God and His creation of the world scientifically and through [[reason]] and [[logic]].<ref name="Goodman-8-9">Lenn Evan Goodman (2003), ''Islamic Humanism'', pp.&nbsp;8–9, [[Oxford University Press]], {{ISBN|0-19-513580-6}}.</ref> Avicenna's views on Islamic theology (and philosophy) were enormously influential, forming part of the core of the curriculum at Islamic religious schools until the 19th century.<ref>James W. Morris (1992), "The Philosopher-Prophet in Avicenna's Political Philosophy", in C. Butterworth (ed.), ''The Political Aspects of Islamic Philosophy'', {{ISBN|978-0-932885-07-4}}, Chapter 4, Cambridge [[Harvard University Press]], pp. 152–198 [p. 156].</ref> Avicenna wrote a number of short treatises dealing with Islamic theology. These included treatises on the [[Islamic prophet|prophets]] (whom he viewed as "inspired philosophers"), and also on various scientific and philosophical interpretations of the Quran, such as how Quranic [[cosmology]] corresponds to his own philosophical system. In general these treatises linked his philosophical writings to Islamic religious ideas; for example, the body's afterlife.

There are occasional brief hints and allusions in his longer works, however, that Avicenna considered philosophy as the only sensible way to distinguish real prophecy from illusion. He did not state this more clearly because of the political implications of such a theory, if prophecy could be questioned, and also because most of the time he was writing shorter works which concentrated on explaining his theories on philosophy and theology clearly, without digressing to consider [[epistemological]] matters which could only be properly considered by other philosophers.<ref>James W. Morris (1992), "The Philosopher-Prophet in Avicenna's Political Philosophy", in C. Butterworth (ed.), ''The Political Aspects of Islamic Philosophy'', Chapter 4, Cambridge [[Harvard University Press]], pp. 152–198 [pp. &nbsp;160–161].</ref>

Later interpretations of Avicenna's philosophy split into three different schools; those (such as [[Nasir al-Din al-Tusi|al-Tusi]]) who continued to apply his philosophy as a system to interpret later political events and scientific advances; those (such as [[Fakhr al-Din al-Razi|al-Razi]]) who considered Avicenna's theological works in isolation from his wider philosophical concerns; and those (such as [[al-Ghazali]]) who selectively used parts of his philosophy to support their own attempts to gain greater spiritual insights through a variety of mystical means. It was the theological interpretation championed by those such as al-Razi which eventually came to predominate in the [[madrasahs]].<ref>James W. Morris (1992), "The Philosopher-Prophet in Avicenna's Political Philosophy", in C. Butterworth (ed.), ''The Political Aspects of Islamic Philosophy'', Chapter 4, Cambridge [[Harvard University Press]], pp. 152–198 [pp.&nbsp;156–158].</ref>

Avicenna [[Hafiz (Quran)|memorized the Quran]] by the age of ten, and as an adult, he wrote five treatises commenting on [[sura]]s from the Quran. One of these texts included the ''Proof of Prophecies'', in which he comments on several Quranic verses and holds the Quran in high esteem. Avicenna argued that the Islamic prophets should be considered higher than philosophers.<ref>Jules Janssens (2004), "Avicenna and the Qur'an: A Survey of his Qur'anic commentaries", ''MIDEO'' '''25''', p.&nbsp;177–192.</ref>

Avicenna is generally understood to have been aligned with the [[Sunni]] [[Hanafi]] school of thought.<ref name="Aisha Khan">{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=B8k3fsvGRyEC&pg=PA38 |title=Avicenna (Ibn Sina): Muslim physician and philosopher of the eleventh century |last=Aisha Khan |publisher=The Rosen Publishing Group |year=2006 |isbn=978-1-4042-0509-3 |page=38}}</ref><ref name="Janssens91" /> Avicenna studied [[Hanafi]] law, many of his notable teachers were [[Hanafi]] jurists, and he served under the Hanafi court of Ali ibn Mamun.<ref>{{Citation |last=DIMITRI GUTAS |publisher=Istituto per l'Oriente C. A. Nallino|jstor=25802612 |title=Avicenna's "maḏhab" with an Appendix on the Question of His Date of Birth |journal=Quaderni di Studi Arabi |volume=5/6 |pages=323–336 |year=1987 }}</ref><ref name="Aisha Khan" /> Avicenna said at an early age that he remained "unconvinced" by Ismaili missionary attempts to convert him.<ref name="Aisha Khan" /> Medieval historian Ẓahīr al-dīn al-Bayhaqī (d. 1169) also believed Avicenna to be a follower of the [[Brethren of Purity]].<ref name="Janssens91">{{Cite book |last=Janssens |first=Jules L. |title=An annotated bibliography on Ibn Sînâ (1970–1989): including Arabic and Persian publications and Turkish and Russian references |publisher=Leuven University Press |year=1991 |isbn=978-90-6186-476-9 |pages=89–90}} excerpt: "...&nbsp;Dimitri Gutas's ''Avicenna's maḏhab'' convincingly demonstrates that I.S. was a sunnî-Ḥanafî."[https://books.google.com/books?id=3KizrKA5YJ8C&q=ibn%20sina%20hanafi&pg=PA90] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220627124106/https://books.google.com/books?id=3KizrKA5YJ8C&pg=PA90&q=ibn%20sina%20hanafi|date=27 June 2022}}</ref>

=== Thought experiments ===
{{Main|Floating man}}
While he was imprisoned in the castle of Fardajan near Hamadhan, Avicenna wrote his famous "[[floating man]]"—literally falling man—a [[thought experiment]] to demonstrate human [[self-awareness]] and the substantiality and immateriality of the soul. Avicenna believed his "Floating Man" thought experiment demonstrated that the soul is a substance, and claimed humans cannot doubt their own consciousness, even in a situation that prevents all sensory data input. The thought experiment told its readers to imagine themselves created all at once while suspended in the air, isolated from all [[Wikt:sensation|sensations]], which includes no sensory contact with even their own bodies. He argued that, in this scenario, one would still have [[self-consciousness]]. Because it is conceivable that a person, suspended in air while cut off from [[empirical evidence|sense experience]], would still be capable of determining his own existence, the thought experiment points to the conclusions that the soul is a perfection, independent of the body, and an immaterial substance.<ref>See a discussion of this in connection with an analytic take on the philosophy of mind in: [[Nader El-Bizri]], 'Avicenna and the Problem of Consciousness', in ''Consciousness and the Great Philosophers'', eds. S. Leach and [[James Tartaglia|J. Tartaglia]] (London: Routledge, 2016), 45–53</ref> The conceivability of this "Floating Man" indicates that the soul is perceived intellectually, which entails the soul's separateness from the body. Avicenna referred to the living human [[nous|intelligence]], particularly the [[active intellect]], which he believed to be the [[hypostatic abstraction|hypostasis]] by which God communicates [[truth]] to the human mind and imparts order and intelligibility to nature. Following is an English translation of the argument:

{{blockquote|One of us (i.e. a human being) should be imagined as having been created in a single stroke; created perfect and complete but with his vision obscured so that he cannot perceive external entities; created falling through air or a void, in such a manner that he is not struck by the firmness of the air in any way that compels him to feel it, and with his limbs separated so that they do not come in contact with or touch each other. Then contemplate the following: can he be assured of the existence of himself? He does not have any doubt in that his self exists, without thereby asserting that he has any exterior limbs, nor any internal organs, neither heart nor brain, nor any one of the exterior things at all; but rather he can affirm the existence of himself, without thereby asserting there that this self has any extension in space. Even if it were possible for him in that state to imagine a hand or any other limb, he would not imagine it as being a part of his self, nor as a condition for the existence of that self; for as you know that which is asserted is different from that which is not asserted and that which is inferred is different from that which is not inferred. Therefore the self, the existence of which has been asserted, is a unique characteristic, in as much that it is not as such the same as the body or the limbs, which have not been ascertained. Thus that which is ascertained (i.e. the self), does have a way of being sure of the existence of the soul as something other than the body, even something non-bodily; this he knows, this he should understand intuitively, if it is that he is ignorant of it and needs to be beaten with a stick [to realize it].|Ibn Sina|Kitab Al-Shifa, On the Soul<ref name="Nader El-Bizri 2000" /><ref>Ibn Sina, ''الفن السادس من الطبيعيات من كتاب الشفاء القسم الأول'' (Beirut, Lebanon.: M.A.J.D Enterprise Universitaire d'Etude et de Publication S.A.R.L)
{{blockquote|{{lang|ar|يجب أن يتوهم الواحد منا كأنه خلق دفعةً وخلق كاملاً لكنه حجب بصره عن مشاهدة الخارجات وخلق يهوى في هواء أو خلاء هوياً لا يصدمه فيه قوام الهواء صدماً ما يحوج إلى أن يحس وفرق بين أعضائه فلم تتلاق ولم تتماس ثم يتأمل هل أنه يثبت وجود ذاته ولا يشكك في إثباته لذاته موجوداً ولا يثبت مع ذلك طرفاً من أعضائه ولا باطناً من أحشائه ولا قلباً ولا دماغاً ولا شيئاً من الأشياء من خارج بل كان يثبت ذاته ولا يثبت لها طولاً ولا عرضاً ولا عمقاً ولو أنه أمكنه في تلك الحالة أن يتخيل يداً أو عضواً آخر  لم يتخيله جزء من ذاته ولا  شرطاً في ذاته وأنت تعلم أن المثبت غير الذي لم يثبت والمقربه غير الذي لم يقربه فإذن للذات التي أثبت وجودها خاصية على أنها هو بعينه غير جسمه وأعضائه التي لم تثبت فإذن المثبت له سبيل إلى أن يثبته على وجود النفس شيئاً غير الجسم بل غير جسم وأنه عارف به مستشعر له وإن كان ذاهلاً عنه يحتاج إلى أن يقرع عصاه.}}|Ibn Sina|Kitab Al-Shifa, On the Soul}}</ref>}}

