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{{Short description| Dutch philosopher (1632–1677)}}
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{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2022}}
{{long lead|date=January 2024}}

{{Infobox philosopher

| region      = [[Western philosophy]]
| era         = [[17th-century philosophy]]<br />[[Age of Enlightenment]]
| image       = Spinoza.jpg
| name        = Baruch Spinoza
| birth_name  = Baruch Espinosa{{sfn|Nadler|1999|p=45}}{{\}}<br/>Bento de Spinosa{{sfn|Nadler|1999|p=119}}
| other_names = Benedictus de Spinoza
| birth_date  = {{Birth date|df=yes|1632|11|24}}
| birth_place = [[Amsterdam]], [[Dutch Republic]]
| death_date  = {{Death date and age|df=yes|1677|2|21|1632|11|24}}
| death_place = [[The Hague]], Dutch Republic
| signature   = Spinoza's signature (1664).svg
| education   = Talmud Torah of Amsterdam{{sfn|Nadler|1999|p=64}}<br /><small>(withdrew)</small>{{sfn|Nadler|1999|p=65}}<br />[[University of Leiden]]<br /><small>(no degree)</small><ref>Steven Nadler, ''Spinoza and Medieval Jewish Philosophy'', Cambridge University Press, 2014, p. 27: "Spinoza attended lectures and anatomical dissections at the [[University of Leiden]]..."</ref>
| school_tradition = [[Cartesianism]]<ref name="Melamed_2015">{{cite book |editor-first=Yitzhak Y. |editor-last=Melamed |title=The Young Spinoza: A Metaphysician in the Making |publisher=Oxford University Press |date=2015 |isbn=978-0-19-997168-8 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=m3fNBgAAQBAJ&dq=Spinoza+Cartesian&pg=PT144 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20230101055509/https://books.google.com/books?id=m3fNBgAAQBAJ&pg=PT144&dq=Spinoza+Cartesian&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiI8tbxopjlAhUuHbkGHWqcBHsQ6AEIWDAH#v=onepage&q=Spinoza%20Cartesian&f=false |archive-date=1 January 2023 }}Chapter 7</ref><br />[[Conceptualism]]<ref>Stefano Di Bella, Tad M. Schmaltz (eds.), ''The Problem of Universals in Early Modern Philosophy'', Oxford University Press, 2017, p. 64 "there is a strong case to be made that Spinoza was a ''conceptualist'' about universals..."</ref><br />[[Correspondence theory of truth]]{{efn|However, Spinoza has also been interpreted as a defender of the [[coherence theory of truth]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/truth-coherence/ |title=The Coherence Theory of Truth (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy) |access-date=1 November 2019 |archive-date=1 November 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191101014528/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/truth-coherence/ |url-status=live }}</ref>}}<ref name=SEP>{{cite book |url = https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/truth-correspondence/ |title = Correspondence theory of truth – The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |first = Marian |last=David |editor-first = Edward N. |editor-last = Zalta |date=28 May 2015 |publisher = Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=14 May 2019 |via = Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy }}</ref><br />[[Direct realism]]<ref>Michael Della Rocca (ed.), ''The Oxford Handbook of Spinoza'', Oxford University Press, 2017, p. 288.</ref><br />[[Foundationalism]] (according to [[Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel|Hegel]])<ref>James Kreines, ''Reason in the World: Hegel's Metaphysics and Its Philosophical Appeal'', Oxford University Press, 2015, p. 25: "Spinoza's foundationalism (Hegel argues) threatens to eliminate all determinate reality, leaving only one indeterminate substance."</ref><br />[[Rationalism]]<br />[[Psychological Egoism]]<ref>{{cite book |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/spinoza-psychological/ |title=Spinoza's Psychological Theory – The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy|chapter=Spinoza's Psychological Theory |year=2022 |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University }}</ref><br />
[[Spinozism]]
| main_interests = {{hlist|[[Epistemology]]|[[ethics]]|[[Hebrew Bible]]|[[metaphysics]]}}
}}

'''Baruch''' ('''de''') '''Spinoza'''{{efn|Baruch Spinoza is pronounced, in English, {{IPAc-en|b|ə|ˈ|r|uː|k|_|s|p|ɪ|ˈ|n|oʊ|z|ə}};<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/spinoza |title=Spinoza |work=[[Collins English Dictionary]]|publisher=[[HarperCollins]]|access-date=27 April 2019}}</ref> in Dutch, {{IPA-nl|baːˈrux spɪˈnoːzaː|}}; and, in Portuguese, {{IPA-pt|ðɨ ʃpiˈnɔzɐ|}}. He was born '''Bento''' (Portuguese) or '''Baruch''' (Hebrew) holding the family name '''Espinosa'''.{{sfn|Nadler|1999|p=45}} In most of the documents and records contemporary with Spinoza's years within the Jewish community, his name is given as the Portuguese '''Bento'''.{{sfn|Nadler|1999|p=42}}{{sfn|Nadler|2001|p=1}}<ref>{{Citation |last=Nadler |first=Steven |title=Baruch Spinoza |date=2022 |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2022/entries/spinoza/ |encyclopedia=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |editor-last=Zalta |editor-first=Edward N. |edition=Summer 2022 |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=2022-11-20}}</ref> In Hebrew, without transliteration, his full name is written {{Script/Hebrew|ברוך שפינוזה}}. His given name, Baruch/Bento, means "Blessed" in Hebrew and Portuguese respectively. Later, as an author and correspondent, he was known in [[Latin]] in which he wrote. '''Benedictus de Spinoza''', was his preferred name also of his signature, with the first name sometimes [[Anglicisation of names|anglicized]] as '''Benedict'''.}} (24 November 1632 – 21 February 1677),<ref>[[Jonathan Israel]] in his various works on the [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]], ''Spinoza, Life & Legacy''. Oxford: Oxford University Press 2023</ref><ref name="Britannica">{{Britannica|560202|Benedict de Spinoza|[[Richard H. Popkin]]}}</ref><ref name="IEP">{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.iep.utm.edu/spinoza/ |first=Blake D. |last=Dutton |title=Benedict De Spinoza (1632–1677) |access-date=7 July 2019|encyclopedia=Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy}}</ref> mostly known under his Latinized pen name '''Benedictus de Spinoza''',<ref>{{Cite web |title=Why Spinoza Was Excommunicated |url=https://www.neh.gov/article/why-spinoza-was-excommunicated |access-date=2023-04-13 |website=The National Endowment for the Humanities |language=en}}</ref> was a leading seventeenth-century philosopher of [[Sephardic Jews in the Netherlands|Portuguese-Jewish]] origin,<ref name="tws908" /> resident in the [[Dutch Republic]], and, as a young man, permanently expelled from the Jewish community. After his expulsion, Spinoza lived an outwardly simple life without religious affiliation; the center of his life was philosophy. He had a dedicated clandestine circle of supporters, a philosophical sect, who met to discuss the writings he shared with them.<ref>Israel, ''Spinoza, Life and Legacy'', 322, 327-51</ref> 

One of the foremost thinkers of the [[Age of Enlightenment|Age of Reason]],<ref name="Britannica" /> modern [[biblical criticism]],<ref>{{cite book |last=Yovel |first=Yirmiyahu |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1-E9DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA3 |title=Spinoza and Other Heretics: The Adventures of Immanence |publisher=[[Princeton University Press]] |date=1992 |page=3|isbn=0691020795 }}</ref> and 17th-century [[Rationalism]], including modern conceptions of the self and the universe,<ref name="tws9906">{{cite news | title = Destroyer and Builder |magazine=[[The New Republic]] | date = 3 May 2012 | url = https://newrepublic.com/book/review/book-forged-hell-spinoza-treatise-steven-nadler | access-date=7 March 2013}}</ref> Spinoza came to be considered "one of the most important philosophers—and certainly the most radical—of the [[early modern period]]".<ref>{{Cite SEP|url-id=spinoza|title=Baruch Spinoza |first=Steven |last=Nadler |date=16 April 2020}}</ref> He was influenced by [[Stoicism]], [[Maimonides]], [[Niccolò Machiavelli|Machiavelli]], [[René Descartes|Descartes]], [[Thomas Hobbes|Hobbes]], and a variety of [[Heterodoxy|heterodox]] Christian thinkers of his day. <ref name="IEP" /> 

He challenged the divine origin of the [[Hebrew Bible]], the nature of God, and the earthly power wielded by religious authorities, Jewish and Christian alike. He was frequently called an "atheist" by contemporaries, although nowhere in his work does Spinoza argue against the [[existence of God]].{{sfn|Stewart|2007|p=352}}<ref name="autogenerated1">{{cite journal |url=https://digitalcommons.usu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1036&context=imwjournal |title=On the Development of Spinoza's Account of Human Religion |last=Simkins |first=James |journal=Intermountain West Journal of Religious Studies |date=2014 |volume=5 |number=1}}</ref> This can be explained by the fact that, unlike contemporary 21st century scholars, "When seventeenth-century readers accused Spinoza of atheism, they usually meant that he challenged doctrinal orthodoxy, particularly on moral issues, and not that he denied God’s existence."<ref>{{cite book |last=Carlisle |first=Clare |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=V9oiEAAAQBAJ |title=Spinoza's Religion |publisher=[[Princeton University Press]] |date=2021 |page=10|isbn=978-0-691-17659-8 }}</ref> His theological studies were inseparable from his thinking on politics; he is grouped with Hobbes, [[John Locke|Locke]], [[Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz|Leibniz]], and [[Immanuel Kant|Kant]], who "helped establish the genre of political writing called [[secular theology]]."<ref>Smith, Steven B. ''Spinoza, Liberalism, and the Question of Jewish Identity''. New Haven: Yale University Press 1997, 2</ref>

He died unexpectedly at age 44 in 1677. Supporters swiftly removed unpublished manuscripts from his lodgings to prevent their destruction by authorities; they prepared his works with speed and secrecy for posthumous publication in both their original Latin and Dutch. His works were banned by Dutch authorities and later the Roman Catholic Church.<ref>Jonathan Israel, "The Banning of Spinoza's Works in the Dutch Republic (1670–1678)", in: Wiep van Bunge and Wim Klever (eds.) ''Disguised and Overt Spinozism around 1700'' (Leiden, 1996), pp. 3–14 ([https://books.google.com/books?id=eKF4AvtQnXEC&pg=PA3 online] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220928010222/https://books.google.it/books?id=eKF4AvtQnXEC&pg=PA3&dq |date=28 September 2022 }}).</ref><ref>P. TOTARO, "The Young Spinoza and the Vatican Manuscript of Spinoza's Ethics", in ''The Young Spinoza. A Metaphysician in the Making'', ed. by Yitzhak Y. Melamed, New York, Oxford University Press, 2015, pp. 319–332 at 321–2.</ref>

Spinoza's philosophy encompasses nearly every area of philosophical discourse,<ref>{{Citation |last=Hübner |first=Karolina |title=Spinoza's Epistemology and Philosophy of Mind |date=2022 |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2022/entries/spinoza-epistemology-mind/ |encyclopedia=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |editor-last=Zalta |editor-first=Edward N. |access-date=2023-04-04 |edition=Spring 2022 |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University}}</ref> including [[metaphysics]], [[epistemology]], [[Political Philosophy|political philosophy]], [[ethics]], [[Philosophy of Mind|philosophy of mind]], and [[Philosophy of Science|philosophy of science]]. It earned Spinoza an enduring reputation as one of the most important and original thinkers of the seventeenth century, influencing philosophers ever since. He has been called "the renegade Jew who gave us modernity."<ref>[[Rebecca Goldstein|Goldstein, Rebecca]], ''Betraying Spinoza: The Renegade Jew who Gave Us Modernity.'' New York: Schocken 2009 {{ISBN|978-0805211597}}</ref>
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==Biography==
[[File:Mozes en Aäronkerk.jpg|thumb|200px|Spinoza lived where the [[Mozes en Aäronkerk (Amsterdam)|Moses and Aaron Church]] is located now, and there is strong evidence that he may have been born there.<ref>''Die Lebensgeschichte Spinozas. Zweite, stark erweiterte und vollständig neu kommentierte Auflage der Ausgabe von Jakob Freudenthal 1899''. M. e. Bibliographie hg. v. Manfred Walther unter Mitarbeit v. Michael Czelinski. 2 Bde. Stuttgart-Bad Canstatt: frommann-holzboog, 2006. (Specula 4,1 – 4,2.) Erläuterungen. p. 98, 119.</ref>]]

===Family background===
Both sides of Spinoza’s family were originally Portuguese [[Sephardic Jews]]. His immediate family migrated to Amsterdam, arriving in the early seventeenth century, as [[Sephardic Jews in the Netherlands]] were openly establishing a community and could practice their religion without persecution by the [[Portuguese Inquisition|Inquisition]]. The family in Portugal were [[New Christian]]s, forced converts (''[[conversos]]'') to Catholicism. In Portugal in the early sixteenth century, the crown initially looked the other way as outwardly Catholic New Christians practiced Judaism in private. The [[Portuguese Inquisition]] was not even established until 1536. As the Inquisition increasingly cracked down, more New Christians continued [[crypto-Judaism|practicing Judaism in secrecy]].<ref>Rowland, Robert, "New Christian, Marrano, Jew" in ''The Jews and the Expansion of Europe to the West, 1450-1800'', Paolo Bernardini and Norman Fiering, eds. New York: Berghahn Books 2001, 131-37</ref> A legacy of the era was that many in Spinoza's family had both Christian and Jewish names. 

