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{{short description|Roman mystery cults of the wine god and seer Bacchus}}
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{{For-multi|the painting|Bacchanalia (Rubens)|the restaurant|Bacchanalia (restaurant)}}
{{Ancient Roman religion}}
The '''Bacchanalia''' were unofficial, privately funded popular [[Roman festivals]] of [[Bacchus]], based on various [[religious ecstasy|ecstatic]] elements of the Greek [[Dionysia]]. They were almost certainly associated with Rome's native cult of [[Liber]], and probably arrived in Rome itself around 200 BC. Like all [[mystery religions]] of the ancient world, very little is known of their rites. They seem to have been popular and well-organised throughout the central and southern Italian peninsula.<ref name=Walsh1996>{{cite journal |last1=Walsh |first1=P. G. |title=Making a Drama out of a Crisis: Livy on the Bacchanalia |journal=Greece & Rome |date=1996 |volume=43 |issue=2 |pages=188–203 |doi=10.1093/gr/43.2.188 |jstor=643095 }}</ref><ref name=Takács2000>{{cite journal |last1=Takács |first1=Sarolta A. |title=Politics and Religion in the Bacchanalian Affair of 186 B.C.E. |journal=Harvard Studies in Classical Philology |date=2000 |volume=100 |pages=301–310 |doi=10.2307/3185221 |jstor=3185221 }}</ref>

[[Livy]], writing some 200 years after the event, offers a scandalized and extremely colourful account of the Bacchanalia, with frenzied rites, sexually violent initiations of both sexes, all ages and all social classes; he represents the cult as a murderous instrument of conspiracy against the state. Livy claims that seven thousand cult leaders and followers were arrested, and that most were executed. Livy believed the Bacchanalia scandal to be one of several indications of Rome's inexorable moral decay. A modern scholar takes a skeptical approach to Livy's allegations.<ref name=Walsh1996/>

The cult was not banned. Senatorial [[Senatus consultum de Bacchanalibus|legislation to reform the Bacchanalia]] in 186 BC attempted to control their size, organisation, and priesthoods, under threat of the death penalty. This may have been motivated less by the kind of lurid and dramatic rumours that Livy describes than by the Senate's determination to assert its civil, moral and religious authority over Rome and its allies, after the prolonged social, political and military crisis of the [[Second Punic War]] (218–201 BC). The reformed Bacchanalia rites may have been merged with the [[Liberalia]] festival. Bacchus, Liber and Dionysus became virtually interchangeable from the late Republican era (133 BC and onward), and their mystery [[Cult (religious practice)|cults]] persisted well into the [[Principate]] of the [[Roman Empire|Roman Imperial era]].

==Background and development==
{{See also|Bacchus|Liber|Dionysia|Dionysian Mysteries}}
The Bacchanalia were Roman festivals of Bacchus, the Greco-Roman god of wine, freedom, intoxication and ecstasy. They were based on the Greek [[Dionysia]] and the [[Dionysian Mysteries]], and probably arrived in Rome c. 200 BC via the Greek colonies in southern Italy, and from [[Etruria]], Rome's northern neighbour. [[Tenney Frank]] suggests that some form of Dionysian worship may have been introduced to Rome by captives from the formerly Greek city of [[Taranto|Tarentum]] in southern Italy, captured from the Carthaginians in 209 BC.<ref name=Walsh1996/> Like all [[mystery cult]]s, the Bacchanalia were held in strict privacy, and initiates were bound to secrecy; what little is known of the cult and its rites derives from Greek and Roman literature, plays, statuary and paintings. One of the earliest sources is Greek playwright [[Euripides]]'s ''[[The Bacchae]]'', which won the Athenian Dionysia competition in 405 BC. The Bacchanalia may have had mystery elements and public elements; religious dramas which were performed in public, and private rites performed by acolytes and priests of the deity.<ref name="Gildenhard & Zissos 2016">{{cite book |last1=Gildenhard |first1=Ingo |last2=Zissos |first2=Andrew |chapter=The Bacchanalia and Roman Culture |pages=65–68 |jstor=j.ctt1fzhh5b.10 |editor1-last=Gildenhard |editor1-first=Ingo |editor2-last=Zissos |editor2-first=Andrew |title=Ovid, Metamorphoses, 3.511-733: Latin Text with Introduction, Commentary, Glossary of Terms, Vocabulary Aid and Study Questions |date=2016 |publisher=Open Book Publishers |isbn=978-1-78374-085-7 }}</ref><ref name=Walsh1996/><ref>{{cite book |last=Baldini |first=Chiara |chapter=The Politics of Ecstasy: the Case of the Bacchanalia Affair in Ancient Rome |editor1-last=Luke |editor1-first=David |editor2-last=King |editor2-first=Dave |title=Neurotransmissions: Essays on Psychedelics from Breaking Convention |date=2015 |publisher=MIT Press |isbn=978-1-907222-43-6 }}</ref>