However, Avicenna posited the brain as the place where reason interacts with sensation. Sensation prepares the soul to receive rational concepts from the universal Agent Intellect. The first knowledge of the flying person would be "I am," affirming his or her essence. That essence could not be the body, obviously, as the flying person has no sensation. Thus, the knowledge that "I am" is the core of a human being: the soul exists and is self-aware.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Avicenna's De Anima in the Latin West |last=Hasse |first=Dag Nikolaus |publisher=Warburg Institute |year=2000 |location=London |page=81}}</ref> Avicenna thus concluded that the idea of the [[self (philosophy)|self]] is not logically dependent on any physical [[Object (philosophy)|thing]], and that the soul should not be seen in [[relative term]]s, but as a primary given, a [[substance theory|substance]]. The body is unnecessary; in relation to it, the soul is its perfection.<ref name="Nader El-Bizri 2000 pp. 149-171" /><ref name="elbizri67-89" /><ref>{{Cite book |title=History of Islamic philosophy |last1=Nasr |first1=Seyyed Hossein |first2=Oliver|last2=Leaman |publisher=Routledge |year=1996 |isbn=978-0-415-05667-0 |pages=315, 1022–1023}}</ref> In itself, the soul is an immaterial substance.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Avicenna's De Anima in the Latin West |last=Hasse |first=Dag Nikolaus |publisher=Warburg Institute |year=2000 |location=London |page=92}}</ref>

==Principal works==
=== ''The Canon of Medicine'' ===
{{Main|The Canon of Medicine}}
[[File:Canons of medicine.JPG|thumb|Canons of medicine book from Avicenna, Latin translation located at [[University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio|UT Health of San Antonio]]]]
Avicenna authored a five-volume medical encyclopedia: ''The Canon of Medicine'' (''Al-Qanun fi't-Tibb''). It was used as the standard medical textbook in the Islamic world and Europe up to the 18th century.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Avicenna |url=https://archive.org/details/avicennagreatmed00mcgi |url-access=limited |last=McGinnis |first=Jon |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2010 |isbn=978-0-19-533147-9 |location=Oxford |page=[https://archive.org/details/avicennagreatmed00mcgi/page/n140 227]}}</ref><ref name="jacb1">{{Cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/misquotingmuhamm0000brow/page/12 |title=Misquoting Muhammad: The Challenge and Choices of Interpreting the Prophet's Legacy |last=A.C. Brown |first=Jonathan |date=2014 |publisher=[[Oneworld Publications]] |isbn=978-1-78074-420-9 |page=[https://archive.org/details/misquotingmuhamm0000brow/page/12 12] |author-link=Jonathan A.C. Brown }}</ref> The ''Canon'' still plays an important role in [[Unani medicine]].<ref>Indian Studies on Ibn Sina's Works by [[Hakim Syed Zillur Rahman]], Avicenna (Scientific and Practical International Journal of Ibn Sino International Foundation, Tashkent/Uzbekistan. 1–2; 2003: 40–42</ref>

=== ''Liber Primus Naturalium'' ===
Avicenna considered whether events like rare diseases or disorders have natural causes.<ref>Avicenna Latinus. 1992. Liber Primus Naturalium: Tractatus Primus, De Causis et Principiis Naturalium. Leiden (The Netherlands): E.J. Brill.</ref> He used the example of [[polydactyly]] to explain his perception that causal reasons exist for all medical events. This view of medical phenomena anticipated developments in the [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]] by seven centuries.<ref>Axel Lange and [[Gerd B. Müller]]. Polydactyly in Development, Inheritance, and Evolution. The Quarterly Review of Biology Vol. 92, No. 1, Mar. 2017, pp. 1–38. {{doi|10.1086/690841}}.</ref>

=== ''The Book of Healing'' ===
{{Main|The Book of Healing}}
{{Summary too long|The Book of Healing|date=July 2016}}

==== Earth sciences ====
Avicenna wrote on [[Earth science]]s such as [[geology]] in ''The Book of Healing''.<ref name="Goodfield">[[Stephen Toulmin]] and [[June Goodfield]] (1965), ''The Ancestry of Science: The Discovery of Time'', p. 64, [[University of Chicago Press]] (cf. [http://muslimheritage.com/topics/default.cfm?ArticleID=319 The Contribution of Ibn Sina to the development of Earth sciences] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100314204805/http://muslimheritage.com/topics/default.cfm?ArticleID=319 |date=14 March 2010 }})</ref> While discussing the formation of [[mountain]]s, he explained:

{{blockquote|Either they are the effects of upheavals of the crust of the earth, such as might occur during a violent earthquake, or they are the effect of water, which, cutting itself a new route, has denuded the valleys, the strata being of different kinds, some soft, some hard&nbsp;... It would require a long period of time for all such changes to be accomplished, during which the mountains themselves might be somewhat diminished in size.<ref name=Goodfield />}}

==== Philosophy of science ====
In the ''Al-Burhan'' (''On Demonstration'') section of ''The Book of Healing'', Avicenna discussed the [[philosophy of science]] and described an early [[scientific method]] of [[inquiry]]. He discussed Aristotle's ''[[Posterior Analytics]]'' and significantly diverged from it on several points. Avicenna discussed the issue of a proper methodology for scientific inquiry and the question of "How does one acquire the first principles of a science?" He asked how a scientist would arrive at "the initial [[axiom]]s or [[hypothesis|hypotheses]] of a [[deductive reasoning|deductive]] science without inferring them from some more basic premises?" He explained that the ideal situation is when one grasps that a "relation holds between the terms, which would allow for absolute, universal certainty". Avicenna then added two further methods for arriving at the [[first principle]]s: the ancient Aristotelian method of [[inductive reasoning|induction]] (''istiqra''), and the method of [[Hypothesis|examination]] and [[experiment]]ation (''tajriba''). Avicenna criticized Aristotelian induction, arguing that "it does not lead to the absolute, universal, and certain premises that it purports to provide." In its place, he developed a "method of experimentation as a means for scientific inquiry."<ref>{{Cite journal |last=McGinnis |first=Jon |date=July 2003 |title=Scientific Methodologies in Medieval Islam |url=https://irl.umsl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1003&context=philosophy-faculty |journal=Journal of the History of Philosophy |volume=41 |issue=3 |pages=307–327 |doi=10.1353/hph.2003.0033 |s2cid=30864273 |access-date=24 September 2019 |archive-date=9 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210809100418/https://irl.umsl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1003&context=philosophy-faculty |url-status=live }}</ref>

==== Logic ====
An early formal system of [[temporal logic]] was studied by Avicenna.<ref>[https://www.britannica.com/ebc/article-65928 History of logic: Arabic logic] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071012144108/http://www.britannica.com/ebc/article-65928 |date=12 October 2007 }}, ''[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]''.</ref> Although he did not develop a real theory of temporal propositions, he did study the relationship between ''temporalis'' and the implication.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Temporal Logic: From Ancient Ideas to Artificial Intelligence |last1=Peter Øhrstrøm |last2=Per Hasle |publisher=Springer |year=1995 |page=72}}</ref> Avicenna's work was further developed by [[Najm al-Dīn al-Qazwīnī al-Kātibī]] and became the dominant system of [[Logic in Islamic philosophy|Islamic logic]] until modern times.<ref>{{Citation |first=Tony|last=Street |title=Toward a History of Syllogistic After Avicenna: Notes on Rescher's Studies on Arabic Modal Logic |journal=Journal of Islamic Studies |volume=11 |issue=2 |pages=209–228 |year=2000 |doi=10.1093/jis/11.2.209}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=The Cambridge Companion to Arabic Philosophy |url=https://archive.org/details/cambridgecompani00adam |url-access=limited |last=Street |first=Tony |date=1 January 2005 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-52069-0 |editor-last=Peter Adamson |pages=[https://archive.org/details/cambridgecompani00adam/page/n265 247]–265 |chapter=Logic |editor-last2=Richard C. Taylor |name-list-style=amp}}</ref> Avicennian logic also influenced several early European logicians such as [[Albertus Magnus]]<ref>Richard F. Washell (1973), "Logic, Language, and Albert the Great", ''Journal of the History of Ideas'' '''34''' (3), pp.&nbsp;445–450 [445].</ref> and [[William of Ockham]].<ref>Kneale p. 229</ref><ref>Kneale: p. 266; Ockham: [[Summa Logicae]] i. 14; Avicenna: ''Avicennae Opera'' Venice 1508 f87rb</ref> Avicenna endorsed the [[law of non-contradiction]] proposed by Aristotle, that a fact could not be both true and false at the same time and in the same sense of the terminology used. He stated, "Anyone who denies the law of non-contradiction should be beaten and burned until he admits that to be beaten is not the same as not to be beaten, and to be burned is not the same as not to be burned."<ref>Avicenna, Metaphysics, I; commenting on Aristotle, Topics I.11.105a4–5</ref>