Spinoza's father Michael married his cousin Rachael d’Espinosa, daughter of his uncle Abraham d’Espinosa. Such a pattern of intermarriage was fairly common in the Jewish merchant community, keeping commercial and religious ties strong, and secrets safe. Marrying his cousin Rachel gave Michael access to his uncle/father-in-law's commercial network and capital. 

When Michael’s wife died in 1627, he married again to Hannah Deborah. His second wife brought a dowry to the marriage, which should not have been absorbed into the capital of the family business. This marriage proved fruitful, with five children who survived to adulthood.  Michael was a successful, although not enormously wealthy, merchant in Amsterdam, prominent in the community. {{sfn|Nadler|2001|p=1}}

The first-born of his second marriage was Miriam, followed by Isaac (1631-49). Isaac d'Espinosa was expected to take over as head of family and its commercial enterprise. 

Baruch Espinosa,{{sfn|Nadler|1999|p=45}} the third child and second son, was born on 24 November 1632 in the [[Jodenbuurt]] in Amsterdam, Netherlands. He was named as per tradition for his maternal grandfather. 

Spinoza’s younger brother Gabriel (Abraham) was born in 1634, followed by another sister, Rebecca (Ribca). Spinoza’s sister Miriam married [[Caceres family|Samuel de Caceres]], but Miriam died shortly after giving birth.  Following Jewish tradition, the widower Samuel married his former sister-in-law Rebecca. Spinoza's sisters' marriages to Caceres and his honored place in the Spinoza family as a scholar, meant that Spinoza's own ambitions as a scholar were pushed aside. There was discord between Spinoza and his sister and brother-in-law over inheritance, which played out later when Spinoza broke with rabbinic authorities and the Jewish community.<ref>Israel, Spinoza, “Spinoza family tree”, figure 4.1, p. 84</ref> 

His mother, Hannah Déborah, Michael's second wife, died when Baruch was only six years old. Michael remarried to give his five children a mother figure. The third marriage was childless so that Spinoza and his siblings had no half- or step-siblings.{{sfn|Nadler|2001|p=23}} 

Spinoza was related in a complicated way with the highly controversial figure in the Amsterdam Portuguese Jewish community, the Portuguese philosopher [[Uriel da Costa]] (1585-1640), through his mother’s family in Porto. Da Costa's battle for [[freedom of thought]] and [[Freedom of speech|speech]] led him to question the Catholic and [[Rabbinic Judaism|rabbinic]] traditions of his time, leading to him being excommunicated twice by rabbinic authorities and facing harsh [[social exclusion]]. He committed suicide in 1640, when Spinoza was eight years old. Spinoza might not have known of the scandalous family connection until he was an adolescent.<ref>Israel, ''Spinoza'' 90 </ref>

===School days===
Baruch's family spoke Portuguese, as did other Sephardim. He studied [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] at school and Jewish liturgy; he knew [[Dutch language|Dutch]], which he likely learned informally. He learned Latin only later as a young man. {{sfn|Nadler|1999|p=47}} 

His name in contemporary documents before his 1656 expulsion from the Jewish community is given as the Portuguese "Bento"; his Hebrew name "Baruch" was used in religious contexts. Following his excommunication at age 23, he began using the Latinized version of his name, "Benedictus de Spinoza."

Spinoza had a traditional upbringing for a Jewish boy, attending a local religious school, the Keter Torah [[yeshiva]] of the Amsterdam [[Talmud Torah]] congregation headed by the learned and traditional senior Rabbi [[Saul Levi Morteira]].{{sfn|Nadler|1999|pp=64–65}} Teachers also included the less traditional Rabbi [[Manasseh ben Israel]]. Since Spinoza never reached a level of advanced study of the Torah,{{sfn|Nadler|2001|p=1}} the senior rabbis were unlikely to have had him as a pupil. The sudden end of Spinoza's schooling was due to the unexpected death of his elder brother Isaac, who had been actively involved in the family business.{{sfn|Nadler|2001|p=1}}

===The family business and intellectual explorations===
When Spinoza's father, Michael, died in 1654, Spinoza had been actively involved in the running of the family business. Although Spinoza duly recited [[Kaddish]], the Jewish prayer of mourning, for eleven months as required by Jewish law,{{sfn|Nadler|2001|p=1}} there is evidence that his relations with his father had been chilly.{{Citation needed|date=January 2024}}

As with other merchants in Amsterdam, the Spinozas' business was affected by the [[Anglo-Dutch Wars|First Anglo-Dutch War]] in the years of 1652-1654, as well as by some commercial deals that soured, and found itself in severe difficulty. In addition, Michael had absorbed the dowry of Spinoza's mother as regular capital for his business, rather than keeping it separate for her children after her death. As such, the money was at risk for collection by Michael's many creditors.

Spinoza was just 21 when his father died, in Dutch law a legal minor until age 25. Nonetheless, he and his younger brother Gabriel (Abraham) formed a business partnership, attempting to continue the family business, including collecting unpaid debts owed by merchants to their father's estate. 

Spinoza had continued to support the synagogue financially and attend services. When his sister Rebekah disputed his inheritance seeking it for herself, he sued her to seek a court judgment, won the case, but then renounced his claim to the court's judgment in his favor and assigned his inheritance to her.{{sfn|Scruton|2002|p=21}} 

In March 1656, Spinoza filed suit with the Amsterdam municipal authorities to be declared an [[orphan]], since he was still a legal minor. He sought relief through Dutch law, not through judgment by Jewish authorities, from whom he had become increasingly estranged, but not openly as yet. He won the civil lawsuit, which allowed him to inherit his mother's estate without it being subject to his father's creditors and devote himself chiefly to the study of philosophy, especially the system expounded by [[Descartes]], and to [[optics]].{{sfn|Nadler|2001|p=25}}

At some point between 1654 and 1658, Spinoza began to study Latin with [[Franciscus van den Enden]]. Van den Enden was a former [[Jesuit]] who was a political radical, and likely introduced Spinoza to scholastic and [[modern philosophy]], including that of Descartes.{{sfn|Nadler|2001|p=27}}{{sfn|Nadler|2001|p=189}} Spinoza adopted the Latin name Benedictus de Spinoza, began boarding with Van den Enden, and began teaching in his school.{{sfn|Nadler|2001|p=27}}{{sfn|Nadler|2001|p=189}}

During this period Spinoza also became acquainted with the [[Collegiants]], an [[anti-clerical]] sect of [[Remonstrants]] with tendencies towards [[rationalism]], and with the liberal faction among the [[Mennonite]]s who had existed for a century but were close to the Remonstrants.{{sfn|Scruton|2002|p=20}} Many of his friends belonged to dissident Christian groups which met regularly as discussion groups and which typically rejected the authority of established churches as well as traditional dogmas.<ref name=tws908>{{cite news |first=Anthony |last=Gottlieb|author-link=Anthony Gottlieb|title=God Exists, Philosophically (review of ''Spinoza: A Life'' by Steven Nadler)|work=[[The New York Times]]|department=Books|date=18 July 1999|url=https://www.nytimes.com/books/99/07/18/reviews/990718.18gottlit.html|access-date=7 September 2009}}</ref> In the second half of the 1650s and the first half of the 1660s Spinoza became acquainted with several persons who would themselves emerge as unorthodox thinkers: this group, known as the Spinoza Circle, included {{Wikidata fallback link|Q97143945}}<!---[[Pieter Balling]]-->, {{Wikidata fallback link|Q1955462}}<!---[[Jarich Jelles]]-->, [[Lodewijk Meyer]], [[Johannes Bouwmeester]] and [[Adriaan Koerbagh|Adriaen Koerbagh]].

===Expulsion from the Jewish community===
[[File:Hirszenberg, Spinoza wyklêty (Excommunicated Spinoza), 1907.jpg|thumb|''Spinoza and the Rabbis'' by [[Samuel Hirszenberg]] (1907)]]
[[File:Baruch_Espinosa_crossed_out_from_pupil_list,_Ets_Haim,_Amsterdam,_17th_century.jpeg|thumb|Spinoza's name crossed out on the list of pupils of Ets Haim]]
[[File:Spinoza%27s_seal_"Caute".svg|thumb|Seal with Spinoza's initials and the Latin word meaning "caution"]]
Spinoza did not openly break with Jewish authorities until after his father's death in 1654. He challenged the prevailing dogmas of [[Judaism]], and particularly the insistence on non-[[Law of Moses|Mosaic]] authorship of the [[Pentateuch]]. His break was not sudden; rather, it appears to have been the result of a lengthy internal struggle as well as a degree of filial piety. Nevertheless, after he was branded as a heretic, Spinoza's clashes with authority became more pronounced. He was later attacked on the steps of the synagogue by a knife-wielding assailant shouting "Heretic!" He was apparently quite shaken by this attack and for years kept (and wore) his torn cloak, unmended, as a reminder.{{sfn|Scruton|2002|p=21}}

On 27 July 1656, the Sepharadi Talmud Torah congregation of Amsterdam, which included [[Isaac Aboab da Fonseca|Aboab de Fonseca]],<ref>{{Cite web |title=Fonseca, da, Isaac Aboab - The Spinoza Web |url=https://spinozaweb.org/people/180 |access-date=2024-01-13 |website=spinozaweb.org}}</ref> issued a writ of ''[[Herem (censure)|herem]]'' (Hebrew: {{Script/Hebrew|חרם}}, a kind of ban, shunning, ostracism, expulsion, or [[excommunication]]) against the 23-year-old Spinoza.{{sfn|Scruton|2002|p=21}}<ref name="Curley2020">{{cite book |last1=Curley |first1=Edwin |title=A Spinoza Reader: The Ethics and Other Works |date=31 March 2020 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-0-691-20928-9 |page=xii |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Yf3RDwAAQBAJ&pg=PR12}}</ref><ref name="Touber2018">{{cite book |last1=Touber |first1=Jetze |title=Spinoza and Biblical Philology in the Dutch Republic, 1660–1710 |date=21 June 2018 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-252718-9 |page=45 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BWliDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA45}}</ref> The Talmud Torah congregation issued censures routinely, on matters great and small, so such an edict was not unusual.{{sfn|Nadler|2001|p=7}} 

The language of Spinoza's censure is unusually harsh, however, and does not appear in any other censure known to have been issued by the Portuguese Jewish community in Amsterdam.{{sfn|Nadler|2001|p=2}} The exact reason for expelling Spinoza is not stated.<ref>Steven B. Smith, ''Spinoza's book of life: freedom and redemption in the Ethics'', Yale University Press (2003), p. xx: "Introduction."</ref> The censure refers only to the "abominable heresies [''horrendas heregias''] that he practised and taught", to his "monstrous deeds", and to the testimony of witnesses "in the presence of the said Espinoza". There is no record of such testimony, but there appear to have been several likely reasons for the issuance of the censure.{{sfn|Nadler|2001b}}

Spinoza began publicly expressing radical religious views that were highly controversial. Spinoza biographer [[Steven Nadler]] wrote: "No doubt he was giving utterance to just those ideas that would soon appear in his philosophical treatises. In those works, Spinoza denies the immortality of the soul; strongly rejects the notion of a providential god—the god of Abraham, Isaac and Jacob; and claims that the [Mosiac] Law was neither literally given by God nor any longer binding on Jews." {{sfn|Nadler|2008|loc=[https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/spinoza/#Biog Biography]}}

The Amsterdam Jewish community was largely composed of [[Spanish and Portuguese Jews|Spanish and Portuguese ''conversos'']], "[[New Christians]]", who had respectively migrated from Spain via Portugal to escape the [[Spanish Inquisition]] and Portuguese conversos, following the establishment of the [[Portuguese Inquisition]], with their children and grandchildren. Amsterdam was tolerant of religious diversity so long as it was practiced discreetly. Jews were not legally confined to a [[ghetto]] and the city presented economic opportunities for those willing to move.<ref>Okhovat, Oren, "Cosmopolitan Empire: Portuguese Jewish Merchants and Iberian Imperialism in the seventeenth-century Atlantic". PhD dissertation. University of Florida 2023.</ref> This community must have been concerned to protect its reputation from any association with Spinoza lest his controversial views provide the basis for their own possible persecution or expulsion.{{sfn|Nadler|2001|pp=17–22}} 

There is little evidence that the Amsterdam municipal authorities were directly involved in Spinoza's censure itself. But "in 1619, the town council expressly ordered [the Portuguese Jewish community] to regulate their conduct and ensure that the members of the community kept to a strict observance of Jewish law."{{sfn|Nadler|2001|p=19}} Other evidence makes it clear that the danger of upsetting the civil authorities was never far from mind, such as bans adopted by the synagogue on public wedding or funeral processions and on discussing religious matters with Christians, lest such activity might "disturb the liberty we enjoy".{{sfn|Nadler|2001|p=20}} Thus, the issuance of Spinoza's censure was almost certainly, in part, an exercise in self-censorship by the Portuguese Jewish community in Amsterdam.{{sfn|Nadler|2001|pp=19–21}}
[[File:Ban of Baruch Spinoza, Amsterdam, 27 July 1656, 6 Av 5416.jpg|thumb|Ban in Portuguese of Baruch Spinoza by his Portuguese Jewish synagogue community of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, 6 Av 5416 (27 July 1656)]]

It appears likely that Spinoza had already taken the initiative to separate himself from the Talmud Torah congregation and was [[Criticism of Judaism|vocally expressing his hostility to Judaism itself]], also through his philosophical works, such as the Part I of [[Ethics (Spinoza book)#Part I: Of God|''Ethics'']].<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |author-last=Nadler |author-first=Steven |author-link=Steven Nadler |date=Summer 2020 |title=Baruch Spinoza: God or Nature |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/spinoza/#GodNatu |editor-last=Zalta |editor-first=Edward N. |editor-link=Edward N. Zalta |encyclopedia=[[Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy]] |publisher=The Metaphysics Research Lab, [[Center for the Study of Language and Information]], [[Stanford University]] |issn=1095-5054 |oclc=643092515 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200417050848/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/spinoza/ |archive-date=17 April 2020 |access-date=5 August 2021 |quote=In propositions one through fifteen of Part One, Spinoza presents the basic elements of his picture of God. God is the infinite, necessarily existing (that is, self-caused), unique substance of the universe. There is only one substance in the universe; it is God; and everything else that is, is in God. [...] As soon as this preliminary conclusion has been established, Spinoza immediately reveals the objective of his attack. His definition of God—condemned since his excommunication from the Jewish community as a "God existing in only a philosophical sense"—is meant to preclude any anthropomorphizing of the divine being. In the scholium to proposition fifteen, he writes against "those who feign a God, like man, consisting of a body and a mind, and subject to passions. But how far they wander from the true knowledge of God, is sufficiently established by what has already been demonstrated." Besides being false, such an anthropomorphic conception of God standing as judge over us can have only deleterious effects on human freedom and activity, insofar as it fosters a life enslaved to hope and fear and the superstitions to which such emotions give rise.}}</ref> He had probably stopped attending services at the synagogue, either after the lawsuit with his sister or after the knife attack on its steps. He might already have been voicing the view expressed later in his ''[[Tractatus Theologico-Politicus|Theological-Political Treatise]]'' that the civil authorities should suppress Judaism as harmful to the Jews themselves. Either for financial or other reasons,{{sfn|Nadler|2001|p=28}}{{sfn|Nadler|2001|p=189}} he had in any case effectively stopped contributing to the synagogue by March 1656. 

