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{{Английская Википедия/Панель перехода}}
{{Short description|Roman Empire during Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages}}
{{Redirect|Byzantine}}
{{Featured article}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2023}}
{{EngvarB|date=July 2019}}
{{Infobox country
| conventional_long_name = Byzantine Empire
| life_span              = 330–1453
| image_map              = Justinian555AD.png
| image_map_caption      = The empire in 555 under [[Justinian the Great]], at its greatest extent since the fall of the [[Western Roman Empire]] (its [[vassal state|vassals]] in pink)
| image_map2             = 4KBYZ.gif
| image_map2_caption     = The territorial evolution of the Eastern Roman Empire under each imperial dynasty until its fall in 1453
| capital                = [[Constantinople]] (modern-day [[Istanbul]])
| largest_city           =
| official_languages     =
| common_languages       = {{plainlist}}
* [[Late Latin|Latin]] and [[Medieval&nbsp;Greek|Greek]]
* [[Languages of the Roman Empire|Regional languages]]
| religion               = [[Christianity as the Roman state religion|Christianity]] ([[State religion|state]])
| title_leader           = [[List of Byzantine emperors|Notable emperors]]
| leader1                = [[Constantine the Great|Constantine I]]
| year_leader1           = 306–337
| leader2                = [[Theodosius I]]
| year_leader2           = 379-395
| leader3                = [[Theodosius II]]
| year_leader3           = 408–450
| leader4                = [[Justinian I]]
| year_leader4           = 527–565
| leader5                = [[Heraclius]]
| year_leader5           = 610–641
| leader6                = [[Leo III the Isaurian|Leo III]]
| year_leader6           = 717–741
| leader7                = [[Basil II]]
| year_leader7           = 976–1025
| leader8                = [[Alexios I Komnenos|Alexios I]]
| year_leader8           = 1081–1118
| leader9                = [[Manuel I Komnenos|Manuel I]]
| year_leader9           = 1143–1180
| leader10               = [[Michael VIII]]
| year_leader10          = 1261–1282
| leader11               = [[Constantine XI Palaiologos|Constantine XI]]
| year_leader11          = 1449–1453
| era                    = [[Late Antiquity]] to [[Late&nbsp;Middle&nbsp;Ages]]
| stat_year1             = 457
| stat_pop1              = 16,000,000
<!--
| stat_year2               = 555–450
| stat_area2               = 2,700,000–2,800,000<ref>Turchin, Peter; Adams, Jonathan M.; Hall, Thomas D. (December 2006). "East-West Orientation of Historical Empires" (PDF). Journal of World-Systems Research. 12 (2): 222–223. {{ISSN|1076-156X}}. Archived (PDF) from the original on 7 July 2020. Retrieved 7 July 2020.</ref><ref>Taagepera, Rein (1979). "Size and Duration of Empires: Growth-Decline Curves, 600 B.C. to 600 A.D.". Social Science History. 3 (3/4): 121–122, 124–129, 132–133. {{Doi|10.2307/1170959}}. {{JSTOR|1170959}}.</ref>
 -->| stat_year2             = 565
| stat_area2             =
| stat_pop2              = 26,000,000
| stat_year3             = 775
| stat_area3             =
| stat_pop3              = 7,000,000
| stat_year4             = 1025
| stat_area4             =
| stat_pop4              = 12,000,000
| stat_year5             = 1320
| stat_area5             =
| stat_pop5              = 2,000,000
| p1                     = Roman Empire
| s1                     = Ottoman Empire
| currency               = [[Solidus (coin)|Solidus]], [[denarius]] and [[hyperpyron]]<!--
| p1                     = Roman Empire
| p2                     = Diocese of Dacia{{!}}'''∟'''Diocese of Dacia
| p3                     = Diocese of Macedonia{{!}}'''∟'''Diocese of Macedonia
| p4                     = Praetorian prefecture of the East{{!}}'''∟'''Praetorian prefecture of the East
| s1                     = Ottoman Empire -->
| demonym                = [[Byzantine Greeks|Byzantine]]
}}
{{History of the Byzantine Empire sidebar}}