==== Physics ====
In [[mechanics]], Avicenna, in ''The Book of Healing'', developed a theory of [[motion (physics)|motion]], in which he made a distinction between the inclination (tendency to motion) and [[force]] of a [[projectile]], and concluded that motion was a result of an inclination (''mayl'') transferred to the projectile by the thrower, and that [[projectile motion]] in a vacuum would not cease.<ref name="Espinoza">Fernando Espinoza (2005). "An analysis of the historical development of ideas about motion and its implications for teaching", ''Physics Education'' '''40''' (2), p. 141.</ref> He viewed inclination as a permanent force whose effect is dissipated by external forces such as [[air resistance]].<ref>A. Sayili (1987), "Ibn Sīnā and Buridan on the Motion of the Projectile", ''Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences'' '''500''' (1), pp. 477–482: "It was a permanent force whose effect got dissipated only as a result of external agents such as air resistance. He is apparently the first to conceive such a permanent type of impressed virtue for non-natural motion."</ref>

The theory of motion presented by Avicenna was probably influenced by the 6th-century Alexandrian scholar [[John Philoponus]]. Avicenna's is a less sophisticated variant of the [[theory of impetus]] developed by [[Buridan]] in the 14th century. It is unclear if Buridan was influenced by Avicenna, or by Philoponus directly.<ref>Jack Zupko, "John Buridan" in [[Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy]], 2014
([http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/buridan/notes.html#48 fn. 48] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180911164449/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/buridan/notes.html#48 |date=11 September 2018 }})
"We do not know precisely where Buridan got the idea of impetus, but a less sophisticated notion of impressed forced can be found in Avicenna's doctrine of mayl (inclination). In this he was possibly influenced by Philoponus, who was developing the Stoic notion of hormé (impulse). For discussion, see Zupko (1997) ['What Is the Science of the Soul? A Case Study in the Evolution of Late Medieval Natural Philosophy,' Synthese, 110(2): 297–334]."</ref>

In [[optics]], Avicenna was among those who argued that light had a speed, observing that "if the perception of [[light]] is due to the emission of some sort of [[Subatomic particle|particles]] by a luminous source, the speed of light must be finite."<ref>[[George Sarton]], ''Introduction to the History of Science'', Vol. 1, p. 710.</ref> He also provided a wrong explanation of the [[rainbow]] phenomenon. [[Carl Benjamin Boyer]] described Avicenna's ("Ibn Sīnā") theory on the rainbow as follows:

{{blockquote|Independent observation had demonstrated to him that the bow is not formed in the dark cloud but rather in the very thin mist lying between the cloud and the sun or observer. The cloud, he thought, serves as the background of this thin substance, much as a quicksilver lining is placed upon the rear surface of the glass in a mirror. Ibn Sīnā would change the place not only of the bow, but also of the color formation, holding the iridescence to be merely a subjective sensation in the eye.<ref>Carl Benjamin Boyer (1954). "Robert Grosseteste on the Rainbow", ''Osiris'' '''11''', pp.&nbsp;247–258 [248].</ref>}}

In 1253, a Latin text entitled ''Speculum Tripartitum'' stated the following regarding Avicenna's theory on [[heat]]:

{{blockquote|Avicenna says in his book of heaven and earth, that heat is generated from motion in external things.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Gutman |first=Oliver |year=1997 |title=On the Fringes of the Corpus Aristotelicum: the Pseudo-Avicenna Liber Celi Et Mundi |journal=Early Science and Medicine |volume=2 |issue=2 |pages=109–128 |doi=10.1163/157338297X00087}}</ref>}}

==== Psychology ====
Avicenna's legacy in classical psychology is primarily embodied in the ''Kitab al-nafs'' parts of his ''Kitab al-shifa'' (''The Book of Healing'') and ''Kitab al-najat'' (''The Book of Deliverance''). These were known in Latin under the title [[De Anima]] (treatises "on the soul").{{dubious|date=October 2012}} Notably, Avicenna develops what is called the [[Floating man|Flying Man]] argument in the Psychology of ''The Cure'' I.1.7 as defence of the argument that the soul is without quantitative extension, which has an affinity with [[Descartes]]'s ''cogito'' argument (or what [[phenomenology (philosophy)|phenomenology]] designates as a form of an "''epoche''").<ref name="Nader El-Bizri 2000 pp. 149-171">[[Nader El-Bizri]], ''The Phenomenological Quest between Avicenna and Heidegger'' (Binghamton, NY: Global Publications SUNY, 2000), pp.&nbsp;149–171.</ref><ref name="elbizri67-89">Nader El-Bizri, "Avicenna's De Anima between Aristotle and Husserl," in ''The Passions of the Soul in the Metamorphosis of Becoming'', ed. Anna-Teresa Tymieniecka (Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 2003), pp.&nbsp;67–89.</ref>

Avicenna's psychology requires that connection between the body and soul be strong enough to ensure the soul's individuation, but weak enough to allow for its immortality. Avicenna grounds his psychology on physiology, which means his account of the soul is one that deals almost entirely with the natural science of the body and its abilities of perception. Thus, the philosopher's connection between the soul and body is explained almost entirely by his understanding of perception; in this way, bodily perception interrelates with the immaterial human intellect. In sense perception, the perceiver senses the form of the object; first, by perceiving features of the object by our external senses. This sensory information is supplied to the internal senses, which merge all the pieces into a whole, unified conscious experience. This process of perception and abstraction is the nexus of the soul and body, for the material body may only perceive material objects, while the immaterial soul may only receive the immaterial, universal forms. The way the soul and body interact in the final abstraction of the universal from the concrete particular is the key to their relationship and interaction, which takes place in the physical body.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Avicenna's Psychology. An English translation of Kitāb al-Najāt, Book II, Chapter VI, with Historico-Philosophical Notes and Textual Improvements on the Cairo edition |last=Avicenna |publisher=Oxford University Press, Geoffrey Cumberlege |year=1952 |editor-last=F. Rahman |location=London |page=41}}</ref>

The soul completes the action of intellection by accepting forms that have been abstracted from matter. This process requires a concrete particular (material) to be abstracted into the universal intelligible (immaterial). The material and immaterial interact through the Active Intellect, which is a "divine light" containing the intelligible forms.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Avicenna's Psychology. An English translation of Kitāb al-Najāt, Book II, Chapter VI, with Historico-Philosophical Notes and Textual Improvements on the Cairo edition |last=Avicenna |publisher=Oxford University Press, Geoffrey Cumberlege |year=1952 |editor-last=F. Rahman |location=London |pages=68–69}}</ref> The Active Intellect reveals the universals concealed in material objects much like the sun makes colour available to our eyes.

== Other contributions ==

=== Astronomy and astrology ===
[[File:Skulls of Avicenna.jpg|thumb|Skull of Avicenna, found in 1950 during construction of [[Avicenna Mausoleum|the new mausoleum]]]]
Avicenna wrote an attack on astrology titled ''Resāla fī ebṭāl aḥkām al-nojūm'', in which he cited passages from the Quran to dispute the power of astrology to foretell the future.<ref>[[George Saliba]] (1994), ''A History of Arabic Astronomy: Planetary Theories During the Golden Age of Islam'', pp. 60, 67–69. [[New York University Press]], {{ISBN|0-8147-8023-7}}.</ref> He believed that each planet had some influence on the earth, but argued against astrologers being able to determine the exact effects.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/avicenna-viii |title=Avicenna |last=Saliba |first=George |author-link=George Saliba |year=2011 |website=Encyclopædia Iranica, Online Edition |access-date=18 January 2012 |archive-date=20 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200220161012/http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/avicenna-viii |url-status=live }}</ref>