He had also committed the "monstrous deed", contrary to the regulations of the synagogue and the views of some rabbinical authorities (including [[Maimonides]]), of filing suit in a civil court rather than with the synagogue authorities{{sfn|Nadler|2001|p=25}}—to renounce his father's heritage, no less. Upon being notified of the issuance of the censure, he is reported to have said: "Very well; this does not force me to do anything that I would not have done of my own accord, had I not been afraid of a scandal."{{sfn|Scruton|2002|p=22}} Thus, unlike most of the censure issued routinely by the Amsterdam congregation to discipline its members, the censure issued against Spinoza did not lead to repentance and so was never withdrawn. After the censure, Spinoza is said to have addressed an [[Apologia]] (defense), written in Spanish, to the elders of the synagogue, "in which he defended his views as orthodox, and condemned the rabbis for accusing him of 'horrible practices and other enormities' merely because he had neglected ceremonial observances".{{sfn|Scruton|2002|p=22}} This apologia [[Lost literary work|does not survive]], but some of its contents may later have been included in his ''Theological-Political Treatise''.{{sfn|Scruton|2002|p=22}}

Spinoza's expulsion from the Jewish community did not lead to his conversion to Christianity. Spinoza used the Latinized name Benedictus de Spinoza and maintained a close association with the [[Collegiants]] (a liberal Protestant sect of Remonstrants) and [[Quakers]],<ref>[https://www.britannica.com/biography/Benedict-de-Spinoza/Association-with-Collegiants-and-Quakers#ref1029792 Spinoza's Biography] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220926002430/https://www.britannica.com/biography/Benedict-de-Spinoza/Association-with-Collegiants-and-Quakers#ref1029792 |date=26 September 2022 }} in the [[Encyclopædia Britannica]]. 14 February 2018.</ref> even moved to a town near the Collegiants' headquarters, and was buried at the Protestant Church, [[Nieuwe Kerk, The Hague]], since burial was a sectarian matter and he was ineligible to be buried in the Jewish cemetery.<ref>{{cite web|first=Howard |last=Kramer |url=https://thecompletepilgrim.com/home-gravesite-baruch-spinoza/ |title=HOME & GRAVESITE OF BARUCH SPINOZA – The Complete Pilgrim – Religious Travel Sites |publisher=The Complete Pilgrim |date=2020-07-17 |access-date=2022-03-14}}</ref> 

There is no evidence he maintained any sense of Jewish identity. "Spinoza did not envision secular Judaism. To be a secular and assimilated Jew is, in his view, nonsense."{{sfn|Nadler|2011|p=167}} Spinoza scholar [[Yirmiyahu Yovel]] raises the question of whether or not Spinoza could be categorized as the first "secular Jew" since he was still regarded as a Jew although he did not adhere to Jewish law or belong to the Jewish community. Yovel writes that Spinoza "exemplifies the situation of the modern Jew—secular, assimilationist, or national—without himself falling neatly into any of these categories. Countless Jews in the coming centuries were to find themselves in a similar predicament."<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.autodidactproject.org/other/spinoza.html | title=Ralph Dumain: "The Autodidact Project": "Spinoza, the First Secular Jew?" by Yirmiyahu Yovel }}</ref>

===Career as a philosopher===
[[File:Estudio espinoza.jpg|right|thumb|Study room of Spinoza in Rijnsburg]]
Spinoza spent his remaining 22 years writing and studying as a private scholar,<ref name=tws908/> initially teaching in the school of his Latin tutor, Franciscus Van den Enden, with whom he boarded for a time, and later, upon leaving Amsterdam, earning a living as a lens grinder. He also received some financial assistance from supporters of his intellectual stance. After the ''herem'', the Amsterdam municipal authorities expelled Spinoza from Amsterdam, "responding to the appeals of the rabbis, and also of the Calvinist clergy, who had been vicariously offended by the existence of a free thinker in the synagogue". 

He spent a brief time in or near the village of [[Ouderkerk aan de Amstel]], but returned soon afterwards to Amsterdam and lived there quietly for several years, giving private philosophy lessons and grinding lenses, before leaving the city in 1660 or 1661.{{sfn|Scruton|2002|p=22}} During this time in Amsterdam, Spinoza wrote his ''Short Treatise on God, Man, and His Well-Being'', which he never published in his lifetime—assuming with good reason that it might get suppressed. Two Dutch translations of it survive, discovered about 1810.{{sfn|Scruton|2002|p=22}} 

In 1660 or 1661, Spinoza moved from Amsterdam to [[Rijnsburg]] (near [[Leiden]]), the center of Dutch [[Remonstrants]] known as the [[Collegiants]].<ref>[[Steven Nadler]], ''Spinoza and Medieval Jewish Philosophy'', Cambridge University Press, 2014, p. 27: "Spinoza attended lectures and anatomical dissections at the [[University of Leiden]]..."</ref> In Rijnsburg, he began work on his ''Descartes' "Principles of Philosophy"'' as well as on his masterpiece, the ''Ethics''. In 1663, he returned briefly to Amsterdam, where he finished and published ''Descartes' "Principles of Philosophy"'', the only work published in his lifetime under his own name, and then moved the same year to [[Voorburg]].

In Voorburg, Spinoza continued work on his magnum opus, eventually entitled ''Ethics'', and corresponded with scientists, philosophers, and theologians throughout Europe. He published in Latin, anonymously, and with false printer information ''Theological-Political Treatise'' (TTP) in 1670, in defense of secular and constitutional government, and in support of [[Johan de Witt|Jan de Witt]], the [[Grand Pensionary]] of [[Holland]], against the Stadtholder, the Prince of Orange. 

[[Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz|Leibniz]] visited Spinoza and claimed that Spinoza's life was in danger when supporters of the [[William III of England|Prince of Orange]] murdered de Witt in 1672.<ref>"he [Spinoza] told me [Leibniz] he had a strong desire, on the day of the massacre of Mess. De Witt, to sally forth at night, and put up somewhere, near the place of the massacre, a paper with the words ''Ultimi barbarorum'' [ultimate barbarians]. But his host had shut the house to prevent his going out, for he would have run the risk of being torn to pieces." ([https://archive.org/details/arefutationrece00caregoog ''A Refutation Recently Discovered of Spinoza by Leibnitz''], "Remarks on the Unpublished Refutation of Spinoza by Leibnitz", Edinburg: Thomas Constable and Company, 1855. p. 70.</ref> While the TTP was published anonymously, the work did not long remain so, and de Witt's enemies characterized it as "forged in Hell by a renegade Jew and the Devil, and issued with the knowledge of Jan de Witt". It was condemned in 1673 by the Synod of the Dutch Reformed Church and formally banned in 1674.<ref>Nadler, Steven, ''A Book Forged in Hell: Spinoza's Scandalous Treatise and the Birth of the Secular Age''. Princeton: Princeton University Press 2011.</ref>

In 1670, Spinoza moved to [[The Hague]], where he lived on a small pension from Jan de Witt and a small annuity from the brother of his dead friend, Simon de Vries.{{sfn|Scruton|2002|p=26}} He worked on the ''[[Ethics (Spinoza book)|Ethics]]'', wrote an unfinished Hebrew grammar, began his ''[[Tractatus Politicus|Political Treatise]]'' (TP), left unfinished at his death, wrote two scientific essays ("On the Rainbow" and "On the Calculation of Chances"), and began a Dutch translation of the Bible (which he later destroyed).{{sfn|Scruton|2002|p=26}} Spinoza was offered the chair of philosophy at the [[University of Heidelberg]], but he refused it, perhaps because of the possibility that it might in some way curb his [[freedom of thought]].{{sfn|Chauí|2001|pp=30–31|ps=: "A commentary on Descartes' work, ''Principles of Cartesian Philosophy'', only work published under his own name, brought him on an invitation to teach philosophy at the University of Heidelberg. Spinoza, however, refused, thinking that it might be demanded the renunciation of his freedom of thought, for the invite stipulated that all care should be taken to 'not insult the principles of the established religion'."}}

Spinoza also corresponded with [[Peter Serrarius]], a radical Protestant and [[Millenarianism|millenarian]] merchant. Serrarius was a patron to Spinoza after Spinoza was expelled from the Jewish community. He acted as an intermediary for Spinoza's correspondence, sending and receiving letters of the philosopher to and from third parties. Spinoza and Serrarius maintained their relationship until Serrarius' death in 1669.<ref>[[Richard Popkin|Popkin, Richard H.]], "Benedict de Spinoza" in ''The Columbia History of Western Philosophy'' (Columbia University Press, 1999), p. 381.</ref> 

By the beginning of the 1660s, Spinoza's name became more widely known. The Secretary of the [[British Royal Society]] [[Henry Oldenburg]] paid him visits and became a correspondent with Spinoza for the rest of his life.{{sfn|Lucas|1960}} In 1676, Leibniz came to the Hague to discuss the unpublished ''Ethics'', Spinoza's principal philosophical work, parts of which apparently had circulated in manuscript form.{{sfn|Stewart|2007|p={{page needed|date=March 2021}}}}

====Lens-grinding and optics====
Spinoza earned a modest living from lens-grinding and instrument making, yet he was involved in important optical investigations of the day while living in Voorburg, through correspondence and friendships with scientist [[Christiaan Huygens]] and mathematician [[Johannes Hudde]], including debate over microscope design with Huygens, favouring small objectives<ref>Christiaan Huygens, ''Oeuvres complètes'', Letter No. 1638, 11 May 1668</ref> and collaborating on calculations for a prospective {{Convert|40|ft|m|abbr=|adj=on}} focal length telescope which would have been one of the largest in Europe at the time.<ref>Christiaan Huygens, ''Oeuvres complètes'', letter to his brother 23 September 1667</ref> He was known for making not just lenses but also telescopes and microscopes.{{sfn|Nadler|1999|page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=6GJjDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA215 215]}} The quality of Spinoza's lenses was much praised by Christiaan Huygens, among others.{{sfn|Nadler|2001|p=183}} In fact, his technique and instruments were so esteemed that [[Constantijn Huygens, Jr.|Constantijn Huygens]] ground a "clear and bright" telescope lens with focal length of {{Convert|42|ft|m|abbr=}} in 1687 from one of Spinoza's grinding dishes, ten years after his death.<ref>Christiaan Huygens, ''Oeuvres complètes'', vol. XXII, p. 732, footnote</ref> He was said by anatomist [[Theodor Kerckring]] to have produced an "excellent" microscope, the quality of which was the foundation of Kerckring's anatomy claims.<ref>Theodore Kerckring, "Spicilegium Anatomicum" Observatio XCIII (1670)</ref> During his time as a lens and instrument maker, he was also supported by small but regular donations from close friends.<ref name=tws908/>

====Death and burial====
[[File:Den_Haag_-_Nieuwe_Kerk_-_Burial_Monument_to_Baruch_D%27Espinoza_-_Baruch_de_Spinoza_-_Benedict_de_Spinoza_-_Benedito_de_Espinosa.jpg|thumb|Burial monument of Spinoza at the churchyard of the [[Nieuwe Kerk (The Hague)]]]]