The '''Byzantine Empire''', also referred to as the '''Eastern Roman Empire''', was the continuation of the [[Roman Empire]] centered in [[Constantinople]] during [[Late Antiquity]] and the [[Middle Ages]]. The eastern half of the Empire survived the conditions that caused the [[fall of the Western Roman Empire|fall of the West]] in the 5th century AD, and continued to exist until the [[fall of Constantinople]] to the [[Ottoman Empire]] in 1453. During most of its existence, the empire remained the most powerful economic, cultural, and military force in the [[Mediterranean world]]. The term "Byzantine Empire" was only coined following the empire's demise; its citizens referred to the polity as the "Roman Empire" and to themselves as "Romans".{{Efn|{{Lang-gkm|Βασιλεία Ῥωμαίων|Basileía Rhōmaíōn}} (Roman Empire); {{Lang-gkm|Ῥωμανία|Rhōmanía}} (Romania); {{Lang-gkm|Ῥωμαῖοι|Rhōmaîoi}} (Romans)}} Due to the imperial seat's move from Rome to [[Byzantium]], the [[Christianity as the Roman state religion|adoption of state Christianity]], and the predominance of [[Medieval Greek|Greek]] instead of [[Latin]], modern historians continue to make a distinction between the earlier "Roman Empire" and the later "Byzantine Empire".

During the earlier [[Pax Romana]] period, the western parts of the empire became [[Romanization (cultural)|increasingly Latinised]], while the eastern parts largely retained their preexisting [[Hellenistic culture]], creating a dichotomy between the [[Greek East and Latin West]]. These cultural spheres continued to diverge after [[Constantine the Great|Constantine I]] ({{Reign|324|337}}) moved the capital to Constantinople and legalised [[Christianity]]. Under [[Theodosius I]] ({{Reign|379|395}}), Christianity became the [[state religion]], and other religious practices [[Persecution of pagans under Theodosius I|were proscribed]]. Greek gradually replaced Latin for official use as Latin fell into disuse.

The empire experienced several cycles of decline and recovery throughout its history, reaching its greatest extent after the fall of the west during the reign of [[Justinian I]] ({{Reign|527|565}}), who briefly reconquered much of Italy and the western [[Mediterranean Sea|Mediterranean coast]]. The [[Plague of Justinian|appearance of plague]] and a [[Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628|devastating war with Persia]] exhausted the empire's resources; the [[early Muslim conquests]] that followed saw the loss of the empire's richest provinces—[[Roman Egypt|Egypt]] and [[Roman Syria|Syria]]—to the [[Rashidun Caliphate]]. In 698, Africa was lost to the [[Umayyad Caliphate]], but the empire subsequently stabilised under the [[Byzantine Empire under the Isaurian dynasty|Isaurian]] dynasty. The empire was able to expand once more under the [[Macedonian dynasty]], experiencing [[Macedonian Renaissance|a two-century-long renaissance]]. This came to an end in 1071, with the defeat by the [[Seljuk dynasty|Seljuk Turks]] at the [[Battle of Manzikert]]. Thereafter, periods of civil war and Seljuk incursion resulted in the loss of most of [[Anatolia|Asia Minor]]. The empire recovered during the [[Komnenian restoration]], and Constantinople would remain the largest and wealthiest city in Europe until the 13th century.

The empire was dissolved in 1204, following the [[sack of Constantinople]] by Latin armies at the end of the [[Fourth Crusade]]; its former territories [[Partitio terrarum imperii Romaniae|were then divided]] into competing Greek and [[Frankokratia|Latin realms]]. Despite the eventual [[Byzantine Empire under the Palaiologos dynasty|recovery of Constantinople]] in 1261, the reconstituted empire would wield only regional power during its final two centuries of existence. Its remaining territories were progressively annexed by the Ottomans in [[Byzantine–Ottoman wars|perennial wars]] fought throughout the 14th and 15th centuries. The [[fall of Constantinople]] to the Ottomans in 1453 ultimately brought the empire to an end. Many refugees who had fled the city after its capture settled in Italy and throughout Europe, helping to ignite the [[Renaissance]]. The fall of Constantinople is sometimes used to mark the dividing line between the Middle Ages and the [[early modern period]].

== Nomenclature ==
{{See also|Names of the Greeks}}
The inhabitants of the empire, now generally termed Byzantines, thought of themselves as [[Roman people|Romans]] ({{transl|grc|Romaioi}}). Their Islamic neighbours similarly called their empire the "land of the Romans" ({{transl|ar|Bilād al-Rūm}}), but the people of medieval Western Europe preferred to call them "Greeks" (''Graeci''), a term with connotations of effeminacy and deception.{{sfnm|Kaldellis|2023|1p=2|2a1=Aschenbrenner|2a2=Ransohoff|2y=2022|2pp=1–2|Jeffreys, Haldon & Cormack 2008|3p=3}} The adjective "Byzantine", which derived from [[Byzantium|{{transliteration|grc|Byzantion}}]] (Latinised as {{lang|la|Byzantium}}), the name of the Greek settlement [[Constantinople]] was established on, was only used to describe the inhabitants of that city; it never referred to the empire, which they called {{transl|grc|Romania}}—"Romanland".{{sfnm|Kaldellis|2022|1pp=349–351|Jeffreys, Haldon & Cormack 2008|2p=4}} 