[[Livy]], the principal Roman literary source on the early Bacchanalia, names [[Paculla Annia]], a [[Campania#Roman period|Campania]]n priestess of Bacchus, as the founder of a [[Religion in ancient Rome#Religio and the state|private, unofficial]] Bacchanalia cult in Rome, based at the grove of [[Semele#Semele in Roman culture|Stimula]], where the western slope of the [[Aventine Hill]] descends to the [[Tiber]]. The Aventine was an ethnically mixed district, strongly identified with Rome's [[plebeian]] class and the ingress of new and foreign cults.<ref name=Orlin2002>{{cite journal |last1=Orlin |first1=Eric M. |title=Foreign Cults in Republican Rome: Rethinking the Pomerial Rule |journal=Memoirs of the American Academy in Rome |date=2002 |volume=47 |pages=1–18 |doi=10.2307/4238789 |jstor=4238789 }}</ref> The wine and fertility god [[Liber Pater]] ("The Free Father"), divine patron of plebeian rights, freedoms and [[augur]]y, had a long-established official cult in the nearby [[Aventine Triad|temple he shared with Ceres and Libera]].<ref name=Takács2000/> Most Roman sources describe him as Rome's equivalent to Dionysus and Bacchus, both of whom were sometimes titled  ''Eleutherios'' (liberator).<ref name=Rousselle1987>{{cite journal |last1=Rousselle |first1=Robert |title=Liber-Dionysus in Early Roman Drama |journal=The Classical Journal |date=1987 |volume=82 |issue=3 |pages=193–198 |jstor=3297899 }}</ref>

== Bacchanalia scandal ==
Livy claims the earliest version of the Bacchanalia was open to women only, and held on three days of the year, in daylight; while in nearby Etruria, north of Rome, a "Greek of humble origin, versed in sacrifices and soothsaying" had established a nocturnal version, added wine and feasting to the mix, and thus acquired an enthusiastic following of women and men.<ref name=Takács2000/>  The nocturnal version of the Bacchanalia involved wine-drinking to excess, drunkenness and the free mingling of the sexes and classes; the rites also involved loud music.<ref name="Mathisen 2019 p147">{{cite book |last1=Mathisen |first1=Ralph W. |title=Ancient Roman Civilization: History and Sources, 753 BCE to 640 CE |date=2019 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-084960-3 |page=147 }}</ref><ref name=Takács2000/>

According to Livy's account, Publius Aebutius of the [[Aebutia (gens)]] was warned against the cult and its excesses by a courtesan, [[Hispala Faecenia]]. The Senate appointed [[Spurius Postumius Albinus (consul 186 BC)|Spurius Postumius Albinus]] and [[Quintus Marcius Philippus (consul 186 BC)|Quintus Marcius Philippus]] to investigate the cult.<ref name="Mathisen 2019 p147"/><ref name="Gildenhard & Zissos 2016"/><ref name=Takács2000/><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Riedl |first=M. |year=2012 |title=The Containment of Dionysos: Religion and Politics in the Bacchanalia Affair of 186 BCE |journal=International Political Anthropology |volume=5 |issue=2 |pages=113–133}}</ref> The inquiry claimed that under the cover of religion, priests and acolytes broke civil, moral and religious laws with impunity; weak-minded individuals could be persuaded to commit ritual or political murders undetected, at the behest of those who secretly controlled the cult, right in the heart of Rome. Livy claims that the cult held particular appeal to those of uneducated and fickle mind (''levitas animi''), such as the young, plebeians, women and "men most like women", and that most of the city's population was involved, even some members of Rome's highest class.

==Reform==
[[File:Sarcophagus with Scenes of Bacchus - Getty Villa - Collection.jpg|thumb|left|Bacchanal on a [[Roman sarcophagus]] of 210–220 AD]]
The Legislation of 186 survives in the form of an inscription. Known as the ''[[Senatus consultum de Bacchanalibus]]'', it brought the Bacchanalia under control of the Senate, and thus of the Roman [[pontifex|pontifices]]. The existing cult chapters and colleges were dismantled. Congregations of mixed gender were permitted, but were limited to no more than two men and three women, and any Bacchanalia gathering must seek prior permission from the Senate. Men were forbidden Bacchus's priesthood.