Spinoza's health began to fail in 1676, dying in The Hague on 21 February 1677 at the age of 44, attended by a physician friend, Georg Herman Schuller. Although he had been ill with some form of lung affliction, described as "''ex phthisi'' [from consumption]", perhaps complicated by [[silicosis]] brought on by grinding glass lenses,<ref>Gullan-Whur, ''Within Reason: A Life of Spinoza'' 317-18</ref> his death on that particular day was unexpected by himself or his landlord and landlady with whom he lived, and he died without leaving a will.<ref>Israel, ''Spinoza'' (2023), 1150-51</ref><ref>Nadler, ''Spinoza, A Life'' (2018), 406</ref> His personal belongings and papers, most importantly his unpublished manuscripts, were stored in a cabinet attached to his writing desk, and were taken away for safekeeping from seizure by those wishing to suppress his writings. They do not appear in the inventory of his possessions at death. There were assertions that he had repented his philosophical stances on his deathbed, but all credible evidence points to his dying unrepentant and in tranquility.<ref>Israel, ''Spinoza'', 1152-6, 1159</ref> The first biography of Spinoza,<ref>Colerus, Johannes, ''The Life of Benedict de Spinoza'' (London 1706)</ref> by Lutheran preacher Johannes Colerus (1647-1707), was prompted to investigate Spinoza's last days.<ref>Israel, ''Spinoza'', 1154-55</ref> 

Spinoza was buried in the ''Nieuwe Kerk'' (New Church) on the Spui four days after his death, on 25 February, inside the church, with six others in the same vault. At the time there was no memorial plaque for Spinoza. In the 18th century, the vault was emptied and the remains disposed of, with the "remnants scattered over the earth of the churchyard." The memorial plaque visitors now see is outside, where some of his remains are part of the churchyard's soil.<ref>Israel, ''Spinoza'', 1158</ref>

== Writings ==
Spinoza published little in his lifetime and most of his formal writings were in Latin, which would have reached only a small number of readers. His supporters published his works posthumously, in Latin and in Dutch, with other translations to European languages following. A descriptive bibliography has been published that contextualizes all aspects of the publication history of Spinoza's writings from manuscript to print.<ref>Ven, Jeroen van de. ''Printing Spinoza: A Descriptive Bibliography of the Works Published in the Seventeenth Century.'' Leiden; Brill, 2022.</ref> 

The reaction to the anonymously published work, ''Theologico-Political Treatise'' (TTP)(1670), was extremely unfavorable. Spinoza abstained from publishing further, but his writings circulated among his supporters during his lifetime. Wary and independent, he wore a [[signet ring]] which he used to mark his letters and which was engraved with the word ''caute'' (Latin for "cautiously") underneath a rose, itself a symbol of secrecy.{{sfn|Stewart|2007|p=106}}

The ''Ethics'' and all other works, apart from the ''Descartes' Principles of Philosophy'' and the ''Theologico-Political Treatise'', were published after his 1677 death. The ''Opera Posthuma'' was edited by his friends in secrecy to prevent confiscation and destruction of manuscripts. The ''Ethics'' contains many still-unresolved obscurities and is written with a forbidding mathematical structure modeled on Euclid's geometry<ref name=tws908/> and has been described as a "superbly cryptic masterwork".<ref name=tws9912/>

===Major publications===
* {{circa|1660}}. ''[[s:nl:Korte Verhandeling van God, de mensch en deszelvs welstand|Korte Verhandeling van God, de mensch en deszelvs welstand]]'' (''[https://archive.org/details/spinozasshorttre00spinuoft A Short Treatise on God, Man and His Well-Being]'').
* 1662. ''[[Tractatus de Intellectus Emendatione]]'' (''On the Improvement of the Understanding'') (unfinished).
* 1663. ''[[Principia philosophiae cartesianae]]'' (''The Principles of Cartesian Philosophy'', translated by Samuel Shirley, with an Introduction and Notes by Steven Barbone and Lee Rice, Indianapolis, 1998). [http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k943625 Gallica] (in Latin).
* 1670. ''[[Tractatus Theologico-Politicus]]'' (A Theologico-Political Treatise).
* 1675–76. ''[[Tractatus Politicus]]'' (unfinished) ([https://web.archive.org/web/20110723220332/http://www.spinozacsack.net78.net/Political%20Treatise%2C%20Benedict%20de%20Spinoza.pdf PDF version])
* 1677. ''[[Ethics (Spinoza book)|Ethica Ordine Geometrico Demonstrata]]'' (''The Ethics'', finished 1674, but published posthumously)
* 1677. ''Compendium grammatices linguae hebraeae'' (Hebrew Grammar).<ref>See G. Licata, "Spinoza e la cognitio universalis dell'ebraico. Demistificazione e speculazione grammaticale nel Compendio di grammatica ebraica", Giornale di Metafisica, 3 (2009), pp. 625–61.</ref>
* Morgan, Michael L. (ed.), 2002. ''Spinoza: Complete Works'', with the Translation of Samuel Shirley, Indianapolis/Cambridge: Hackett Publishing Company. {{ISBN|978-0-87220-620-5}}. 
* Edwin Curley (ed.), 1985, 2016. ''The Collected Works of Spinoza'' (two volumes), Princeton: Princeton University Press.(Not including the ''Compendium grammatices linguae hebraeae'').
* Spruit, Leen and Pina Totaro, 2011. ''The Vatican Manuscript of Spinoza's Ethica'', Leiden: Brill.

=== Correspondence ===
{{See also|Epistolae (Spinoza)|List of Epistolae (Letters) of Spinoza}}
[[File:Spinoza_Letter_to_Leibniz.jpg|thumb|Letter from Spinoza to Leibniz, with his BdS seal]]
Few letters are extant for such an important intellectual figure and none before 1661. Spinoza engaged in correspondence from December 1664 to June 1665 with [[Willem van Blijenbergh]], an amateur [[Calvinism|Calvinist]] theologian, who questioned Spinoza on the definition of [[evil]]. Later in 1665, Spinoza notified Oldenburg that he had started to work on a new book, the ''[[Theologico-Political Treatise]]'', published in 1670. Leibniz disagreed harshly with Spinoza in his own manuscript "Refutation of Spinoza",<ref>see [https://archive.org/details/arefutationrece00caregoog/page/n2 <!-- pg=1 quote=leibniz. --> Refutation of Spinoza]</ref> but he is also known to have met with Spinoza on at least one occasion{{sfn|Lucas|1960}}<ref name=tws9904>{{cite news
| author=Lisa Montanarelli (book reviewer)
| title = Spinoza stymies 'God's attorney' – Stewart argues the secular world was at stake in Leibniz face off
|work=San Francisco Chronicle
| date = 8 January 2006
| url = http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2006/01/08/RVGO9GEOKH1.DTL
| access-date =8 September 2009
}}</ref> (as mentioned above), and his own work bears some striking resemblances to specific important parts of Spinoza's philosophy (see: [[Monadology]]).

In a letter, written in December 1675 and sent to Albert Burgh, who wanted to defend [[Catholicism]], Spinoza clearly explained his view of both Catholicism and [[Islam]]. He stated that both religions are made "to deceive the people and to constrain the minds of men". He also states that Islam far surpasses Catholicism in doing so.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.andrewbostom.org/2012/02/spinoza-on-islam/ | title=Spinoza on Islam| date=13 February 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Correspondence of Spinoza|first=Baruch|last=Spinoza|translator=A. Wolf|publisher=Kessinger Publishing, LLC|year=2003|page=354}}</ref> The ''Tractatus de Deo, Homine, ejusque Felicitate'' (Treatise on God, man and his happiness) was one of the last of Spinoza's works to be published, between 1851<ref>{{cite book|first=Patrick A.|last=Coyle|url=https://scholar.uwindsor.ca/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=6885&context=etd|title=Some aspects of the philosophy of Spinoza and his ontological proof of the existence of God|publisher= University of Western Ontario, CA|via=University of Windsor, Electronic Theses and Dissertations|year=1938|page=2|format=PDF|oclc=1067012129|access-date=9 June 2021}}</ref> and 1862.<ref>{{cite journal|first=W.R.|last=Soley|author-link=W. R. Sorley|url=|doi=10.1093/mind/os-V.19.362|title=Jewish Mediaeval Philosophy in Spinoza|journal=Mind|volume = os-V|issue = 19|date= 1 July 1880|pages= 362–384|publisher=Oxford University Press|quote= other hand, the discovery and publication in 1862 of a lost treatise of Spinoza's—the Tractatus brtvia de Deo et homine ejusque felicitate"|jstor=2246395|oclc=5545819846|issn=0026-4423}}</ref>

==Philosophy<!--'Spinozism' redirects here-->==
Spinoza's philosophy is explicated in his two major publications originally written in Latin, the ''Tratacus Theologico-Politicus'' (TTP) (1670) and [[Ethics (Spinoza book)|the ''Ethics'']], published posthumously in Latin and Dutch. 

===''Tractatus Theologico-Politicus''===
{{Main|Tractatus Theologico-Politicus}}{{See also|Thomas Hobbes}}
Despite its being published in Latin rather than a vernacular language, this 1670 treatise published in Spinoza's lifetime caused a huge reaction, described as "one of the most significant events in European intellectual history,"<ref>Nadler, ''Book Forged in Hell'', xi</ref> with a prolonged furore "that has no parallel in early modern intellectual history."<ref>Israel, ''Spinoza, Life & Legacy'', 776</ref>

===''Ethics''===
The ''Ethics'' has been associated with that of [[Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz|Leibniz]] and [[René Descartes]] as part of the [[Rationalism|rationalist]] school of thought,<ref name=tws9904/> which includes the assumption that ideas correspond to reality perfectly, in the same way that mathematics is supposed to be an exact representation of the world. The writings of [[René Descartes]] have been described as "Spinoza's starting point".<ref name=tws9912>{{cite news
| first=Harold |last=Bloom|author-link=Harold Bloom
| title = Deciphering Spinoza, the Great Original – Book review of ''Betraying Spinoza. The Renegade Jew Who Gave Us Modernity'' by Rebecca Goldstein
|work=The New York Times
| date = 16 June 2006
| url = https://www.nytimes.com/2006/06/16/arts/16iht-idside17.1986759.html
| access-date =8 September 2009
}}</ref> Spinoza's first publication was his 1663 geometric exposition of proofs using [[Euclid]]'s model with definitions and axioms of Descartes' ''[[Principles of Philosophy]]''. Following Descartes, Spinoza aimed to understand truth through logical deductions from 'clear and distinct ideas', a process which always begins from the 'self-evident truths' of [[axiom]]s.{{sfn|Scruton|2002|pages=31–32}}

====Metaphysics====
{{Jewish philosophy}}
Spinoza's [[metaphysics]] consists of one thing, substance, and its modifications (modes). Early in ''The Ethics'' Spinoza argues that there is only one substance, which is absolutely [[Infinity|infinite]], self-caused, and eternal. He calls this substance "[[God]]", or "[[Nature]]". In fact, he takes these two terms to be [[synonymous]] (in the [[Latin]] the phrase he uses is ''"Deus sive Natura"''). For Spinoza the whole of the [[natural]] [[universe]] is made of one substance, God, or, what is the same, Nature, and its modifications (modes).
{{blockquote|It cannot be overemphasized how the rest of Spinoza's philosophy—his philosophy of mind, his epistemology, his psychology, his moral philosophy, his political philosophy, and his philosophy of religion—flows more or less directly from the metaphysical underpinnings in Part I of the ''Ethics''.<ref>Della Rocca, Michael. (2008). ''Spinoza''. Routledge., pg. 33.</ref>}}

=====Substance, attributes, and modes=====
{{Blockquote|These are the fundamental concepts with which Spinoza sets forth a vision of Being, illuminated by his awareness of God. They may seem strange at first sight. To the question "What is?" he replies: "Substance, its attributes, and modes".|[[Karl Jaspers]]{{sfn|Jaspers|1974|p=9}}}}

Following [[Maimonides]], Spinoza defined [[Substance theory|substance]] as "that which is in itself and is conceived through itself", meaning that it can be understood without any reference to anything external.<ref name=Scruton41>{{harvnb|Scruton|2002|page=41}}</ref> Being conceptually independent also means that the same thing is [[Ontology|ontologically]] independent, depending on nothing else for its existence and being the 'cause of itself' (''causa sui'').<ref name=Scruton41 /> A mode is something which cannot exist independently but rather must do so as part of something else on which it depends, including properties (for example colour), relations (such as size) and individual things.<ref name=Scruton42>{{harvnb|Scruton|2002|page=42}}</ref> Modes can be further divided into 'finite' and 'infinite' ones, with the latter being evident in every finite mode (he gives the examples of "motion" and "rest").{{sfn|Scruton|2002|page=43}} The traditional understanding of an [[Property (philosophy)|attribute]] in philosophy is similar to Spinoza's modes, though he uses that word differently.<ref name=Scruton42 /> To him, an attribute is "that which the intellect perceives as constituting the essence of substance", and there are possibly an infinite number of them.{{sfn|Scruton|2002|page=44}} It is the essential nature which is "attributed" to reality by intellect.{{sfn|Scruton|2002|page=45}}
[[File:Portrait of a man, thought to be Baruch de Spinoza, attributed to Barend Graat.jpg|thumb|180px|Probable portrait of Spinoza, by [[Barend Graat]], 1666]]

Spinoza defined [[God]] as "a substance consisting of infinite attributes, each of which expresses eternal and infinite essence", and since "no cause or reason" can prevent such a being from existing, it therefore must exist.{{sfn|Scruton|2002|page=45}} This is a form of the [[ontological argument]], which is claimed to prove the existence of God, but Spinoza went further in stating that it showed that only God exists.<ref name=Scruton38>{{harvnb|Scruton|2002|page=38}}</ref> Accordingly, he stated that "Whatever is, is in God, and nothing can exist or be conceived without God".<ref name=Scruton38 /> This means that God is identical with the universe, an idea which he encapsulated in the phrase "''Deus sive Natura''" ('God or Nature'), which has been interpreted by some as [[atheism]] or [[pantheism]].{{sfn|Scruton|2002|page=51}} God can be known either through the attribute of extension or the attribute of thought.{{sfn|Scruton|2002|page=57}} Thought and extension represent giving complete accounts of the world in mental or physical terms.{{sfn|Scruton|2002|page=59}} To this end, he says that "the mind and the body are one and the same thing, which is conceived now under the attribute of thought, now under the attribute of extension".{{sfn|Scruton|2002|page=60}}