After the empire's fall, early modern scholars referred to the empire by many names, including the "Empire of Constantinople", the "Empire of the Greeks", the "Eastern Empire", the "Late Empire", the "Low Empire", and the “Roman Empire".{{sfn|Aschenbrenner|Ransohoff|2022|p=2}} The increasing use of "Byzantine" and "Byzantine Empire" likely started with the 15th-century historian [[Laonikos Chalkokondyles]], whose works were widely propagated, including by [[Hieronymus Wolf]]. "Byzantine" was used adjectivally alongside terms such as "Empire of the Greeks" until the 19th century.{{sfn|Kaldellis|2022|pp=352–357}} It is now the primary term, used to refer to all aspects of the empire; some modern historians believe that, as an originally prejudicial and inaccurate term, its use should be halted.{{sfnm|Kaldellis|2023|1pp=2–3|Jeffreys, Haldon & Cormack 2008|2p=4}}

== History ==
{{Main|History of the Byzantine Empire}}
As the historiographical [[periodization]]s of "[[Ancient Rome|Roman history]]", "[[late antiquity]]", and "Byzantine history" significantly overlap, there is no consensus on a "foundation date" for the Byzantine Empire, if there was one at all. The growth of the study of "late antiquity" has led to some historians setting a start date in the seventh or eighth centuries.{{sfnm|Cameron|2002|1pp=190–191|Kaldellis|2015}} Others believe a "new empire" began during changes in {{circa|300}}&nbsp;AD.{{sfnm|Kaldellis|2023|1p=34|Shepard|2009|2p=22}} Still others hold that these starting points are too early or too late, and instead begin c. 500.{{sfn|Shepard|2009|p=26}} Geoffrey Greatrex believes that it is impossible to precisely date the foundation of the Byzantine Empire.{{sfn|Greatrex|2008|p=232}}

=== Early history (pre-518) ===
{{further|Byzantine Empire under the Constantinian and Valentinianic dynasties|Byzantine Empire under the Theodosian dynasty|Byzantine Empire under the Leonid dynasty}}
In a [[Roman-Greek wars|series of conflicts]] between the third and first centuries BC, the [[Roman Republic]] gradually established hegemony over the [[eastern Mediterranean]], while [[Ancient Rome#Government|its government]] ultimately transformed into the one-person rule of [[Roman emperors|an emperor]]. The [[Roman Empire]] enjoyed a period of [[Pax Romana|relative stability]] until [[Crisis of the Third Century|the third century AD]], when a combination of external threats and internal instabilities caused the Roman state to splinter as regional armies acclaimed their generals as "soldier-emperors".{{sfnm|Greatrex|2008|1p=233|Kaldellis|2023|2pp=16–17|Treadgold|1997|3pp=4–7}} One of these, [[Diocletian]] ({{reign|284|305}}), seeing that the state was too big to be ruled by one man, attempted to fix the problem by instituting a [[Tetrarchy]], or rule of four, and dividing the empire into eastern and western halves. Although the Tetrarchy system quickly failed, the division of the empire proved an enduring concept.{{sfnm|Greatrex|2008|1pp=233–235|Kaldellis|2023|2pp=17–18|Treadgold|1997|3pp=14–18}}

[[Constantine I]] ({{reign|306|337}}) secured sole power in 324. Over the following six years, he rebuilt the city of [[Byzantium]] as a [[capital city]], which was renamed [[Constantinople]]. [[Rome]], the previous capital, was further from the important eastern provinces and in a less strategically important location; it was not esteemed by the "soldier-emperors" who ruled from the frontiers or by the empire's population who, [[Constitutio Antoniniana|having been granted citizenship]], considered themselves "Roman".{{sfnm|Greatrex|2008|1p=335|Kaldellis|2023|2pp=16–20|Treadgold|1997|3pp=39–40}} Constantine extensively reformed the empire's military and civil administration and instituted the [[solidus (coin)|gold solidus]] as a stable currency.{{sfnm|Greatrex|2008|1pp=335–337|Kaldellis|2023|2loc=chapter 2|Treadgold|1997|3p=40}} He favoured [[Christianity]], which [[Constantine the Great and Christianity|he had converted to]] in 312.{{sfnm|Greatrex|2008|1pp=336–337|Kaldellis|2023|2pp=81–84|Treadgold|1997|3pp=31–33, 40–47}} [[Constantinian dynasty|Constantine's dynasty]] fought [[Perso-Roman wars of 337–361|a lengthy conflict]] against [[Sasanian Empire|Sasanid Persia]] and ended in 363 with the death of his son-in-law [[Julian (emperor)|Julian]].{{sfnm|Greatrex|2008|1pp=337–338|Kaldellis|2023|2pp=92–99, 106–111|Treadgold|1997|3pp=52–62}} The short [[Valentinianic dynasty]], occupied with [[Gothic Wars#Fourth century|wars against barbarians]], religious debates, and anti-corruption campaigns, ended in the East with the death of [[Valens]] at the [[Battle of Adrianople]] in 378.{{sfnm|Greatrex|2008|1pp=239–240|Kaldellis|2023|2pp=114–118, 121–123|Treadgold|1997|3pp=63–67}}