Avicenna's astronomical writings had some influence on later writers, although in general his work could be considered less developed than [[Alhazen]] or [[Al-Biruni]]. One important feature of his writing is that he considers mathematical astronomy as a separate discipline to astrology.<ref name=Ragep /> He criticized Aristotle's view of the [[star]]s receiving their light from the [[Sun]], stating that the stars are self-luminous, and believed that the [[planet]]s are also self-luminous.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Ariew |first=Roger |date=March 1987 |title=The phases of venus before 1610 |journal=Studies in History and Philosophy of Science Part A |volume=18 |issue=1 |pages=81–92 |doi=10.1016/0039-3681(87)90012-4|bibcode=1987SHPSA..18...81A }}</ref> He claimed to have observed [[Transit of Venus|Venus as a spot on the Sun]]. This is possible, as there was a transit on 24 May 1032, but Avicenna did not give the date of his observation, and modern scholars have questioned whether he could have observed the transit from his location at that time; he may have mistaken a sunspot for Venus. He used his transit observation to help establish that Venus was, at least sometimes, below the Sun in Ptolemaic cosmology,<ref name="Ragep">{{Cite encyclopedia |url=http://islamsci.mcgill.ca/RASI/BEA/Ibn_Sina_BEA.htm |title=Ibn Sīnā: Abū ʿAlī al-Ḥusayn ibn ʿAbdallāh ibn Sīnā |last=Sally P. Ragep |encyclopedia=The Biographical Encyclopedia of Astronomers |publisher=[[Springer Science+Business Media]] |year=2007 |editor-last=Thomas Hockey |pages=570–572 |access-date=15 October 2011 |archive-date=21 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200921050851/https://islamsci.mcgill.ca/RASI/BEA/Ibn_Sina_BEA.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> i.e. the sphere of Venus comes before the sphere of the Sun when moving out from the Earth in the prevailing [[geocentric]] model.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Goldstein|first=Bernard R. |year=1969 |title=Some Medieval Reports of Venus and Mercury Transits |journal=Centaurus |volume=14 |issue=1 |pages=49–59 |bibcode=1969Cent...14...49G |doi=10.1111/j.1600-0498.1969.tb00135.x }}</ref><ref name="Goldstein">{{Cite journal |last=Goldstein |first=Bernard R. |date=March 1972 |title=Theory and Observation in Medieval Astronomy |journal=[[Isis (journal)|Isis]] |volume=63 |issue=1 |pages=39–47 [44] |doi=10.1086/350839|bibcode=1972Isis...63...39G |s2cid=120700705 }}</ref>

He also wrote the ''Summary of the Almagest'', (based on [[Ptolemy]]'s ''[[Almagest]]''), with an appended treatise "to bring that which is stated in the Almagest and what is understood from Natural Science into conformity". For example, Avicenna considers the motion of the solar [[apogee]], which Ptolemy had taken to be fixed.<ref name=Ragep />

=== Chemistry ===
Avicenna was first to derive the attar of flowers from distillation<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WMvVBi5EbhMC&q=attar+perfume+muslim&pg=PA70|title=Studies in Islamic Civilization: The Muslim Contribution to the Renaissance|last1=Essa|first1=Ahmed|last2=Ali|first2=Othman|date=2010|publisher=International Institute of Islamic Thought (IIIT)|isbn=978-1-56564-350-5|language=en|page=70}}</ref> and used [[steam distillation]] to produce essential oils such as rose essence, which he used as [[aromatherapeutic]] treatments for heart conditions.<ref name="Marlene">Marlene Ericksen (2000). ''Healing with Aromatherapy'', p. 9. McGraw-Hill Professional. {{ISBN|0-658-00382-8}}.</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=The Traditional Healer's Handbook: A Classic Guide to the Medicine of Avicenna |last=Ghulam Moinuddin Chishti |year=1991 |isbn=978-0-89281-438-1 |page=239|publisher=Inner Traditions / Bear & Co }}</ref>

Unlike al-Razi, Avicenna explicitly disputed the theory of the [[Philosopher's stone|transmutation of substances]] commonly believed by [[alchemy|alchemists]]:

{{blockquote|Those of the chemical craft know well that no change can be effected in the different species of substances, though they can produce the appearance of such change.<ref>[[Robert Briffault]] (1938). ''The Making of Humanity'', p.&nbsp;196–197.</ref>}}

Four works on alchemy attributed to Avicenna were translated into [[Latin]] as:<ref name="Anawati">Georges C. Anawati (1996), "Arabic alchemy", in Roshdi Rashed, ed., ''[[Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science]]'', Vol. 3, pp.&nbsp;853–885 [875]. [[Routledge]], London and New York.</ref>
* {{lang|la|Liber Aboali Abincine de Anima in arte Alchemiae}}
* {{lang|la|Declaratio Lapis physici Avicennae filio sui Aboali}}
* {{lang|la|Avicennae de congelatione et conglutinatione lapidum}}
* {{lang|la|Avicennae ad Hasan Regem epistola de Re recta}}

{{lang|la|Liber Aboali Abincine de Anima in arte Alchemiae}} was the most influential, having influenced later [[medieval]] chemists and alchemists such as [[Vincent of Beauvais]]. However, Anawati argues (following Ruska) that the de Anima is a fake by a Spanish author. Similarly the Declaratio is believed not to be actually by Avicenna. The third work (''The Book of Minerals'') is agreed to be Avicenna's writing, adapted from the ''Kitab al-Shifa'' (''Book of the Remedy'').<ref name=Anawati /> Avicenna classified minerals into stones, fusible substances, sulfurs and salts, building on the ideas of Aristotle and Jabir.<ref>{{Citation |last=Leicester |first=Henry Marshall |title=The Historical Background of Chemistry |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aJZVQnqcwv4C&pg=PA70 |page=70 |year=1971 |publisher=Courier Dover Publications |isbn=978-0-486-61053-5 |quote=There was one famous Arab physician who doubted even the reality of transmutation. This was 'Abu Ali al-Husain ibn Abdallah ibn Sina (980–1037), called Avicenna in the West, the greatest physician of Islam.&nbsp;... Many of his observations on chemistry are included in the ''Kitab al-Shifa'', the "Book of the Remedy". In the physical section of this work he discusses the formation of minerals, which he classifies into stones, fusible substances, sulfurs, and salts. Mercury is classified with the fusible substances, metals}}</ref> The ''epistola de Re recta'' is somewhat less sceptical of alchemy; Anawati argues that it is by Avicenna, but written earlier in his career when he had not yet firmly decided that transmutation was impossible.<ref name=Anawati />

=== Poetry ===
Almost half of Avicenna's works are versified.<ref>[[Edward Granville Browne|E.G. Browne]], ''Islamic Medicine'' (sometimes also printed under the title ''Arabian medicine''), 2002, Goodword Pub., {{ISBN|81-87570-19-9}}, p61</ref> His poems appear in both Arabic and Persian. As an example, [[Edward Granville Browne]] claims that the following Persian verses are incorrectly attributed to [[Omar Khayyám]], and were originally written by Ibn Sīnā:<ref>E.G. Browne, ''Islamic Medicine'' (sometimes also printed under the title ''Arabian medicine''), 2002, Goodword Pub., {{ISBN|81-87570-19-9}}, pp.&nbsp;60–61)</ref>

{{Verse translation|italicsoff=y|rtl1=y|
{{lang|fa|rtl=yes|از قعر گل سیاه تا اوج زحل
کردم همه مشکلات گیتی را حل
بیرون جستم زقید هر مکر و حیل
هر بند گشاده شد مگر بند اجل}}
|
From the depth of the black earth up to Saturn's apogee,
All the problems of the universe have been solved by me.
I have escaped from the coils of snares and deceits;
I have unraveled all knots except the knot of Death.<ref>Gabrieli, F. (1950). Avicenna's Millenary. East and West, 1(2), 87–92.</ref>{{rp|91}}
}}

== Legacy ==
=== Classical Islamic civilization ===
Robert Wisnovsky, a scholar of Avicenna attached to [[McGill University]], says that "Avicenna was the central figure in the long history of the rational sciences in Islam, particularly in the fields of metaphysics, logic and medicine" but that his works didn't only have an influence in these "secular" fields of knowledge alone, as "these works, or portions of them, were read, taught, copied, commented upon, quoted, paraphrased and cited by thousands of post-Avicennian scholars—not only philosophers, logicians, physicians and specialists in the mathematical or exact sciences, but also by those who specialized in the disciplines of [[Kalam|ʿilm al-kalām]] (rational theology, but understood to include [[natural philosophy]], [[epistemology]] and [[philosophy of mind]]) and [[Principles of Islamic jurisprudence|usūl al-fiqh]] (jurisprudence, but understood to include philosophy of law, dialectic, and [[philosophy of language]])."<ref>Robert Wisnovsky, "Indirect Evidence for Establishing the Text of the Shifā" in ''Oriens'', volume 40, issue 2 (2012), pp. 257–258</ref>

=== Medieval and Renaissance Europe ===
[[File:Avicenna Mausoleum interior.jpg|thumb|upright|Inside view of the Avicenna Mausoleum, designed by [[Hooshang Seyhoun]] in 1945–1950]]

As early as the 14th century when [[Dante Alighieri]] depicted him in Limbo alongside the virtuous non-Christian thinkers in his ''[[Divine Comedy]]'' such as [[Virgil]], [[Averroes]], [[Homer]], [[Horace]], [[Ovid]], [[Lucan]], [[Socrates]], [[Plato]] and [[Saladin]]. Avicenna has been recognized by both East and West as one of the great figures in intellectual history.  [[Johannes Kepler]] cites Avicenna's opinion when discussing the causes of planetary motions in Chapter 2 of ''[[Astronomia Nova]]''.<ref name=Kepler>Johannes Kepler, ''New Astronomy'', translated by William H. Donahue, Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Pr., 1992.  {{ISBN|0-521-30131-9}}</ref>