After stating his proof for God's existence, Spinoza addresses who "God" is. Spinoza believed that God is "the sum of the natural and physical laws of the universe and certainly not an individual entity or creator".<ref>Cannon, J. A. (2009, May 17). World in time of upheaval: Sources of enlightenment. Deseret News.</ref> Spinoza attempts to prove that God is just the substance of the universe by first stating that substances do not share attributes or essences and then demonstrating that God is a "substance" with an infinite number of attributes, thus the attributes possessed by any other substances must also be possessed by God. Therefore, God is just the sum of all the substances of the universe. God is the only substance in the universe, and everything is a part of God. This view was described by [[Charles Hartshorne]] as [[Classical Pantheism]].<ref name="auto4">Charles Hartshorne and William Reese, "Philosophers Speak of God", Humanity Books, 1953 ch. 4</ref>

Spinoza argues that "things could not have been produced by God in any other way or in any other order than is the case".<ref>Baruch Spinoza. ''Ethics'', in'' Spinoza: Complete Works'', trans. by Samuel Shirley and ed. by Michael L. Morgan (Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing, 2002), see Part I, Proposition 33.</ref> Therefore, concepts such as 'freedom' and 'chance' have little meaning.{{sfn|Scruton|2002|page=51}} This picture of Spinoza's determinism is illuminated in ''Ethics'': "the infant believes that it is by free will that it seeks the breast; the angry boy believes that by free will he wishes vengeance; the timid man thinks it is with free will he seeks flight; the drunkard believes that by a free command of his mind he speaks the things which when sober he wishes he had left unsaid. … All believe that they speak by a free command of the mind, whilst, in truth, they have no power to restrain the impulse which they have to speak."<ref>''Ethics'', Part III, Proposition 2.</ref> In his letter to G. H. Schuller (Letter 58), he wrote: "men are conscious of their desire and unaware of the causes by which [their desires] are determined."<ref>''Ethics'', Pt. I, Prop. XXXVI, Appendix: "[M]en think themselves free inasmuch as they are conscious of their volitions and desires, and never even dream, in their ignorance, of the causes which have disposed of them so to wish and desire."</ref> He also held that knowledge of true causes of passive emotion can transform it into an active emotion, thus anticipating one of the key ideas of [[Sigmund Freud]]'s [[psychoanalysis]].{{sfn|Scruton|2002|p=86}}

According to Professor Eric Schliesser, Spinoza was skeptical regarding the possibility of knowledge of nature and as a consequence at odds with scientists like Galileo and Huygens.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://philsci-archive.pitt.edu/9223/ |website=PhilSci-Archive |title = "Spinoza and the Philosophy of Science: Mathematics, Motion, and Being"|date = 9 July 2012}}</ref>

=====Causality=====
Though the [[principle of sufficient reason]] is most commonly associated with [[Gottfried Leibniz]],<ref>{{Cite web |title=Western philosophy - The rationalism of Spinoza and Leibniz |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Western-philosophy/The-rationalism-of-Spinoza-and-Leibniz |access-date=2022-12-25 |website=Britannica  |language=en}}</ref> it is arguably found in its strongest form in Spinoza's philosophy.<ref>Della Rocca, Michael. (2008). ''Spinoza'', Routledge.</ref>
Within the context of Spinoza's philosophical system, the principle can be understood to unify causation and explanation.<ref name="Della Rocca, Spinoza, 2008">Della Rocca, ''Spinoza'', 2008.</ref> What this means is that for Spinoza, questions regarding the ''reason'' why a given phenomenon is the way it is (or exists) are always answerable, and are always answerable in terms of the relevant cause(s). This constitutes a rejection of [[teleology|teleological]], or [[final cause|final causation]], except possibly in a more restricted sense for human beings.<ref name=curley85>{{harvnb|Curley|1985}}</ref>{{page needed|date=September 2022}}<ref name="Della Rocca, Spinoza, 2008"/> Given this, Spinoza's views regarding causality and modality begin to make much more sense.

Spinoza has also been described as an "[[Epicureanism|Epicurean]] materialist",<ref name="tws9912" /> specifically in reference to his opposition to Cartesian mind-body dualism. This view was held by Epicureans before him, as they believed that atoms with their probabilistic paths were the only substance that existed fundamentally.<ref name="Konstan">{{cite book|last=Konstan|first=David|url=https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2016/entries/epicurus/|title=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy|publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University|year=2016|editor-last=Zalta|editor-first=Edward N.|access-date=21 February 2017|via=[[Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy]]}}</ref><ref>''[[Ethics (Spinoza)|Ethics]]'', Part IV, preface: "''Deus seu Natura''".</ref> Spinoza, however, deviated significantly from Epicureans by adhering to strict determinism, much like the Stoics before him, in contrast to the Epicurean belief in the probabilistic path of atoms, which is more in line with contemporary thought on [[quantum mechanics]].<ref name="Konstan" /><ref>{{cite web|title=Baruch Spinoza, "Human Beings are Determined"|url=http://philosophy.lander.edu/intro/spinoza.shtml|access-date=21 February 2017|work=Lander.edu}}</ref>

=====The emotions=====
One thing which seems, on the surface, to distinguish Spinoza's view of the emotions from both [[René Descartes|Descartes']] and [[David Hume|Hume's]] pictures of them is that he takes the emotions to be [[cognition|cognitive]] in some important respect. [[Jonathan Bennett (philosopher)|Jonathan Bennett]] claims that "Spinoza mainly saw emotions as caused by cognitions. [However] he did not say this clearly enough and sometimes lost sight of it entirely."{{sfn|Bennett|1984|p=276}}
Spinoza provides several demonstrations which purport to show truths about how human emotions work. The picture presented is, according to Bennett, "unflattering, coloured as it is by universal [[egoism]]".{{sfn|Bennett|1984|p=277}}

====Ethical philosophy====
Spinoza's notion of blessedness figures centrally in his ethical philosophy.
Blessedness (or salvation or freedom), Spinoza thinks,
{{blockquote|consists...in a constant and eternal love of God, or in God's love for men.(E5P36s)<ref name=curley85 />{{page needed|date=September 2022}}}}
And this means, as [[Jonathan Bennett (philosopher)|Jonathan Bennett]] explains, that "Spinoza wants "blessedness" to stand for the most elevated and desirable state one could possibly be in."{{sfn|Bennett|1984|p=371}} Here, understanding what is meant by 'most elevated and desirable state' requires understanding Spinoza's notion of ''[[conatus]]'' (read: ''striving'', but not necessarily with any [[teleology|teleological]] baggage) and that "perfection" refers not to (moral) value, but to completeness. Given that individuals are identified as mere modifications of the infinite Substance, it follows that no individual can ever be ''fully'' complete, i.e., perfect, or blessed. Absolute perfection, is, as noted above, reserved solely for Substance. Nevertheless, mere modes can attain a lesser form of blessedness, namely, that of pure understanding of oneself as one really is, i.e., as a definite modification of Substance in a certain set of relationships with everything else in the universe. That this is what Spinoza has in mind can be seen at the end of the ''Ethics'', in E5P24 and E5P25, wherein Spinoza makes two final key moves, unifying the metaphysical, epistemological, and ethical propositions he has developed over the course of the work. In E5P24, he links the understanding of particular things to the understanding of God, or Substance; in E5P25, the ''conatus'' of the mind is linked to the third kind of knowledge (''Intuition''). From here, it is a short step to the connection of Blessedness with the ''amor dei intellectualis'' ("intellectual love of God").

[[File:Benedictus de Spinoza cover portrait.jpg|thumb|Engraving of Spinoza, captioned in Latin, "A Jew and an atheist"; he vehemently denied being an atheist.]]

==Pantheism==
{{see also|Pantheism controversy}}
Spinoza was considered to be an atheist because he used the word "God" [Deus] to signify a concept that was different from that of traditional Judeo–Christian monotheism. "Spinoza expressly denies personality and consciousness to God; he has neither intelligence, feeling, nor will; he does not act according to purpose, but everything follows necessarily from his nature, according to law...."<ref>Frank Thilly, ''A History of Philosophy'', § 47, Holt & Co., New York, 1914</ref> Thus, Spinoza's cool, indifferent God differs from the concept of an anthropomorphic, fatherly God who cares about humanity.<ref>"I believe in Spinoza's God who reveals himself in the orderly harmony of what exists, not in a God who concerns himself with fates and actions of human beings." These words were spoken by Albert Einstein, upon being asked if he believed in God by Rabbi Herbert Goldstein of the Institutional Synagogue, New York, April 24, 1921, published in the New York Times, April 25, 1929; from ''Einstein: The Life and Times'' Ronald W. Clark, New York: World Publishing Co., 1971, p. 413; also cited as a telegram to a Jewish newspaper, 1929, Einstein Archive 33–272, from Alice Calaprice, ed., ''The Expanded Quotable Einstein'', Princeton, NJ: Princeton University</ref>

In 1785, [[Friedrich Heinrich Jacobi]] published a condemnation of Spinoza's pantheism, after [[Gotthold Ephraim Lessing|Gotthold Lessing]] was thought to have confessed on his deathbed to being a "Spinozist", which was the equivalent in his time of being called an [[atheist]]. Jacobi claimed that Spinoza's doctrine was pure materialism, because all Nature and God are said to be nothing but extended [[Substance theory|substance]]. This, for Jacobi, was the result of Enlightenment rationalism and it would finally end in absolute atheism. [[Moses Mendelssohn]] disagreed with Jacobi, saying that there is no actual difference between [[theism]] and pantheism. The issue became a major intellectual and religious concern for European civilization at the time.
{{clear left}}
The attraction of Spinoza's philosophy to late 18th-century Europeans was that it provided an alternative to materialism, atheism, and deism. Three of Spinoza's ideas strongly appealed to them:
* the unity of all that exists;
* the regularity of all that happens;
* the identity of spirit and nature.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Lange|first1=Frederick Albert|title=History of Materialism and Criticism of its Present Importance, Vol. II|date=1880|publisher=Houghton, Osgood, & Co.|location=Boston|page=[https://archive.org/details/historyofmateria02lang/page/147 147]|url=https://archive.org/details/historyofmateria02lang|access-date=11 November 2015}}</ref>
By 1879, Spinoza's pantheism was praised by many, but was considered by some to be alarming and dangerously inimical.<ref>"The Pantheism of Spinoza Dr. Smith regarded as the most dangerous enemy of Christianity, and as he announced his conviction that it had gained the control of the schools, press and pulpit of the Old World [Europe], and was rapidly gaining the same control of the New [United States], his alarm and indignation sometimes rose to the eloquence of genuine passion." ''Memorial of the Rev. Henry Smith, D.D., LL D., Professor of Sacred Rhetoric and Pastoral Theology in [[Lane Theological Seminary]], Consisting of Addresses on Occasion of the Anniversary of the Seminary, 8 May 1879, Together with Commemorative Resolutions'', p. 26.</ref>

Spinoza's "God or Nature" (''Deus sive Natura'') provided a living, natural God, in contrast to [[Isaac Newton]]'s [[first cause argument]] and the dead mechanism of [[Julien Offray de La Mettrie]]'s (1709–1751) work, ''[[Man a Machine]]'' (''{{lang|fr|L'homme machine}})''. Coleridge and Shelley saw in Spinoza's philosophy a ''religion of nature''.<ref name=tws908/> [[Novalis]] called him the "God-intoxicated man".<ref name=tws9912/><ref name=tws9902>{{cite news
| title = Spinoza, "God-Intoxicated Man"; Three Books Which Mark the Three Hundredth Anniversary of the Philosopher's Birth
|work=[[The New York Times]]
| date = 20 November 1932
| url = http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F40A14F83A5513738DDDA90A94D9415B828FF1D3
| access-date =8 September 2009
| first=Percy
| last=Hutchison
}}</ref> Spinoza inspired the poet Shelley to write his essay "[[The Necessity of Atheism]]".<ref name=tws9912/>

It is a widespread belief that Spinoza equated God with the material universe. He has therefore been called the "prophet"<ref>Picton, J. Allanson, "Pantheism: Its Story and Significance", 1905.</ref> and "prince"<ref>Fraser, Alexander Campbell "Philosophy of Theism", William Blackwood and Sons, 1895, p. 163.</ref> and most eminent expounder of [[pantheism]]. More specifically, in a letter to Henry Oldenburg he states, "as to the view of certain people that I identify God with Nature (taken as a kind of mass or corporeal matter), they are quite mistaken".<ref>Correspondence of Benedict de Spinoza, Wilder Publications (26 March 2009), {{ISBN|978-1-60459-156-9}}, letter 73.</ref> For Spinoza, the universe (cosmos) is a ''mode'' under two ''attributes'' of Thought and [[Extension (metaphysics)|Extension]]. God has infinitely many other attributes which are not present in the world.