[[File:Roman-empire-395AD.svg|thumb|right|Division of the empire after the death of Theodosius I in 395.{{Legend|#85d295|The Western Roman Empire}} {{Legend|#ed9595|The Byzantine/Eastern Roman Empire}}]]
Valens's successor, [[Theodosius I]] ({{reign|379|395}}), restored political stability in the east by allowing the [[Goths]] to settle in Roman territory;{{sfnm|Greatrex|2008|1p=240|Kaldellis|2023|2pp=128–129|Treadgold|1997|3p=73}} he also twice intervened in the western half, defeating the usurpers [[Magnus Maximus]] and [[Eugenius]] in 388 and 394 respectively.{{sfnm|Greatrex|2008|1p=241|Kaldellis|2023|2pp=129–137|Treadgold|1997|3pp=74–75}} He [[Persecution of pagans under Theodosius I|actively condemned paganism]], confirmed the primacy of [[Nicene Christianity]] over [[Arianism]], and established [[Christianity as the Roman state religion]].{{sfnm|Greatrex|2008|1pp=240–241|Kaldellis|2023|2pp=126–128|Treadgold|1997|3pp=71–74}} He was the last emperor to rule both the western and eastern halves of the empire;{{sfn|Kaldellis|2023|p=136}} after his death, the West would be destabilised by a succession of "soldier-emperors", unlike the East, where administrators would continue to hold power. [[Theodosius II]] ({{reign|408|450}}) largely left the rule of the east to officials such as [[Anthemius (praetorian prefect)|Anthemius]], who constructed the [[Theodosian Walls]] to defend Constantinople, now firmly entrenched as Rome's capital.{{sfnm|Greatrex|2008|1p=242|Kaldellis|2023|2pp=165–167|Treadgold|1997|3pp=87–90}}

Theodosius' reign was marked by the theological dispute over [[Nestorianism]], which was eventually deemed [[heretical]], and by the formulation of the ''[[Codex Theodosianus]]'' law code.{{sfnm|Greatrex|2008|1p=242|Kaldellis|2023|2pp=172–178|Treadgold|1997|3pp=91–92, 96–99|Shepard|2009|4p=23}} It also saw the arrival of [[Attila]]'s [[Huns]], who ravaged the [[Balkans]] and exacted a massive [[tribute]] from the empire; Attilla however switched his attention to the [[Fall of the Western Roman Empire|rapidly-deteriorating western empire]], and his people fractured after his death in 453.{{sfnm|Greatrex|2008|1pp=242–243|Kaldellis|2023|2pp=193–196, 200|Treadgold|1997|3pp=94–95, 98}} After [[Leo I (emperor)|Leo I]] ({{reign|457|474}}) failed in his [[Basiliscus#Military career|468 attempt to reconquer]] the west, the warlord [[Odoacer]] deposed [[Romulus Augustulus]] in 476, killed his titular successor [[Julius Nepos]] in 480, and the office of western emperor was formally abolished.{{sfnm|Greatrex|2008|1pp=243–244|Kaldellis|2023|2pp=209, 214–215|Treadgold|1997|3pp=153, 158–159}}

Through a combination of luck, cultural factors, and political decisions, the Eastern empire never suffered from rebellious barbarian vassals and was never ruled by barbarian warlords—the problems which ensured the downfall of the West.{{sfn|Kaldellis|2023|pp=243–246}} [[Zeno (emperor)|Zeno]] ({{reign|474|491}}) convinced the problematic [[Ostrogoth]] king [[Theodoric the Great|Theodoric]] to take control of Italy from Odoacer, which he did; dying with the empire at peace, Zeno was succeeded by [[Anastasius I Dicorus|Anastasius I]] ({{reign|491|518}}).{{sfnm|Greatrex|2008|1p=244|Kaldellis|2023|2pp=220–221|Treadgold|1997|3pp=162–164}} Although his [[Monophysitism]] brought occasional issues, Anastasius was a capable administrator and instituted several successful financial reforms including the abolition of the [[Collatio lustralis|chrysargyron tax]]. He was the first emperor to die with no serious problems affecting his empire since Diocletian.{{sfnm|Greatrex|2008|1p=244|Kaldellis|2023|2pp=223–226|Treadgold|1997|3pp=164–173}}