Despite their official suppression, illicit Bacchanals persisted covertly for many years, particularly in Southern Italy, their likely place of origin.<ref name=Takács2000/><ref>Beard, M., Price, S., North, J., ''Religions of Rome: Volume 1, a History'', illustrated, Cambridge University Press, 1998, pp. 93–96.</ref> The reformed, officially approved Bacchic cults would have borne little resemblance to the earlier crowded, ecstatic and uninhibited Bacchanalia. Similar attrition may have been imposed on Liber's cults; his perceived or actual association with the Bacchanalia may be the reason that his Liberalia ''ludi'' of 17 March were temporarily moved to Ceres' [[Cerealia]] of 12–19 April. They were restored when the ferocity of reaction eased, but in approved, much modified form.<ref>[[T.P. Wiseman]], ''Remus: a Roman myth'', Cambridge University Press, 1995, p.133.</ref>
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==Interpretations==
Livy's account of the Bacchanalia has been described as "tendentious to say the least".<ref name=Orlin2002/> As a political and social conservative, he had a deep mistrust of mystery religions, and probably understood any form of Bacchanalia as a sign of Roman degeneracy.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Walsh |first1=P. G. |title=Making a Drama Out of a Crisis: Livy on the Bacchanalia |journal=Greece and Rome |date=October 1996 |volume=43 |issue=2 |pages=188–203 |doi=10.1093/gr/43.2.188 }}</ref> Though most of his ''[[dramatis personae]]'' are known historical figures, their speeches are implausibly circumstantial, and his characters, [[Trope (literature)|trope]]s and plot developments draw more from Roman [[satyr play]]s than from the Bacchanalia themselves.<ref name=Rousselle1987/> Paculla Annia is unlikely to have introduced all the changes he attributes to her.<ref name=Orlin2002/><ref>For the changes attributed to Paculla Annia as unlikely, see Erich S. Gruen, ''Studies in Greek Culture and Roman Policy'', University of California Press, 1996, pp 48–54: Hispala Faecina is the standard "golden-hearted prostitute" whose courage and loyalty outweigh her low origin and profession, and her fear of reprisal, see Victoria Emma Pagán, ''Conspiracy Narratives in Roman History'', University of Texas Press, 2004, pp. 61–65.</ref><ref name=Rousselle1987/>

For Livy, the cult's greatest offences arose from indiscriminate mixing of freeborn Romans of both sexes and all ages at night, a time when passions are easily aroused, especially given wine and unrestricted opportunity. Women at these gatherings, he says, outnumbered men; and his account has the consul Postumius stress the overwhelmingly female nature and organization of the cult. Yet the ''[[Senatus consultum de Bacchanalibus]]'' itself allows women to outnumber men, by three to two, at any permitted gathering; and it expressly forbids Bacchic priesthoods to men.<ref>cf later descriptions of [[Liber]]'s "aged priestesses" who offer sacrifice at the [[Liberalia]] festival.</ref> Livy's own narrative names all but one of the offending cult leaders as male, which seems to eliminate any perceived "conspiracy of women".<ref>Gruen, E. ''Studies in Greek culture and Roman policy'', University of California Press, 1996, Ch. 2.</ref> Gender seems to have motivated the Senate's response no more than any other cause.<ref>Schultz, C., ''Women's religious activity in the Roman Republic'', UNC Press Books, 2006, p. 93.</ref>