According to German philosopher [[Karl Jaspers]] (1883–1969), when Spinoza wrote ''{{lang|la|Deus sive Natura}}'' (Latin for 'God or Nature'), Spinoza meant God was ''{{lang|la|[[natura naturans]]}}'' (nature doing what nature does; literally, 'nature naturing'), not ''{{lang|la|[[natura naturata]]}}'' (nature already created; literally, 'nature natured'). Jaspers believed that Spinoza, in his philosophical system, did not mean to say that God and Nature are interchangeable terms, but rather that God's transcendence was attested by his infinitely many attributes, and that two attributes known by humans, namely Thought and Extension, signified God's immanence.<ref name="ts64">{{harvnb|Jaspers|1974|pp=14, 95}}</ref> Even God under the attributes of thought and extension cannot be identified strictly with our world. That world is of course "divisible"; it has parts. But Spinoza said, "no attribute of a substance can be truly conceived from which it follows that the substance can be divided", meaning that one cannot conceive an attribute in a way that leads to division of substance. He also said, "a substance which is absolutely infinite is indivisible" (Ethics, Part I, Propositions 12 and 13).<ref name="ts65">Genevieve Lloyd, Routledge Philosophy GuideBook to Spinoza and The Ethics (Routledge Philosophy Guidebooks), Routledge; 1 edition (2 October 1996), {{ISBN|978-0-415-10782-2}}, p. 40</ref> Following this logic, our world should be considered as a mode under two attributes of thought and extension. Therefore, according to Jaspers, the pantheist formula "One and All" would apply to Spinoza only if the "One" preserves its transcendence and the "All" were not interpreted as the totality of finite things.<ref name=ts64/>

[[Martial Guéroult]] (1891–1976) suggested the term "[[panentheism]]", rather than "pantheism" to describe Spinoza's view of the relation between God and the world. The world is not God, but it is, in a strong sense, "in" God. Not only do finite things have God as their cause; they cannot be conceived without God.<ref name=ts65/> However, American panentheist philosopher [[Charles Hartshorne]] (1897–2000) insisted on the term [[Classical Pantheism]] to describe Spinoza's view.<ref name="auto4"/>

According to the ''[[Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy]]'', Spinoza's God is an "infinite intellect" (''Ethics'' 2p11c) — all knowing (2p3), and capable of loving both himself—and us, insofar as we are part of his perfection (5p35c). And if the mark of a personal being is that it is one towards which we can entertain personal attitudes, then we should note too that Spinoza recommends ''amor intellectualis dei'' (the intellectual love of God) as the supreme good for man (5p33). However, the matter is complex. Spinoza's God does not have free will (1p32c1), he does not have purposes or intentions (1 appendix), and Spinoza insists that "neither intellect nor will pertain to the nature of God" (1p17s1). Moreover, while we may love God, we need to remember that God is really not the kind of being who could ever love us back. "He who loves God cannot strive that God should love him in return", says Spinoza (5p19).<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/pantheism/#Per|title=Pantheism|encyclopedia=[[Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy]]|access-date=3 October 2014}}</ref>

[[Steven Nadler]] suggests that settling the question of Spinoza's atheism or pantheism depends on an analysis of attitudes. If pantheism is associated with religiosity, then Spinoza is not a pantheist, since Spinoza believes that the proper stance to take towards God is not one of reverence or religious awe, but instead one of objective study and reason, since taking the religious stance would leave one open to the possibility of error and superstition.{{sfn|Nadler|2008|loc=[https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/spinoza/#GodNatu God or Nature]}}

==Legacy==
Spinoza's ideas have had a major impact on intellectual debates from the seventeenth century to the current era. His biographer [[Jonathan I. Israel]] contends that "No leading figure of the post-1750 later Enlightenment, for example, or the nineteenth century, was engaged with the philosophy of Descartes, Hobbes, Bayle, Locke, or Leibniz, to the degree leading figures such as [[Gotthold Ephraim Lessing|Lessing]], Goethe, Kant, Hegel, Fichte, Schelling, Heine, [[George Eliot]], and Nietzsche, remained preoccupied throughout their creative lives with Spinoza."<ref>Israel, ''Spinoza, Life and Legacy'', 1205</ref> On the so-called [[Jewish question]], Spinoza influenced [[Moses Mendelsohn]] and Kant, as well as on subsequent thinkers, including [[Karl Marx|Marx]], Nietzsche, and [[Sigmund Freud|Freud]].<ref>Smith, ''Spinoza, Liberalism, and the Question of Jewish Identity'', 168-69</ref> Hegel said, "The fact is that Spinoza is made a testing-point in modern philosophy, so that it may really be said: You are either a Spinozist or not a philosopher at all."<ref name="Hegel's History of Philosophy">{{cite book |author= Hegel Society of America. Meeting |title= Hegel's History of Philosophy: New Interpretations |publisher=[[SUNY Press]] |year= 2003 |editor-first= David A. |editor-last= Duquette |series= SUNY Series in Hegelian Studies |isbn= 9780791455432 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=ESNZ3TUdN40C&q=%22you+are+either+a+spinozist+or+not+a+philosopher+at+all%22&pg=PA144 |access-date=2 May 2011| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110513033919/https://books.google.com/books?id=ESNZ3TUdN40C&pg=PA144&lpg=PA144&dq=%22you+are+either+a+spinozist+or+not+a+philosopher+at+all%22&source=bl&ots=XRsqJEbyNT&sig=bCClaJ9V6lL_CJbOR-S3zaGwHqo&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=1&ct=result |archive-date= 13 May 2011 |url-status= live}}</ref> 
[[File:250ste sterfdag filosoof Baruch Spinoza (1632-1677), objectnr PB 767.tif|thumb|250px|A Dutch commemorative coin issued on the 250th [[death anniversary]] of Spinoza, 1927]]
Similarities between Spinoza's philosophy and Eastern philosophical traditions have been discussed by many authors. The 19th-century German Sanskritist [[Theodor Goldstücker]] was one of the early figures to notice the similarities between Spinoza's religious conceptions and the [[Vedanta]] tradition of India, writing that Spinoza's thought was "... so exact a representation of the ideas of the Vedanta, that we might have suspected its founder to have borrowed the fundamental principles of his system from the Hindus, did his biography not satisfy us that he was wholly unacquainted with their doctrines..."<ref>Literary Remains of the Late Professor Theodore Goldstucker, W. H. Allen, 1879. p. 32.</ref><ref>{{cite journal|journal=[[The Westminster Review]] |title=The Religious Difficulties of India |volume =78 |edition=American |location=New York|publisher=Leonard Scott |date=Oct 1862 |pages=256–257 |hdl=2027/mdp.39015013165819?urlappend=%3Bseq=264 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> [[Max Müller]] also noted the striking similarities between Vedanta and the system of Spinoza, equating the [[Brahman]] in Vedanta to Spinoza's 'Substantia.'<ref>Three Lectures on the Vedanta Philosophy. F. Max Muller. Kessinger Publishing, 2003. p. 123</ref>

When [[George Santayana]] graduated from college, he published an essay, "The Ethical Doctrine of Spinoza", in ''The Harvard Monthly''.<ref>George Santayana, "The Ethical Doctrine of Spinoza", ''The Harvard Monthly'', 2 (June 1886: 144–52).</ref> Later, he wrote an introduction to ''Spinoza's Ethics and "De Intellectus Emendatione"''.<ref>George Santayana, "Introduction", in ''Spinoza's Ethics and "De intellectus emendatione"''(London: Dent, 1910, vii–xxii)</ref> In 1932, Santayana was invited to present an essay (published as "Ultimate Religion")<ref>George Santayana, "Ultimate Religion", in ''Obiter Scripta'', eds. Justus Buchler and Benjamin Schwartz (New York and London: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1936) 280–97.</ref> at a meeting at [[The Hague]] celebrating the tricentennial of Spinoza's birth. In Santayana's autobiography, he characterized Spinoza as his "master and model" in understanding the naturalistic basis of morality.<ref>George Santayana, ''Persons and Places'' (Cambridge, MA and London: MIT Press, 1986), pp. 233–36.</ref>

Philosopher [[Ludwig Wittgenstein]] evoked Spinoza with the title (suggested to him by [[G. E. Moore]]) of the English translation of his first definitive philosophical work, ''[[Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus]]'', an allusion to Spinoza's ''[[Tractatus Theologico-Politicus]]''. Elsewhere, Wittgenstein deliberately borrowed the expression ''[[sub specie aeternitatis]]'' from Spinoza (''Notebooks, 1914–16'', p.&nbsp;83). The structure of his ''Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus'' does have some structural affinities with Spinoza's ''Ethics'' (though, admittedly, not with the Spinoza's ''Tractatus'') in erecting complex philosophical arguments upon basic logical assertions and principles. Furthermore, in propositions 6.4311 and 6.45 he alludes to a Spinozian understanding of eternity and interpretation of the religious concept of eternal life, stating, "If by eternity is understood not eternal temporal duration, but timelessness, then he lives eternally who lives in the present." (6.4311) "The contemplation of the world sub specie aeterni is its contemplation as a limited whole." (6.45)

Spinoza's philosophy played an important role in the development of [[French philosophy|post-war French philosophy]]. Many of these philosophers "used Spinoza to erect a bulwark against the nominally irrationalist tendencies of phenomenology", which was associated with the dominance of [[Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel|Hegel]], [[Martin Heidegger]], and [[Edmund Husserl]] in France at that time.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Peden |first=Knox |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/880877889 |title=Spinoza contra phenomenology : French rationalism from Cavaillès to Deleuze |date=2014 |isbn=978-0-8047-9136-6 |location=Stanford, California |publisher=Stanford University Press |oclc=880877889}}</ref> [[Louis Althusser]], as well as his colleagues such as [[Étienne Balibar]], saw in Spinoza a philosophy which could lead Marxism out of what they considered to be flaws in its original formulation, particularly its reliance upon Hegel's conception of the [[dialectic]], as well as Spinoza's concept of immanent causality. [[Antonio Negri]], in exile in France for much of this period, also wrote a number of books on Spinoza, most notably ''The Savage Anomaly'' (1981) in his own reconfiguration of Italian [[Autonomia Operaia]]. Other notable French scholars of Spinoza in this period included [[Alexandre Matheron]], [[Martial Gueroult]], [[André Tosel]], and [[Pierre Macherey]], the last of whom published a widely read and influential five-volume commentary on Spinoza's ''Ethics'', which has been described as "a monument of Spinoza commentary".<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Baugh-Peden |first=Bruce|date=March 28, 2015 |title=Spinoza Contra Phenomenology: French Rationalism from Cavaillès to Deleuze |url=https://ndpr.nd.edu/reviews/spinoza-contra-phenomenology-french-rationalism-from-cavaills-to-deleuze/ |access-date=2022-05-19 |website=Notre Dame Philosophical Reviews |language=en}}</ref> His philosophical accomplishments and moral character prompted [[Gilles Deleuze]] in his doctoral thesis (1968) to name him "the prince of philosophers".<ref>Deleuze, 1968.</ref><ref>Quoted in the translator's preface of Deleuze's ''Expressionism in Philosophy: Spinoza'' (1990).</ref> Deleuze's interpretation of Spinoza's philosophy was highly influential among French philosophers, especially in restoring to prominence the political dimension of Spinoza's thought.<ref name=":1">{{Citation |last=Rocha |first=Mauricio |title=Spinozist Moments in Deleuze: Materialism as Immanence |date=2021 |url=https://press.ici-berlin.org/doi/10.37050/ci-20/rocha_spinozist-moments-in-deleuze.html |work=Materialism and Politics |pages=73–90 |place=Berlin |publisher=ICI Berlin Press |language=en-GB |doi=10.37050/ci-20_04 |access-date=2022-05-19 |s2cid=234131869|doi-access=free }}.</ref> Deleuze published two books on Spinoza and gave numerous lectures on Spinoza in his capacity as a professor at the [[University of Paris VIII]]. His own work was deeply influenced by Spinoza's philosophy, particularly the concepts of [[immanence]] and [[Univocity of being|univocity]]. [[Marilena de Souza Chaui]] described Deleuze's ''Expressionism in Philosophy'' (1968) as a "revolutionary work for its discovery of expression as a central concept in Spinoza's philosophy."<ref name=":1" />

[[Albert Einstein]] named Spinoza as the philosopher who exerted the most influence on his [[world view]] (''Weltanschauung''). Spinoza equated God (infinite substance) with Nature, consistent with Einstein's belief in an impersonal deity. In 1929, Einstein was asked in a telegram by [[Herbert S. Goldstein|Rabbi Herbert S. Goldstein]] whether he believed in God. Einstein responded by telegram: "I believe in Spinoza's God who reveals himself in the orderly harmony of what exists, not in a God who concerns himself with the fates and actions of human beings."<ref>{{cite news | title = Einstein believes in "Spinoza's God"; Scientist Defines His Faith in Reply, to Cablegram From Rabbi Here. Sees a Divine Order But Says Its Ruler Is Not Concerned "Wit [sic] Fates and Actions of Human Beings." |work=The New York Times | date = 25 April 1929 | url = http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F10B1EFC3E54167A93C7AB178FD85F4D8285F9 | access-date =8 September 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.aip.org/history/einstein/essay-einsteins-third-paradise.htm |title=Einstein's Third Paradise, by Gerald Holton |publisher=Aip.org |access-date=2 May 2011| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110522061107/http://www.aip.org/history/einstein/essay-einsteins-third-paradise.htm| archive-date= 22 May 2011 |url-status = live}}</ref>