[[George Sarton]], the author of ''The History of Science'', described Avicenna as "one of the greatest thinkers and medical scholars in history"<ref name=Zahoor>[[George Sarton]], ''Introduction to the History of Science''.<br />([[cf.]] A. Zahoor and Z. Haq (1997). [http://www.cyberistan.org/islamic/Introl1.html Quotations From Famous Historians of Science] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080203140704/http://www.cyberistan.org/islamic/Introl1.html |date=3 February 2008 }}, Cyberistan.)</ref> and called him "the most famous [[Islamic science|scientist of Islam]] and one of the most famous of all races, places, and times". He was one of the Islamic world's leading writers in the field of medicine.
[[File:Awicenna-WalentyzPilzna.png|thumb|Avicenna at the sickbed, [[Miniature (illuminated manuscript)|miniature]] by Walenty z Pilzna, [[Kraków]] (ca 1479–1480)]]
Along with [[Muhammad ibn Zakariya al-Razi|Rhazes]], [[Abu al-Qasim al-Zahrawi|Abulcasis]], [[Ibn al-Nafis]] and [[Hunayn ibn Ishaq|al-Ibadi]], Avicenna is considered an important compiler of early Muslim medicine. He is remembered in the Western [[history of medicine]] as a major historical figure who made important contributions to medicine and the European [[Renaissance]]. His medical texts were unusual in that where controversy existed between Galen and Aristotle's views on medical matters (such as anatomy), he preferred to side with Aristotle, where necessary updating Aristotle's position to take into account post-Aristotelian advances in anatomical knowledge.<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |year=2011 |title=Avicenna Medicine and Biology |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Iranica |url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/avicenna-x |access-date=9 November 2011 |last=Musallam |first=B. |archive-date=1 December 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191201044959/http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/avicenna-x |url-status=live }}</ref> Aristotle's dominant intellectual influence among medieval European scholars meant that Avicenna's linking of Galen's medical writings with Aristotle's philosophical writings in the ''Canon of Medicine'' (along with its comprehensive and logical organisation of knowledge) significantly increased Avicenna's importance in medieval Europe in comparison to other Islamic writers on medicine. His influence following translation of the ''Canon'' was such that from the early fourteenth to the mid-sixteenth centuries he was ranked with Hippocrates and Galen as one of the acknowledged authorities, {{lang|la|princeps medicorum}} ("prince of physicians").<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |year=2011 |title=Avicenna The influence of Avicenna on medical studies in the West |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Iranica |url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/avicenna-x |access-date=9 November 2011 |last=Weisser |first=U. |archive-date=1 December 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191201044959/http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/avicenna-x |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== Modern reception ===
[[File:Monument Avicenna in Qakh.JPG|thumb|left|A monument to Avicenna in [[Qakh (city)]], [[Azerbaijan]]]]
[[File:Почтовая марка СССР № 5099. 1980. 1000-летие со дня рождения Ибн Сины.jpg|thumb|[[Soviet Union]] in 1980 published a stamp entitled "1000th anniversary of the birth of Ibn Sina"]]
[[File:TajikistanP17-20Somoni-1999(2000)-donatedsb f.jpg|thumb|left|Image of Avicenna on the [[Tajikistani somoni]]]]
Institutions in a variety of counties have been named after Avicenna in honour of his scientific accomplishments, including the [[Avicenna Mausoleum and Museum]], [[Bu-Ali Sina University]], [[Avicenna Research Institute]] and [[Ibn Sina Academy of Medieval Medicine and Sciences]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.amch.edu.pk |title=Home Page |date=28 March 2014 |website=amch.edu.pk |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131108132952/http://www.amch.edu.pk/ |archive-date=8 November 2013}}</ref> There is also a crater on the [[Moon]] named [[Avicenna (crater)|Avicenna]].

The [[Avicenna Prize]], established in 2003, is awarded every two years by [[UNESCO]] and rewards individuals and groups for their achievements in the field of ethics in science.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.unesco.org/new/en/social-and-human-sciences/events/prizes-and-celebrations/unesco-prizes/avicenna-prize/|title=UNESCO: The Avicenna Prize for Ethics in Science|date=4 September 2019|access-date=27 May 2016|archive-date=1 June 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160601004148/http://www.unesco.org/new/en/social-and-human-sciences/events/prizes-and-celebrations/unesco-prizes/avicenna-prize/|url-status=live}}</ref>
[[File:Persian Scholar pavilion in Viena UN (Avicenna).jpg|thumb|The statue of Avicenna in [[United Nations Office in Vienna]] as a part of the [[Persian Scholars Pavilion]] donated by Iran]]
The [[Avicenna Directories]] (2008–15; now the [[World Directory of Medical Schools]]) list universities and schools where doctors, public health practitioners, pharmacists and others, are educated. The original project team stated: {{blockquote|"Why Avicenna? Avicenna&nbsp;... was&nbsp;... noted for his synthesis of knowledge from both east and west. He has had a lasting influence on the development of medicine and health sciences. The use of Avicenna's name symbolises the worldwide partnership that is needed for the promotion of health services of high quality."<ref>"Educating health professionals: the Avicenna project"  ''The Lancet'', March 2008. Volume 371 pp. 966–967.</ref>}}

In June 2009, Iran donated a "[[Persian Scholars Pavilion]]" to the [[United Nations Office in Vienna]]. It now sits in the [[Vienna International Center]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.unis.unvienna.org/unis/pressrels/2009/unisvic167.html |title=Monument to Be Inaugurated at the Vienna International Centre, 'Scholars Pavilion' donated to International Organizations in Vienna by Iran |website=unvienna.org |access-date=6 January 2015 |archive-date=26 December 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181226190250/http://www.unis.unvienna.org/unis/pressrels/2009/unisvic167.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

====In popular culture====

The 1982 Soviet film ''Youth of Genius'' ({{lang-ru|Юность гения|Yunost geniya|links=no}}) by {{Interlanguage link|Elyor Ishmukhamedov|ru|3=Ишмухамедов, Эльёр Мухитдинович}} recounts Avicenna's younger years. The film is set in Bukhara at the turn of the millennium.<ref>"Youth of Genius" (USSR, Uzbekfilm and Tajikfilm, 1982): 1984&nbsp;– State Prize of the USSR (Elyer Ishmuhamedov); 1983&nbsp;– VKF (All-Union Film Festival) Grand Prize (Elyer Ishmuhamedov); 1983&nbsp;– VKF (All-Union Film Festival) Award for Best Cinematography (Tatiana Loginov). See [http://kino-teatr.ru/kino/movie/sov/8140/annot/ annotation on kino-teatr.ru] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141020141148/http://kino-teatr.ru/kino/movie/sov/8140/annot/ |date=20 October 2014 }}.</ref>

In [[Louis L'Amour]]'s 1985 historical novel ''[[The Walking Drum]]'', Kerbouchard studies and discusses Avicenna's ''The Canon of Medicine''.

In his book ''[[The Physician]]'' (1988) [[Noah Gordon (novelist)|Noah Gordon]] tells the story of a young English medical apprentice who disguises himself as a Jew to travel from England to Persia and learn from Avicenna, the great master of his time. The novel was adapted into a feature film, ''[[The Physician (2013 film)|The Physician]]'', in 2013. Avicenna was played by [[Ben Kingsley]].

== List of works ==
The treatises of Avicenna influenced later Muslim thinkers in many areas including theology, philology, mathematics, astronomy, physics and music. His works numbered almost 450 volumes on a wide range of subjects, of which around 240 have survived. In particular, 150 volumes of his surviving works concentrate on philosophy and 40 of them concentrate on medicine.<ref name="MacTutor Biography|id=Avicenna" /> His most famous works are ''The Book of Healing'', and ''The Canon of Medicine''.

Avicenna wrote at least one treatise on alchemy, but several others have been falsely attributed to him. His ''Logic'', ''Metaphysics'', ''Physics'', and ''De Caelo'', are treatises giving a synoptic view of [[Aristotelianism|Aristotelian doctrine]],<ref name="EB1911">{{EB1911|inline=y|wstitle=Avicenna|volume=3|pages=62–63}}</ref> though ''Metaphysics'' demonstrates a significant departure from the brand of [[Neoplatonism]] known as Aristotelianism in Avicenna's world; Arabic philosophers{{who|date=February 2015}}{{year needed|date=February 2015}} have hinted at the idea that Avicenna was attempting to "re-Aristotelianise" Muslim philosophy in its entirety, unlike his predecessors, who accepted the conflation of Platonic, Aristotelian, Neo- and Middle-Platonic works transmitted into the Muslim world.