Livy's consistent negative description of the cult's Greek origins and low moral character—not even Bacchus is exempt from this judgment—may have sought to justify its suppression as a sudden "infiltration of too many Greek elements into Roman worship".<ref>{{cite book|last=Orlin|first=Eric|editor=In Rüpke, J|title=A Companion to Roman Religion|url=https://archive.org/details/companiontoroman00rpke_493|url-access=limited|year=2007|publisher=Blackwell publishing|isbn=978-1-4051-2943-5|page=[https://archive.org/details/companiontoroman00rpke_493/page/n92 64]}}</ref> The cult had, however, been active in Rome for many years before its supposedly abrupt discovery, and Bacchic and Dionysiac cults had been part of life in Roman and allied, Greek-speaking Italy for many decades. Greek cults and Greek influences had been part of Rome's religious life since the 5th century BC, and Rome's acquisition of foreign cults—Greek or otherwise—through the alliance, treaty, [[Glossary of ancient Roman religion#evocatio|capture]] or conquest was a cornerstone of its foreign policy, and an essential feature of its eventual hegemony. While the pace of such introductions had gathered rapidly during the 3rd century, contemporary evidence of the Bacchanalia reform betrays no anti-Greek or anti-foreign policy or sentiment.<ref>{{cite book |doi=10.1002/9780470690970.ch5 |chapter=Urban Religion in the Middle and Late Republic |title=A Companion to Roman Religion |year=2007 |last1=Orlin |first1=Eric |pages=58–70 |isbn=978-0-470-69097-0 }}</ref>

Gruen interprets the ''Senatus consultum'' as a piece of ''[[Realpolitik]]'', a display of the Roman senate's authority to its Italian allies after the Second Punic War, and a reminder to any Roman politician, populist and would-be generalissimo that the Senate's collective authority trumped all personal ambition.<ref>Erich S. Gruen, ''Studies in Greek culture and Roman policy'', University of California Press, 1996, Ch. 2.</ref> Nevertheless, the extent and ferocity of the official response to the Bacchanalia was probably unprecedented, and betrays some form of [[moral panic]] on the part of Roman authorities; [[Walter Burkert|Burkert]] finds "nothing comparable in religious history before the [[Persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire|persecutions of Christians]]".<ref>[[Walter Burkert]], ''Ancient Mystery Religions'', Harvard University Press, 1987, p. 52.</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Gruen |first1=Erich S. |chapter=The Bacchanalian Affair |pages=34–78 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dnOPjX6GOrgC&pg=PA34 |title=Studies in Greek Culture and Roman Policy |date=1990 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=978-90-04-09051-4 }}</ref>

==Modern usage==
In modern usage, ''bacchanalia'' can mean any uninhibited or drunken revelry. The bacchanal in art describes any small group of revelers, often including satyrs and perhaps Bacchus or Silenus, usually in a landscape setting. The subject was popular from the Renaissance onwards, and usually included a large degree of nudity among the figures.
<gallery mode="packed" heights="180">
File:Bacanal de los andrios.jpg|[[Titian]], ''[[The Bacchanal of the Andrians]]'', 1523–1526
File:Peter Paul Rubens 011.jpg|[[Peter Paul Rubens]], ''[[Bacchanalia (Rubens)|Bacchanalia]]'', 1615
File:Nicolas Poussin - Bacchanale devant une statue de Pan.jpg|[[Nicolas Poussin]], ''[[A Bacchanalian Revel Before a Term of Pan]]'', 1632–1633
File:Bacchanalia Print.jpg|[[Konstantin Makovsky]], ''Spring Bacchanalia'', 1891
File:Lovis Corinth Heimkehrende Bacchanten 1898.jpg|[[Lovis Corinth]], ''Bacchanalia'', 1898
File:Zürich - Seefeldquai - A. Meyer Bacchanlia IMG 1923.JPG|A. Meyer, frieze in [[Seefeld (Zürich)]], 1900
</gallery>

==See also==
{{wikisource|From the Founding of the City/Book 39}}
{{Wikisourcelang|la|Ab Urbe Condita/liber XXXIX}}
{{EB1911 poster|Bacchanalia}}
* [[Anthesteria]]
* [[Ganachakra]]
* [[Maenad]]s, female worshippers of Dionysus
* [[Saturnalia]], a Roman festivity
* [[Thriambus]], a hymn sung in processions in honour of Dionysus

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==External links==
{{commons category|Bacchanals}}
* [http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/scbaccanalibus.html ''Senatus consultum de Bacchanalibus''], in Latin at [[The Latin Library]]
* [http://www.forumromanum.org/literature/sc/sc_bacch_e.html ''Decree of the Senate Concerning the Rites of Bacchus''] (''Senatus Consultum de Bacchanalibus''), in English at forumromanum.org
* [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/ancient/romrelig2.html Description of the Bacchanalia and the Senate's ruling], from Fordham

[[Category:Ancient Roman festivals]]
[[Category:March observances]]
[[Category:Roman festivals of Dionysus]]
[[Category:Drinking culture]]
[[Category:Group sex]]
[[Category:Greco-Roman mysteries]]
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