[[Leo Strauss]] dedicated his first book, ''Spinoza's Critique of Religion'', to an examination of the latter's ideas. In the book, Strauss identified Spinoza as part of the tradition of Enlightenment rationalism that eventually produced Modernity. Moreover, he identifies Spinoza and his works as the beginning of Jewish Modernity.<ref name=tws9912/> More recently [[Jonathan Israel]] argued that, from 1650 to 1750, Spinoza was "the chief challenger of the fundamentals of revealed religion, received ideas, tradition, morality, and what was everywhere regarded, in absolutist and non-absolutist states alike, as divinely constituted political authority."<ref>Israel, J. (2001) ''Radical Enlightenment; Philosophy and the Making of Modernity 1650–1750'', Oxford: Oxford University Press, p. 159.</ref>
[[File:Spinoza_Nicolas_Dings_Zwanenburgwal_Amsterdam.JPG|thumb|Statue (2008) of Spinoza by Nicolas Dings, Amsterdam, [[Zwanenburgwal]], with inscription "The objective of the state is freedom" (translation, quote from ''Tractatus Theologico-Politicus'', 1677)]]
Spinoza is an important historical figure in the [[Netherlands]], where his portrait was featured prominently on the Dutch 1000-[[Dutch guilder|guilder]] [[banknote]], [[legal tender]] until the euro was introduced in 2002. The highest and most prestigious scientific award of the Netherlands is named the [[Spinoza Prize|''Spinozaprijs'' (Spinoza prize)]]. Spinoza was included in a 50 theme canon that attempts to summarise the history of the Netherlands.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.entoen.nu/ |title=Entoen.nu |publisher=Entoen.nu |access-date=2 May 2011| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110513033928/http://www.entoen.nu/| archive-date= 13 May 2011 |url-status = live}}</ref> In 2014 a copy of Spinoza's ''Tractatus Theologico-Politicus'' was presented to the Chair of the Dutch Parliament, and shares a shelf with the [[Bible]] and the [[Quran]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.trouw.nl/tr/nl/4500/Politiek/article/detail/3282363/2012/07/05/Van-der-Ham-biedt-Verbeet-Spinoza-aan---voor-naast-Bijbel-en-Koran.dhtml |title=Van der Ham biedt Verbeet Spinoza aan |publisher=RTL Nieuws | date=5 July 2012 |access-date=30 November 2014}}</ref>

==Modern era==

===Reconsideration of Enlightenment===
There has been a renewed debate in modern times about Spinoza's excommunication among Israeli politicians, rabbis and Jewish press, with many calling for the cherem to be reversed.<ref name="Rutledge 2020">{{cite web | last=Rutledge | first=David | title=The Jewish philosopher Spinoza was one of the great Enlightenment thinkers. So why was he 'cancelled'?  | website=ABC News|series=[[ABC Radio National]] (The Philosopher's Zone)| publisher=[[Australian Broadcasting Corporation]] | date=3 October 2020 | url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2020-10-04/17th-century-jewish-philosopher-spinoza-cancel-culture-comeback/12722826 | access-date=7 October 2020}}</ref> Since such a cherem can only be rescinded by the congregation that issued it, and the chief rabbi of that community,{{efn|{{lang|nl|Portugees-Israëlietische Gemeente te Amsterdam}} (Portuguese-Israelite commune of Amsterdam)}} [[Hakham|Haham]] [[Pinchas Toledano]], declined to do so, citing Spinoza's "preposterous ideas, where he was tearing apart the very fundamentals of our religion",<ref>{{cite news | first=Simon |last=Rocker | title = Why Baruch Spinoza is still excommunicated | newspaper = The Jewish Chronicle Online | date = 28 August 2014 | url = https://www.thejc.com/judaism/all/why-baruch-spinoza-is-still-excommunicated-1.56419}}</ref> the Amsterdam Jewish community organised a symposium in December 2015 to discuss lifting the ''cherem'', inviting scholars from around the world to form an advisory committee at the meeting. However, the rabbi of the congregation ruled that it should hold, on the basis that he had no greater wisdom than his predecessors, and that Spinoza's views had not become less problematic over time.<ref name="Rutledge 2020"/>

===Memory and memorials===
* Spinoza Lyceum, a high school in Amsterdam South was named after Spinoza. There is also a 3 metre tall marble statute of him on the grounds of the school carved by [[Hildo Krop]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Mo 50 – Statue Spinoza – Amsterdam |url=https://www.timswings.nl/hildokrop/tag/spinoza/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220122055240/https://www.timswings.nl/hildokrop/tag/spinoza/ |archive-date=Jan 22, 2022 |access-date=June 20, 2023 |language=Dutch}}</ref>
* The Spinoza Havurah (a [[Humanistic Judaism|Humanistic Jewish]] community) was named in Spinoza's honor.<ref>[http://www.spinozahavurah.org ''SpinozaHavurah.org''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230101055509/https://spinozahavurah.wordpress.com/ |date=1 January 2023 }} (Accessed Nov. 202, 2022)</ref>
* The Spinoza Foundation Monument has a statute of Spinoza located in front of the Amsterdam City Hall (at Zwanenburgwal) <ref>[http://www.simplyamsterdam.nl/Statue_of_Spinoza_unveiled_in_Amsterdam_centre.html "Statute of Spinoza unveiled in Amsterdam centre" ''Simply Amsterdam'' (Nov. 25, 2008)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221121021113/http://www.simplyamsterdam.nl/Statue_of_Spinoza_unveiled_in_Amsterdam_centre.html |date=21 November 2022 }} (Accessed Nov. 20, 2022)</ref> It was created by Dutch sculptor Nicolas Dings and was erected in 2008.<ref>[https://uncloggedblog.com/2020/08/22/who-stands-proud-on-a-pedestal-in-amsterdam/ "Who stands proud on a pedestal in Amsterdam" ''Unclogged in Amsterdam : An American Expat plumbs Holland'' (Aug. 22, 2020)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221121021110/https://uncloggedblog.com/2020/08/22/who-stands-proud-on-a-pedestal-in-amsterdam/ |date=21 November 2022 }} (Accessed Nov. 20, 2022)</ref><ref>[https://cityseeker.com/amsterdam/720148-spinoza-monument "Spinoza Monument" ''CitySeeker.com''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221121021122/https://cityseeker.com/amsterdam/720148-spinoza-monument |date=21 November 2022 }} (Accessed Nov. 20, 2022)</ref>

==See also==
* [[Biblical criticism]]
* [[History of the Jews in Amsterdam]]
* [[History of the Jews in the Netherlands]]
* [[Uriel da Costa]]

==References==
===Notes===
{{notelist}}

===References===
{{reflist|colwidth=30em}}

==Sources==
<!-- These sources are called by harv/sfn references in the text, removing them causes reference errors -->
* {{cite book |last1=Bennett |first1=Jonathan |title=A Study of Spinoza's 'Ethics' |date=July 1984 |publisher=CUP Archive |isbn=978-0-521-27742-6 |url=https://archive.org/details/studyofspinozase00benn |language=en}}
* {{cite book|last=Chauí|first=Marilena|author-link=Marilena de Souza Chaui|title=Espinosa: uma filosofia da liberdade|orig-year=1995|year=2001|location=São Paulo|publisher=Editora Moderna}}
* {{cite book |editor-last1=Curley |editor-first1=Edwin M. |title=The Collected Works of Spinoza, Volume 1 |date=1985 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-0-691-07222-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VRCnDwAAQBAJ |language=en}}
* {{cite book|last=Jaspers|first=Karl|author-link=Karl Jaspers|title=Spinoza|series=Great Philosophers|publisher=Harvest Books|date=23 October 1974|isbn=978-0-15-684730-8}}
* {{cite book|last=Lucas|first=P. G.|year=1960|chapter=Some Speculative and Critical Philosophers|editor=I. Levine|title=Philosophy|location=London|publisher=Odhams}}
* {{cite book|last=Nadler|first=Steven M.|author-link=Steven Nadler|year=1999|title=Spinoza: A Life|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iSe95FJrfeYC|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-55210-3}} Second edition 2018.
* {{cite book|last=Nadler|first=Steven M.|year=2001|title=Spinoza's Heresy: Immortality and the Jewish Mind|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bxCm-mzkW1UC|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=New York|isbn=978-0-19-926887-0}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Nadler |first=Steven |date=2001b |title=The Excommunication of Spinoza: Trouble and Toleration in the "Dutch Jerusalem" |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/42943396 |journal=Shofar |volume=19 |issue=4 |pages=40–52 |jstor=42943396 |issn=0882-8539}}
* {{cite encyclopedia |last=Nadler |first=Steven |author-link=Steven Nadler |title=Baruch Spinoza |encyclopedia=[[Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy]] |date=1 December 2008 |orig-year=2001 |edition=substantive revised |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/spinoza/}}
* {{cite book|last=Nadler|first=Steven|date=2011|url=http://www.themontrealreview.com/2009/A-book-forged-in-hell-Steven-Nadler.php|title=A Book Forged in Hell: Spinoza's Scandalous Treatise and the Birth of the Secular Age|publisher=Princeton University Press|location=Princeton, New Jersey|isbn=978-0-691-13989-0|access-date=12 October 2011|archive-date=29 November 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191129054450/http://www.themontrealreview.com/2009/A-book-forged-in-hell-Steven-Nadler.php|url-status=dead}}
* {{cite book|last=Scruton|first=Roger|author-link=Roger Scruton|date=2002|title=Spinoza: A Very Short Introduction|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mRf9C8H6SPUC|location=Oxford|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-280316-0}}
* {{cite book|last=Stewart|first=Matthew|author-link=Matthew Stewart (philosopher)|title=The Courtier and the Heretic: Leibniz, Spinoza, and the Fate of God in the Modern World|publisher=W. W. Norton|year=2007|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mKQ-dLe28z0C|isbn=978-0393071047}}

==Further reading==
{{See also|List of works about Baruch Spinoza}}
{{Further reading cleanup|date=October 2023}}

===Biographies and reference works===
{{div col|colwidth=45em}}
*Brenner-Golomb, Nancy. 2010.  ''The Importance of Spinoza for the Modern Philosophy of Science''. Frankfurt. 
*Carlisle, Clare. 2021. "Spinoza's Religion", Princeton University Press.
*Della Rocca, Michael. 2008. ''Spinoza'', New York: Routledge.
*_____, (ed.), 2018. ''The Oxford Handbook of Spinoza''.  Oxford University Press.
* Garrett, Don, ed., 1995. ''The Cambridge Companion to Spinoza''. Cambridge Uni. Press.
*Gullan-Whur, Margaret. 2000. ''Within Reason: A Life of Spinoza''.  New York:St. Martin's Press. 
* [[Jonathan Israel|Israel, Jonathan]]. 2023. ''Spinoza: Life and Legacy''.  New York: Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|9780198857488}}
* Koistinen, Olli, (ed.). 2009. ''The Cambridge Companion to Spinoza's Ethics''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 
* [[Richard Popkin|Popkin, R. H.]], 2004. ''Spinoza'' (Oxford: One World Publications)
* Yovel, Yirmiyahu, [https://press.princeton.edu/books/paperback/9780691020785/spinoza-and-other-heretics-volume-1 ''Spinoza and Other Heretics, Vol. 1: The Marrano of Reason'']. Princeton, Princeton University Press, 1989.
* Yovel, Yirmiyahu, [https://press.princeton.edu/books/paperback/9780691020792/spinoza-and-other-heretics-volume-2 ''Spinoza and Other Heretics, Vol. 2: The Adventures of Immanence'']. Princeton, Princeton University Press, 1989.
{{div col end}}