The ''Logic'' and ''Metaphysics'' have been extensively reprinted, the latter, e.g., at Venice in 1493, 1495 and 1546. Some of his shorter essays on medicine, logic, etc., take a poetical form (the poem on logic was published by Schmoelders in 1836).<ref>Thought Experiments: Popular Thought Experiments in Philosophy, Physics, Ethics, Computer Science & Mathematics by Fredrick Kennard, p. 115</ref> Two encyclopedic treatises, dealing with philosophy, are often mentioned. The larger, ''[[The Book of Healing|Al-Shifa']]'' (''Sanatio''), exists nearly complete in manuscript in the [[Bodleian Library]] and elsewhere; part of it on the ''De Anima'' appeared at Pavia (1490) as the ''Liber Sextus Naturalium'', and the long account of Avicenna's philosophy given by [[Muhammad al-Shahrastani]] seems to be mainly an analysis, and in many places a reproduction, of the Al-Shifa'. A shorter form of the work is known as the An-najat (''Liberatio''). The Latin editions of part of these works have been modified by the corrections which the monastic editors confess that they applied. There is also a {{lang|ar|حكمت مشرقيه|rtl=yes}} (''hikmat-al-mashriqqiyya'', in Latin ''Philosophia Orientalis''), mentioned by [[Roger Bacon]], the majority of which is lost in antiquity, which according to Averroes was pantheistic in tone.<ref name="EB1911" />

Avicenna's works further include:<ref name="Works">{{Cite web |url=http://www.muslimphilosophy.com/sina/art/ibn%20Sina-REP.htm#islw |title=Ibn Sina Abu 'Ali Al-Husayn |publisher=Muslimphilosophy.com |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100102091147/http://muslimphilosophy.com/sina/art/ibn%20Sina-REP.htm |archive-date=2 January 2010 |access-date=19 January 2010}}</ref><ref>Tasaneef lbn Sina by [[Hakim Syed Zillur Rahman]], Tabeeb Haziq, Gujarat, Pakistan, 1986, pp. 176–198</ref>
* ''Sirat al-shaykh al-ra'is'' (''The Life of Avicenna''), ed. and trans. WE. Gohlman, Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, 1974. (The only critical edition of Avicenna's autobiography, supplemented with material from a biography by his student Abu 'Ubayd al-Juzjani. A more recent translation of the Autobiography appears in D. Gutas, ''Avicenna and the Aristotelian Tradition: Introduction to Reading Avicenna's Philosophical Works'', Leiden: Brill, 1988; second edition 2014.)<ref name="Works" />
* ''[[Al-isharat wa al-tanbihat]]'' (''Remarks and Admonitions''), ed. S. Dunya, Cairo, 1960; parts translated by S.C. Inati, Remarks and Admonitions, Part One: Logic, Toronto, Ont.: Pontifical Institute for Mediaeval Studies, 1984, and Ibn Sina and Mysticism, Remarks and Admonitions: Part 4, London: Kegan Paul International, 1996.<ref name="Works" />
* ''Al-Qanun fi'l-tibb'' (''The Canon of Medicine''), ed. I. a-Qashsh, Cairo, 1987. (Encyclopedia of medicine.)<ref name="Works" /> manuscript,<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.wdl.org/en/item/9718 |title=The Canon of Medicine |date=1 January 1597 |website=Wdl.org |access-date=1 March 2014 |archive-date=24 June 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170624071006/https://www.wdl.org/en/item/9718/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web
| title = The Canon of Medicine
| work = World Digital Library
| access-date = 1 March 2014
| year = 1597
| url = http://www.wdl.org/en/item/9718
| archive-date = 24 June 2017
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20170624071006/https://www.wdl.org/en/item/9718/
| url-status = live
}}</ref> Latin translation, Flores Avicenne,<ref>{{Cite book |url=http://www.wdl.org/en/item/3035 |title=Flowers of Avicenna |date=1 January 1508 |publisher=Printed by Claude Davost alias de Troys, for Bartholomeus Trot |access-date=1 March 2014 |archive-date=4 March 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140304195134/http://www.wdl.org/en/item/3035/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Michael de Capella, 1508,<ref>{{cite web
| title = Flowers of Avicenna&nbsp;– Flores Avicenne
| work = World Digital Library
| access-date = 1 March 2014
| url = http://www.wdl.org/en/item/3035/#languages=lat&page=6
| archive-date = 4 March 2014
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20140304195134/http://www.wdl.org/en/item/3035/#languages=lat&page=6
| url-status = live
}}</ref> Modern text.<ref>{{Cite book |url=http://www.wdl.org/en/item/7429 |title="The Book of Simple Medicine and Plants" from "The Canon of Medicine" |date=1 January 1900 |publisher=Knowledge Foundation |access-date=1 March 2014 |archive-date=23 February 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140223040410/http://www.wdl.org/en/item/7429/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Ahmed Shawkat Al-Shatti, Jibran Jabbur.<ref>{{cite web
| last = Avicenna
| title = The Canon of Medicine
| work = World Digital Library
| access-date = 1 March 2014
| url = http://www.wdl.org/en/item/7429
| archive-date = 23 February 2014
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20140223040410/http://www.wdl.org/en/item/7429/
| url-status = live
}}</ref>
* ''Risalah fi sirr al-qadar'' (''Essay on the Secret of Destiny''), trans. G. Hourani in Reason and Tradition in Islamic Ethics, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985.<ref name="Works" />
* ''[[Daneshnameh-ye Alai|Danishnama-i 'ala'i]]'' (''The Book of Scientific Knowledge''), ed. and trans. P. Morewedge, The Metaphysics of Avicenna, London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1973.<ref name="Works" />
* ''Kitab al-Shifa''' (''[[The Book of Healing]]''). (Avicenna's major work on philosophy. He probably began to compose al-Shifa' in 1014, and completed it in 1020.) Critical editions of the Arabic text have been published in Cairo, 1952–83, originally under the supervision of I. Madkour.<ref name="Works" />
* ''Kitab al-Najat'' (''The Book of Salvation''), trans. F. Rahman, ''Avicenna's Psychology: An English Translation of Kitab al-Najat, Book II, Chapter VI with Historical-philosophical Notes and Textual Improvements on the Cairo Edition'', Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1952. (The psychology of al-Shifa'.) (Digital version of the Arabic text)
* ''[[Risala fi'l-Ishq]]'' (''A Treatise on Love''). Translated by Emil L. Fackenheim.

=== Persian works ===

Avicenna's most important [[Persian language|Persian]] work is the ''[[Daneshnameh-ye Alai|Danishnama-i 'Alai]]'' ({{lang|fa|دانشنامه علائی}}, "the Book of Knowledge for [Prince] 'Ala ad-Daulah"). Avicenna created new scientific vocabulary that had not previously existed in Persian. The Danishnama covers such topics as logic, metaphysics, music theory and other sciences of his time. It has been translated into English by Parwiz Morewedge in 1977.<ref>Avicenna, Danish Nama-i 'Alai. trans. Parviz Morewedge as ''The Metaphysics of Avicenna'' (New York: Columbia University Press), 1977.</ref> The book is also important in respect to Persian scientific works.

''Andar Danesh-e Rag'' ({{lang|fa|اندر دانش رگ}}, "On the Science of the Pulse") contains nine chapters on the science of the pulse and is a condensed synopsis.

[[Persian poetry]] from Avicenna is recorded in various manuscripts and later anthologies such as ''[[Nozhat al-Majales]]''.

== See also ==
{{div col|colwidth=22em}}
* [[Qumri|Al-Qumri]] (possibly Avicenna's teacher)
* [[Abdol Hamid Khosro Shahi]] (Iranian theologian)
* [[Mummia]] (Persian medicine)
* [[Eastern philosophy]]
* [[Iranian philosophy]]
* [[Islamic philosophy]]
* [[Contemporary Islamic philosophy]]
* [[Science in the medieval Islamic world]]
* [[List of scientists in medieval Islamic world]]
* [[Sufi philosophy]]
* [[Science and technology in Iran]]
* [[Ancient Iranian medicine]]
* [[List of pre-modern Iranian scientists and scholars]]
{{div col end}}

===Namesakes of Ibn Sina===
{{div col|colwidth=22em}}
* [[Ibn Sina Academy of Medieval Medicine and Sciences]] in [[Aligarh]]
* [[Avicenna Bay]] in Antarctica
* [[Avicenna (crater)]] on the far side of the Moon
* [[Avicenna Cultural and Scientific Foundation]]
* [[Avicenne Hospital]] in [[Paris]], [[France]]
* [[Avicenna International College]] in [[Budapest]], [[Hungary]]
* [[Avicenna Mausoleum]] (complex dedicated to Avicenna) in [[Hamadan]], [[Iran]]
* [[Avicenna Research Institute]] in Tehran, Iran
* [[Avicenna Tajik State Medical University]] in [[Dushanbe]], [[Tajikistan]]
* [[Bu-Ali Sina University]] in Hamedan, Iran
* [[Ibn Sina Peak]] – named after the Scientist, on the [[Kyrgyzstan]]–[[Tajikistan]] border
* Ibn Sina Foundation in Houston, Texas<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.ibnsinafoundation.org/our-story/|title=Our Story|website=Ibn Sina Foundation|access-date=14 December 2020|archive-date=1 December 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201201085558/https://www.ibnsinafoundation.org/our-story/|url-status=live}}</ref>
* [[Ibn Sina Hospital]], [[Baghdad]], [[Iraq]]
* Ibn Sina Hospital, Istanbul, Turkey<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.ibnisina.com.tr/|title=Ibn Sina Hospital|website=Ibn Sina Hospital, Turkey|access-date=14 December 2020|archive-date=25 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210225051352/https://ibnisina.com.tr/|url-status=live}}</ref>
* [[Ibn Sina Medical College]] Hospital, [[Dhaka]], [[Bangladesh]]
* Ibn Sina University Hospital of Rabat-Salé at [[Mohammed V University]] in [[Rabat]], [[Morocco]]
* Ibne Sina Hospital, Multan, Punjab, Pakistan<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ibn-e-siena.org.pk/|title=Ibne Sina Hospital|website=Ibn e Siena|access-date=14 December 2020|archive-date=19 July 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200719113704/http://ibn-e-siena.org.pk/|url-status=live}}</ref>
* International Ibn Sina Clinic, [[Dushanbe]], [[Tajikistan]]
{{div col end}}

== References ==
===Citations===
{{Reflist}}

===Sources===
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* {{cite journal |last1=Gutas |first1=Dimitri |author-link=Dimitri Gutas |year=1988 |title=Avicenna's Maḏhab with an appendix on the question of his date of Birth |journal=Quaderni di Studi Arabi |volume=6 |pages=323–336 |jstor=25802612}} {{Registration required}}
* {{cite book |last1=Gutas |first1=Dimitri |author-link=Dimitri Gutas |title=Avicenna and the Aristotelian Tradition: Introduction to Reading Avicenna's Philosophical Works. Second, Revised and Enlarged Edition, Including an Inventory of Avicenna's Authentic Works |year=2014 |publisher=Brill |location=Leiden |isbn=978-9004201729 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QgYSBQAAQBAJ }}
* {{cite book |last1=Khalidi |first1=Muhammad Ali |title=Medieval Islamic Philosophical Writings |date=2005 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-82243-5}}
* {{Cambridge History of Iran |last1=Lazard |first1=G. |volume=4 |chapter=The Rise of the New Persian Language |pages=595–633}}
* {{Cambridge History of Iran |last1=Madelung |first1=Wilferd |authorlink=Wilferd Madelung |volume=4 |chapter=The Minor Dynasties of Northern Iran |pages=595–633}}
* {{cite book |last1=Pasnau |first1=Robert |last2=Dyke |first2=Christina Van |title=Cambridge History of Medieval Philosophy, Volume 1 |date=2010 |publisher=Cambridge University Press}}
{{refend}}

== Further reading ==
{{refbegin|30em}}

=== Encyclopedic articles ===
* {{Cite book |title=An Educational Encyclopedia of Islam |last=Syed Iqbal |first=Zaheer |publisher=Iqra Publishers |year=2010 |isbn=978-603-90004-4-0 |edition=2nd |location=Bangalore |page=1280}}
* {{cite encyclopedia
 | last = Flannery
 | first = Michael
 | encyclopedia = [[Encyclopædia Britannica]]
 | title = Avicenna
 | url = https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/45755/Avicenna
 | access-date = 2 June 2022
 | archive-date = 4 May 2015
 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150504224831/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/45755/Avicenna
 | url-status = live
 }}
* {{cite encyclopedia
 | last = Goichon
 | first = A.-M.
 | author-link = A.-M. Goichon
 | encyclopedia = [[Encyclopedia of Islam]]
 | publisher = [[Brill Publishers]]
 | title = Ibn Sina, Abu 'Ali al-Husayn b. 'Abd Allah b. Sina, known in the West as Avicenna
 | url = http://www.muslimphilosophy.com/sina/art/ei-is.htm
 | year = 1999
 | access-date = 15 February 2007
 | archive-date = 28 February 2007
 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070228032655/http://www.muslimphilosophy.com/sina/art/ei-is.htm
 | url-status = live
 }}
* {{cite encyclopedia
 | last1 = Mahdi
 | first1 = M.
 | author-link = M. Mahdi
 | first2 = D
 | last2 = Gutas
 | first3 = Sh.B.
 | last3 = Abed
 | first4 = M.E.
 | last4 = Marmura
 | first5 = F.
 | last5 = Rahman
 | first6 = G.
 | last6 = Saliba
 | first7 = O.
 | last7 = Wright
 | first8 = B.
 | last8 = Musallam
 | first9 = M.
 | last9 = Achena
 | first10 = S.
 | last10 = Van Riet
 | first11 = U.
 | last11 = Weisser
 | encyclopedia = [[Encyclopædia Iranica]]
 | title = Avicenna
 | url = http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/avicenna-index
 | year = 1987
 | access-date = 15 January 2012
 | archive-date = 29 April 2011
 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110429170220/http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/avicenna-index
 | url-status = live
 }}
* {{CathEncy|wstitle=Avicenna}}
* {{MacTutor Biography|id=Avicenna|title=Abu Ali al-Husain ibn Abdallah ibn Sina (Avicenna)}}
* {{Cite encyclopedia |year=2007 |title=Ibn Sīnā: Abū ʿAlī al-Ḥusayn ibn ʿAbdallāh ibn Sīnā |encyclopedia=The [[Biographical Encyclopedia of Astronomers]] |publisher=Springer |location=New York |url=http://islamsci.mcgill.ca/RASI/BEA/Ibn_Sina_BEA.htm |last=Ragep |first=Sally P. |editor1-first=Thomas |editor1-last=Hockey |pages=570–572 |isbn=978-0-387-31022-0 |display-editors=etal |access-date=15 October 2011 |archive-date=21 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200921050851/https://islamsci.mcgill.ca/RASI/BEA/Ibn_Sina_BEA.htm |url-status=live }} (PDF version)
* [http://www.iep.utm.edu/avicenna/ Avicenna] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120603023507/http://www.iep.utm.edu/avicenna/ |date=3 June 2012 }} entry by Sajjad H. Rizvi in the ''[[Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy]]''
*{{cite encyclopedia |last1=M. Alper |first1=Ömer |last2=Durusoy |first2=Ali |last3=Terzioğlu |first3=Arslan |last4=H.Turabi |first4=Ahmet |last5=Karliğa |first5=H.Bekir |last6=Görgün |first6=Tahsin |title=İBN SÎNÂ - An article published in Turkish Encyclopedia of Islam |date=1999 |publisher=[[İslâm Ansiklopedisi|TDV Encyclopedia of Islam]] |isbn=978-97-53-89447-0 |pages=319–358 |volume=20 (Ibn Haldun - Ibnu'l Cezeri) |url=https://islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/ibn-sina |lang=tr |access-date=20 May 2022 |archive-date=26 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210226032614/https://islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/ibn-sina |url-status=live }}

=== Primary literature ===
* For an old list of other extant works, [[C. Brockelmann]]'s ''Geschichte der arabischen Litteratur'' (Weimar 1898), vol. i. pp.&nbsp;452–458. (XV. W.; G. W. T.)
* For a current list of his works see A. Bertolacci (2006) and D. Gutas (2014) in the section "Philosophy".
* {{Cite book |title=The Metaphysics of The Healing |last=Avicenna |publisher=Brigham Young University |others=Michael E. Marmura (trans.) |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-934893-77-0 |edition=1 |series=A parallel English-Arabic text translation}}
* {{Cite book |title=The Canon of Medicine (al-Qānūn fī'l-ṭibb), vol. 1 |last=Avicenna |publisher=Great Books of the Islamic World |others=Laleh Bakhtiar (ed.), Oskar Cameron Gruner (trans.), Mazhar H. Shah (trans.) |year=1999 |isbn=978-1-871031-67-6}}
* Avicenne: ''Réfutation de l'astrologie''. Edition et traduction du texte arabe, introduction, notes et lexique par Yahya Michot. Préface d'Elizabeth Teissier (Beirut-Paris: Albouraq, 2006) {{ISBN|2-84161-304-6}}.
* William E. Gohlam (ed.), ''The Life of Ibn Sina. A Critical Edition and Annotated Translation'', Albany, State of New York University Press, 1974.
* For Ibn Sina's life, see [[Ibn Khallikan]]'s ''Biographical Dictionary'', translated by [[de Slane]] (1842); [[F. Wüstenfeld]]'s ''Geschichte der arabischen Aerzte und Naturforscher'' (Göttingen, 1840).
* Madelung, Wilferd and Toby Mayer (ed. and tr.), ''Struggling with the Philosopher: A Refutation of Avicenna's Metaphysics.'' A New Arabic Edition and English Translation of [[Muhammad al-Shahrastani|Shahrastani's]] Kitab al-Musara'a.