===Other works===
{{div col|colwidth=45em}}
* [[António Damásio|Damásio, António]], 2003. ''Looking for Spinoza: Joy, Sorrow, and the Feeling Brain'', Harvest Books, {{ISBN|978-0-15-602871-4}}
* [[Gilles Deleuze|Deleuze, Gilles]], 1968. ''Spinoza et le problème de l'expression''. Trans. "Expressionism in Philosophy: Spinoza" Martin Joughin (New York: Zone Books).
* _____, 1970. ''Spinoza: Philosophie pratique''. Transl. "[[Spinoza: Practical Philosophy]]".
* _____, 1990. ''Negotiations'' trans. Martin Joughin (New York: Columbia University Press).
* Della Rocca, Michael. 1996. ''Representation and the Mind-Body Problem in Spinoza''. Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|978-0-19-509562-3}}
* Gatens, Moira, and Lloyd, Genevieve, 1999. ''Collective imaginings: Spinoza, past and present''. Routledge. {{ISBN|978-0-415-16570-9|978-0-415-16571-6}}
* [[Rebecca Goldstein|Goldstein, Rebecca]], 2006. ''Betraying Spinoza: The Renegade Jew Who Gave Us Modernity''. Schocken. {{ISBN|978-0-8052-1159-7}}
* Goode, Francis, 2012. ''Life of Spinoza''. Smashwords edition. {{ISBN|978-1-4661-3399-0}}
* Gullan-Whur, Margaret, 1998. ''Within Reason: A Life of Spinoza''. Jonathan Cape. {{ISBN|978-0-224-05046-3}}
* [[Stuart Hampshire|Hampshire, Stuart]], 1951. ''Spinoza and Spinozism'', OUP, 2005 {{ISBN|978-0-19-927954-8}}
* [[Michael Hardt|Hardt, Michael]], trans., University of Minnesota Press. Preface, in French, by Gilles Deleuze, available here: {{cite web |url=http://multitudes.samizdat.net/article.php3?id_article=1355 |title=01. Préface à L'Anomalie sauvage de Negri |publisher=Multitudes.samizdat.net |access-date=2 May 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110611234714/http://multitudes.samizdat.net/article.php3?id_article=1355 |archive-date=11 June 2011 |url-status=dead }}
*[[Jonathan Israel|Israel, Jonathan]], 2001. ''The Radical Enlightenment'', Oxford: Oxford University Press.
* _____, 2006. ''Enlightenment Contested: Philosophy, Modernity, and the Emancipation of Man 1670–1752'', ({{ISBN|978-0-19-927922-7}})
*_____. 2002. “Philosophy, Commerce and the Synagogue: Spinoza’s Expulsion from the Amsterdam Portuguese Jewish Community in 1656.” In ''Dutch Jewry: Its History and Secular Culture (1500-2000)''. Edited by Jonathan Israel and Reinier Salverda, pp. 125-140. Leiden: Brill.
* {{cite book|last=Ives|first=David|author-link=David Ives|year=2009|title=[[New Jerusalem (play)|New Jerusalem; The Interrogation of Baruch de Spinoza at Talmud Torah Congregation: Amsterdam, 27 July 1656]]|publisher=Dramatists Play Service|location=New York|isbn=978-0-8222-2385-6}})
* Kayser, Rudolf, 1946, with an introduction by [[Albert Einstein]]. ''Spinoza: Portrait of a Spiritual Hero''. New York: The Philosophical Library.
* [[Genevieve Lloyd|Lloyd, Genevieve]], 2018. ''Reclaiming wonder. After the sublime''. Edinburgh University Press. {{ISBN|978-1-4744-3311-2}}
* LeBuffe, Michael. 2010. ''Spinoza and Human Freedom''. Oxford University Press.
* [[Arthur O. Lovejoy|Lovejoy, Arthur O.]], 1936. "Plenitude and Sufficient Reason in Leibniz and Spinoza" in his ''The [[Great Chain of Being]]''. Harvard University Press: 144–82 ({{ISBN|978-0-674-36153-9}}). Reprinted in Frankfurt, H. G., ed., 1972. ''Leibniz: A Collection of Critical Essays''. Anchor Books.
* [[Pierre Macherey|Macherey, Pierre]], 1977. ''Hegel ou Spinoza'', Maspéro (2nd ed. La Découverte, 2004).
* _____, 1994–98. ''Introduction à l'Ethique de Spinoza''. Paris: PUF.
* Magnusson 1990: Magnusson, M (ed.), ''Spinoza, Baruch'', Chambers Biographical Dictionary, Chambers 1990, {{ISBN|978-0-550-16041-6}}.
* Matheron, Alexandre, 1969. ''Individu et communauté chez Spinoza'', Paris: [[Les Éditions de Minuit|Minuit]].
* Melamed, Yitzhak Y., ''Spinoza's Metaphysics: Substance and Thought'' (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013). xxii+232 pp. 
* Melamed, Yitzhak Y. (ed.), ''The Young Spinoza: A Metaphysician in the Making'' (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2015).
* Millner, Simon L., ''The Face of Benedictus Spinoza'' (New York: Machmadim Art Editions, Inc., 1946).
* Montag, Warren, ''Bodies, Masses, Power: Spinoza and his Contemporaries.'' (London: Verso, 2002).
* Moreau, Pierre-François, 2003, ''Spinoza et le spinozisme'', PUF (Presses Universitaires de France)
* [[Steven Nadler|Nadler, Steven]], ''Think Least of Death: Spinoza on How to Live and How to Die'', 2020 (Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, {{ISBN|978-0691183848}}). 
* [[Antonio Negri|Negri, Antonio]], 1991. ''The Savage Anomaly: The Power of Spinoza's Metaphysics and Politics''.
* _____, 2004. ''Subversive Spinoza: (Un)Contemporary Variations''.
* {{cite book | last = Prokhovnik | first = Raia | author-link = Raia Prokhovnik | title = Spinoza and republicanism | publisher = Palgrave Macmillan | location = Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire New York | year = 2004 | isbn = 978-0333733905|ref=none}}
* Ratner, Joseph, 1927. ''The Philosophy of Spinoza'' (The Modern Library: Random House)
* Stolze, Ted and [[Warren Montag]] (eds.), ''The New Spinoza'', Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1997.
* Strauss, Leo. ''Persecution and the Art of Writing.'' Glencoe, Illinois: Free Press, 1952. Reprint. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1988.
* _____ch. 5, "How to Study Spinoza's ''Tractus Theologico-Politicus'';" reprinted in Strauss, ''Jewish Philosophy and the Crisis of Modernity,'' ed. Kenneth Hart Green (Albany, NY: SUNY Press, 1997), 181–233.
* ____''Spinoza's Critique of Religion.'' New York: Schocken Books, 1965. Reprint. University of Chicago Press, 1996.
* _____ "Preface to the English Translation" reprinted as "Preface to Spinoza's Critique of Religion", in Strauss, ''Liberalism Ancient and Modern'' (New York: Basic Books, 1968, 224–59; also in Strauss, ''Jewish Philosophy and the Crisis of Modernity'', 137–77).
* [[Wilhelm Valentiner|Valentiner, W.R.]], 1957. ''[[Rembrandt]] and Spinoza: A Study of the Spiritual Conflicts in Seventeenth-Century Holland'', London: Phaidon Press.
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20121120221603/http://cral.ehess.fr/index.php?%2Fmembres%2Fdoctorants%2Fmembres-associes%2F964-vinciguerra Vinciguerra, Lorenzo] [https://www.scribd.com/doc/78866030/Lorenzo-Vinciguerra-Spinoza-in-French-Philosophy-Today ''Spinoza in French Philosophy Today'']. [https://www.questia.com/library/p62075/philosophy-today Philosophy Today] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200807215145/https://www.questia.com/library/p62075/philosophy-today |date=7 August 2020 }}, [https://www.questia.com/library/p62075/philosophy-today/i2482527/vol-53-no-4-winter Vol. 53, No. 4, Winter 2009] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200807105128/https://www.questia.com/library/p62075/philosophy-today/i2482527/vol-53-no-4-winter |date=7 August 2020 }}.
*Van den Ven, Jeroen. ''Printing Spinoza: A Descriptive Bibliography of the Works Published in the Seventeenth Century''.  Leiden 2022.
* _____. ''Documenting Spinoza: A Biographical History of his Life and Time''. (forthcoming)
* Williams, David Lay. 2010. "Spinoza and the General Will", ''[[The Journal of Politics]]'', vol. 72 (April): 341–356.
* Wolfson, Henry A. "The Philosophy of Spinoza". 2 vols. Harvard University Press.
{{div col end}}

==External links==
{{External links|date=October 2023}}
{{Commons category|Benedictus de Spinoza|Baruch de Spinoza}}
{{Wikiquote}}
{{wikisource author}}

'''Articles'''
* [[Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy]]:
** "[http://www.iep.utm.edu/spinoza/ Benedict de Spinoza]"
** "[http://www.iep.utm.edu/spino-ep/ Spinoza: Epistemology]
** "[http://www.iep.utm.edu/spinoz-m/ Spinoza: Metaphysics]
** "[http://www.iep.utm.edu/spin-mor/ Spinoza: Moral Philosophy]
** "[http://www.iep.utm.edu/spin-pol/ Spinoza: Political Philosophy]
** "[http://www.iep.utm.edu/spinoza-free-will-determinsim/ Spinoza: Free Will and Determinism]"

* ''[[Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy]]'':
** "[https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/spinoza/ Spinoza]" by [[Steven Nadler]].
** "[https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/spinoza-psychological/ Spinoza's Psychological Theory]" by Michael LeBuffe.
** "[https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/spinoza-physics/ Spinoza's Physical Theory]" by Richard Manning.
** "[https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/spinoza-political/ Spinoza's Political Philosophy]" by Justin Steinberg.
* [http://spinoza.hab.de/index.php?LANG=EN SpInoza Bibliography]
* [https://www.encyclopedia.com/religion/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/spinoza-baruch-bento-benedictus-de Spinoza, Baruch (Bento, Benedictus) De] in the ''Encyclopedia of Philosophy'' (2005) by Edwin Curley
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20130908092835/http://www.archivesdephilo.com/bull.php Bulletin Spinoza] of the journal Archives de philosophie
* [http://nigelwarburton.typepad.com/philosophy_bites/2007/12/susan-james-on.html Susan James on Spinoza on the Passions], ''Philosophy Bites'' podcast
* [http://www.themontrealreview.com/2009/Spinoza-the-Moral-Heretic.php Spinoza, the Moral Heretic] by Matthew J. Kisner
* [http://www.bbc.co.uk/radio4/history/inourtime/inourtime_20070503.shtml BBC Radio 4] [[In Our Time (BBC Radio 4)|In Our Time]] programme on Spinoza
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20120217114908/http://stadsarchief.amsterdam.nl/english/amsterdam_treasures/famous/spinoza/index.en.html The Escamoth stating Spinoza's excommunication]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20031012141706/http://www.webdeleuze.com/php/liste_texte.php?groupe=Spinoza Gilles Deleuze's lectures about Spinoza (1978–1981)]
* [https://jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/13964-spinoza-baruch-benedict-de-spinoza Spinoza in the ''Jewish Encyclopedia'']
* [https://www.encyclopedia.com/religion/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/spinoza-baruch-bento-benedictus-de Spinoza in the ''Encyclopaedia Judaica'']
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20180121173116/https://jewishhistorylectures.org/2014/01/17/baruch-spinoza-philosophy-and-tolerance/ Video lecture on Baruch Spinoza] by [[Henry Abramson]]

'''Works'''
* [http://solo.bodleian.ox.ac.uk/primo_library/libweb/action/dlDisplay.do?dscnt=1&docId=oxfaleph012466133&vid=OXVU1&fromLogin=true ''Spinoza Opera''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170727030125/http://solo.bodleian.ox.ac.uk/primo_library/libweb/action/dlDisplay.do?dscnt=1&docId=oxfaleph012466133&vid=OXVU1&fromLogin=true |date=27 July 2017 }} Carl Gebhardt's 1925 four volume edition of Spinoza's Works.
* {{Gutenberg author |id=473| name=Benedictus de Spinoza}}
* {{Internet Archive author}}
* {{Librivox author |id=1355}}
* {{OL author|2946327A}}
* [https://archive.org/details/arefutationrece00caregoog/page/n2 <!-- pg=1 quote=leibniz. --> Refutation of Spinoza by Leibniz] In full via Google Books
* [http://earlymoderntexts.com/authors/spinoza More easily readable versions of the Correspondence, Ethics Demonstrated in Geometrical Order and Treatise on Theology and Politics]
* [http://www.ethicadb.org/index.php?lg=en&lanid=3 EthicaDB] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121030172333/http://www.ethicadb.org/index.php?lg=en&lanid=3 |date=30 October 2012 }} Hypertextual and multilingual publication of Ethics
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070503180326/http://www.philosophyarchive.com/text.php?era=1600-1699&author=Spinoza&text=A%20Theologico-Political%20Treatise A Theologico-Political Treatise]– English Translation
* [http://www.sacred-texts.com/phi/spinoza/treat/tpt00.htm A Theologico-Political Treatise] – English Translation (at sacred-texts.com)
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20131107063338/http://www.skepticfiles.org/atheist/spinozad.htm A letter from Spinoza to Albert Burgh]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20080218203218/http://www.hs-augsburg.de/~harsch/Chronologia/Lspost17/Spinoza/spi_eth0.html Ethica Ordine Geometrico Demonstrata et in quinque partes distincta, in quibus agetur]
* [http://www.quodlibet.it/schedap.php?id=1790 ''Opera posthuma''] – Amsterdam 1677. Complete photographic reproduction, ed. by F. Mignini (Quodlibet publishing house website)
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20200130001741/https://www.georgeeliotarchive.org/items/show/321 The Ethics of Benedict de Spinoza, translated by George Eliot, transcribed by Thomas Deegan]
*[https://haifa-primo.hosted.exlibrisgroup.com/primo-explore/collectionDiscovery?vid=HAU&inst=972HAI_MAIN&collectionId=81168904190002791&lang=en_US Spinoza Archive] on the Digital collections of [[Younes and Soraya Nazarian Library]], University of Haifa

{{Baruch Spinoza}}
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[[Category:Determinists]]
[[Category:Dutch ethicists]]
[[Category:Dutch logicians]]
[[Category:Dutch people of Portuguese descent]]
[[Category:Dutch people of Portuguese-Jewish descent]]
[[Category:Dutch Sephardi Jews]]
[[Category:Enlightenment philosophers]]
[[Category:Epistemologists]]
[[Category:Freethought]]
[[Category:Heresy in Judaism]]
[[Category:Jewish philosophers]]
[[Category:Jewish skeptics]]
[[Category:Jewish translators of the Bible]]
[[Category:Liberal theorists]]
[[Category:Metaphilosophers]]
[[Category:Metaphysicians]]
[[Category:Ontologists]]
[[Category:Pantheists]]
[[Category:People excommunicated by synagogues]]
[[Category:People of the Age of Enlightenment]]
[[Category:Philosophers of culture]]
[[Category:Philosophers of education]]
[[Category:Philosophers of history]]
[[Category:Philosophers of mind]]
[[Category:Philosophers of religion]]
[[Category:Philosophers of science]]
[[Category:Philosophy and thought in the Dutch Republic]]
[[Category:Philosophy writers]]
[[Category:Political theologians]]
[[Category:Rationalists]]
[[Category:Secularism]]
[[Category:Social philosophers]]
[[Category:Spinoza studies]]
[[Category:Spinozism]]
[[Category:Writers from Amsterdam]]
{{Навигационная таблица/Портал/Английская Википедия}}
[[Категория:Английская Википедия]]
[[Категория:Википедия]]
[[Категория:Статья из Википедии]]
[[Категория:Статья из Английской Википедии]]