=== Secondary literature ===
* {{cite book
 | first = Soheil M.
 | last = Afnan
 | author-link = Soheil Afnan
 | title = Avicenna: His Life and Works
 | url = https://archive.org/details/avicennahislifea033070mbp
 | year = 1958
 | publisher = G. Allen & Unwin
 | location = London
 | oclc = 31478971
 }}
:: This is, on the whole, an informed and good account of the life and accomplishments of one of the greatest influences on the development of thought both Eastern and Western.&nbsp;... It is not as philosophically thorough as the works of D. Saliba, A.M. Goichon, or L. Gardet, but it is probably the best essay in English on this important thinker of the Middle Ages. (Julius R. Weinberg, ''The Philosophical Review'', Vol. 69, No. 2, Apr. 1960, pp.&nbsp;255–259)
* {{cite book
 | title = Avicenna
 | url = https://archive.org/details/avicenna00good
 | url-access = registration
 | first = Lenn E.
 | last = Goodman
 | author-link = Lenn Evan Goodman
 | year = 2006
 | publisher = Cornell University Press
 | edition = Updated
 | isbn = 978-0-415-01929-3
 }}
:: This is a distinguished work which stands out from, and above, many of the books and articles which have been written in this century on Avicenna (Ibn Sīnā) (980–1037). It has two main features on which its distinction as a major contribution to Avicennan studies may be said to rest: the first is its clarity and readability; the second is the comparative approach adopted by the author.&nbsp;... (Ian Richard Netton, ''Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society'', Third Series, Vol. 4, No. 2, July 1994, pp.&nbsp;263–264)
* {{Cite journal |last=Gutas |first=Dimitri |year=1987 |title=Avicenna's maḏhab, with an Appendix on the question of his date of birth |journal=Quaderni di Studi Arabi |volume=5–6 |pages=323–336 |ref=none}}
* Y.T. Langermann (ed.), ''Avicenna and his Legacy. A Golden Age of Science and Philosophy'', Brepols Publishers, 2010, {{ISBN|978-2-503-52753-6}}
* For a new understanding of his early career, based on a newly discovered text, see also: Michot, Yahya, ''Ibn Sînâ: Lettre au vizir Abû Sa'd''. ''Editio princeps'' d'après le manuscrit de Bursa, traduction de l'arabe, introduction, notes et lexique (Beirut-Paris: Albouraq, 2000) {{ISBN|2-84161-150-7}}.
* {{Cite book |title=Avicenna |last=Strohmaier |first=Gotthard |publisher=C.H. Beck |year=2006 |isbn=978-3-406-54134-6 |language=de |author-link=Gotthard Strohmaier}}
:: This German publication is both one of the most comprehensive general introductions to the life and works of the philosopher and physician Avicenna (Ibn Sīnā, d. 1037) and an extensive and careful survey of his contribution to the history of science. Its author is a renowned expert in Greek and Arabic medicine who has paid considerable attention to Avicenna in his recent studies.&nbsp;... (Amos Bertolacci, ''Isis'', Vol. 96, No. 4, December 2005, p.&nbsp;649)
* {{Cite book |title=Resalah Judiya of Ibn Sina (First edition 1971), Literary Research Unit, CCRIH, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh; (Second edition 1981) Central Council for Research in Unani Medicine, Govt. of India, New Delhi; (Fourth edition 1999), Central Council for Research in Unani Medicine, Govt. of India, New Delhi |first=Hakim Syed Zillur |last=Rahman}}
* {{Cite book |title=AI-Advia al-Qalbia of Ibn Sina |first=Hakim Syed Zillur |last=Rahman |publisher=Publication Division, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh |year=1996}}
* {{Cite book |title=Ilmul Amraz of Ibn Sina (First edition 1969), Tibbi Academy, Delhi (Second edition 1990), (Third edition 1994), Tibbi Academy, Aligarh |first=Hakim Syed Zillur |last=Rahman}}
* {{Cite encyclopedia |year=1986 |title=Qanoon lbn Sina Aur Uskey Shareheen wa Mutarjemeen |publisher=Publication Division, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh |author=Hakim Syed Zillur Rahman}}
* {{Citation |first=Hakim Syed Zillur |last=Rahman |title=Qānūn-i ibn-i Sīnā aur us ke shārḥīn va mutarajimīn |date=1986 |location=ʻAlīgaṛh |publisher=Pablīkeshan Dīvīzan, Muslim Yūnīvarsiṭī|ol=1374509M }}
* {{Cite encyclopedia |year=2004 |title=Qanun Ibn Sina and its Translation and Commentators (Persian Translation; 203pp) |publisher=Society for the Appreciation of Cultural Works and Dignitaries, Tehran, Iran |author=Hakim Syed Zillur Rahman}}
* Shaikh al Rais Ibn Sina (Special number) 1958–59, Ed. Hakim Syed Zillur Rahman, Tibbia College Magazine, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, [[India]].

=== Medicine ===
* [[Edward Granville Browne|Browne, Edward G.]] ''Islamic Medicine. Fitzpatrick Lectures Delivered at the Royal College of Physicians in 1919–1920'', reprint: New Delhi: Goodword Books,  2001. {{ISBN|81-87570-19-9}}
* Pormann, Peter & [[Savage-Smith, Emilie]]. ''Medieval Islamic Medicine'', Washington: Georgetown University Press, 2007.
* Prioreschi, Plinio. ''Byzantine and Islamic Medicine'', A History of Medicine, Vol. 4, Omaha: Horatius Press, 2001.
* [[Syed Ziaur Rahman]]. Pharmacology of Avicennian Cardiac Drugs (Metaanalysis of researches and studies in Avicennian Cardiac Drugs along with English translation of Risalah al Adwiya al Qalbiyah), [[Ibn Sina Academy of Medieval Medicine and Sciences]], Aligarh, India, 2020 {{ISBN|978-93-80610-43-6}}

=== Philosophy ===
* Amos Bertolacci, ''The Reception of Aristotle's Metaphysics in Avicenna's Kitab al-Sifa'. A Milestone of Western Metaphysical Thought'', Leiden: Brill 2006, (Appendix C contains an ''Overview of the Main Works by Avicenna on Metaphysics in Chronological Order'').
* [[Dimitri Gutas]], ''Avicenna and the Aristotelian Tradition: Introduction to Reading Avicenna's Philosophical Works'', Leiden, Brill 2014, second revised and expanded edition (first edition: 1988), including an inventory of Avicenna' Authentic Works.
* Andreas Lammer: ''The Elements of Avicenna's Physics. Greek Sources and Arabic Innovations''. Scientia graeco-arabica 20. Berlin / Boston: Walter de Gruyter, 2018.
* Jon McGinnis and David C. Reisman (eds.) ''Interpreting Avicenna: Science and Philosophy in Medieval Islam: Proceedings of the Second Conference of the Avicenna Study Group'', Leiden: Brill, 2004.
* {{in lang|fr}} Michot, Jean R., ''La destinée de l'homme selon Avicenne'', Louvain: Aedibus Peeters, 1986, {{ISBN|978-90-6831-071-9}}.
* [[Nader El-Bizri]], ''The Phenomenological Quest between Avicenna and [[Heidegger]]'', Binghamton, N.Y.: Global Publications SUNY, 2000 (reprinted by SUNY Press in 2014 with a new Preface).
* Nader El-Bizri, "Avicenna and Essentialism," ''Review of Metaphysics'', Vol. 54 (June 2001), pp.&nbsp;753–778.
* Nader El-Bizri, "Avicenna's ''De Anima'' between Aristotle and Husserl," in ''The Passions of the Soul in the Metamorphosis of Becoming'', ed. Anna-Teresa Tymieniecka, Dordrecht: Kluwer, 2003, pp.&nbsp;67–89.
* Nader El-Bizri, "Being and Necessity: A Phenomenological Investigation of Avicenna's Metaphysics and Cosmology," in ''Islamic Philosophy and Occidental Phenomenology on the Perennial Issue of Microcosm and Macrocosm'', ed. Anna-Teresa Tymieniecka, Dordrecht: Kluwer, 2006, pp.&nbsp;243–261.
* Nader El-Bizri, 'Ibn Sīnā's Ontology and the Question of Being', ''Ishrāq: Islamic Philosophy Yearbook'' 2 (2011), 222–237
* Nader El-Bizri, 'Philosophising at the Margins of 'Sh'i Studies': Reflections on Ibn Sīnā's Ontology', in ''The Study of Sh'i Islam. History, Theology and Law'', eds. F. Daftary and G. Miskinzoda (London: I.B. Tauris, 2014), pp.&nbsp;585–597.
* Reisman, David C. (ed.), ''Before and After Avicenna: Proceedings of the First Conference of the Avicenna Study Group'',  Leiden: Brill, 2003.
{{refend}}

== External links ==
{{Sister project links|n=no|b=no|v=no|wikt=no}}
* {{Iranica|avicenna-index}}
* {{Gutenberg author|id=49814}}
* {{Librivox author |id=15890}}
* {{Cite SEP|url-id=ibn-sina/|title=Ibn Sina [Avicenna]|first=Dimitri|last=Gutas}}
* {{Cite SEP|url-id=ibn-sina-metaphysics/|title=Ibn Sina's Metaphysics|first=Olga|last=Lizzini}}
* {{Cite SEP|url-id=ibn-sina-logic/|title=Ibn Sina's Logic|first=Riccardo|last=Strobino}}
* {{Cite SEP|url-id=ibn-sina-natural/|title=Ibn Sina's Natural Philosophy|first=Jon|last=McGinnis}}
* {{Cite IEP|url-id=avicenna |title=Avicenna (Ibn Sina) |first=Sajjad H. |last=Rizvi}}
* {{Cite IEP|url-id=av-logic |title=Avicenna (Ibn Sina): Logic |first=Saloua |last=Chatti}}
* [https://www.ontology.co/avicenna.htm Avicenna (Ibn-Sina) on the Subject and the Object of Metaphysics] with a list of translations of the logical and philosophical works and an annotated bibliography
* {{In Our Time|Avicenna|b00855lt|Avicenna}}

{{Avicenna}}
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