=== 518–717 ===
{{See also|Byzantine Empire under the Justinian dynasty|Byzantine Empire under the Heraclian dynasty}}
{{Multiple image
| perrow      = 2
| align       = right
| image1      = Mosaic of Justinianus I - Basilica San Vitale (Ravenna).jpg
| alt1        =
| image2      = Belisarius mosaic.jpg
| alt2        =
| footer      = Emperor [[Justinian]] (''left''), and the general [[Belisarius]] (''right''). [[Mosaic]]s from [[Basilica of San Vitale]], 6th century)
| direction   =
| total_width = 270
}}
<!--The Acacian schism should be discussed in the Religion section. Whether the renovatio imperii existed at all is not within the scope of this article.-->The reign of [[Justinian I]] was a watershed in Byzantine history.{{sfnm|Haldon|2008|1p=250|Louth|2009a|2p=106|Kaldellis|2023|3pp=257–258|Treadgold|1997|4p=174}} Following his accession in 527, the law-code was rewritten as the influential ''[[Corpus Juris Civilis]]'' and Justinian produced extensive legislation on provincial administration;{{sfnm|Louth|2009a|1pp=108–109|Kaldellis|2023|2pp=269–271|Sarris|2002|3p=45|Treadgold|1997|4pp=178–180}} he reasserted imperial control over religion and morality through purges of non-Christians and "deviants";{{sfnm|Sarris|2002|1pp=43–45|Kaldellis|2023|2pp=271–274|Louth|2009a|3pp=114–119}} and having ruthlessly subdued [[Nika riots|the 532 Nika revolt]] he rebuilt much of Constantinople, including the original [[Hagia Sophia]].{{sfnm|Louth|2009a|1pp=111–114|Kaldellis|2023|2pp=274–277|Sarris|2002|3p=46}} Justinian took advantage of political instability in Italy to attempt the reconquest of lost western territories. The [[Vandal Kingdom]] in North Africa [[Vandalic War|was subjugated in 534]] by the general [[Belisarius]], who [[Gothic War (535–554)|then invaded Italy]]; the [[Ostrogothic Kingdom]] was destroyed in 554.{{sfnm|Sarris|2002|1p=46|Kaldellis|2023|2pp=279–283, 287–288, 305–307|Moorhead|2009|3pp=202–209}}

In the 540s, however, Justinian began to suffer reversals on multiple fronts. Taking advantage of Constantinople's preoccupation with the West, [[Khosrow I]] of the [[Sasanian Empire]] invaded Byzantine territory and sacked [[Antioch]] in 540.{{sfnm|Kaldellis|2023|1p=297|Treadgold|1997|2pp=193–194|Haldon|2008|3pp=252–253}} Meanwhile, the emperor's internal reforms and policies began to falter, not helped by [[Plague of Justinian|a devastating plague]] that killed a large proportion of the population and severely weakened the empire's social and financial stability.{{sfnm|Sarris|2002|1p=49|Kaldellis|2023|2pp=298–301}} The most difficult period of the Ostrogothic war, against their king [[Totila]], came during this decade, while divisions among Justinian's advisors undercut the administration's response.{{sfnm|Treadgold|1997|1pp=196–207|Kaldellis|2023|2pp=298–299, 305–306|Moorhead|2009|3pp=207–208}} He also did not fully heal the divisions in [[Chalcedonian Christianity]], as the [[Second Council of Constantinople]] failed to make a real difference.{{sfnm|Treadgold|1997|1pp=210–211, 214|Louth|2009a|2pp=117–118|Haldon|2008|3p=253}} Justinian died in 565; his reign saw more success than that of any other Byzantine emperor, yet he left his empire under massive strain.{{sfnm|Kaldellis|2023|1pp=318–319|Treadgold|1997|2p=217|Sarris|2002|3p=51}}

{{Multiple image
| perrow      = 1
| align       = right
| image1      = 4KJUSTINIAN.png
| alt1        =
| image2      = 4KHERECLIAN.png
| alt2        =
| image3      = 4KANARCHY20.png
| alt3        =
| footer      = Maps of the Byzantine Empire, showing the territorial changes between the deaths of [[Justinian I|Justinian]] in 565 ''(top)'' and [[Heraclius]] in 641 ''(center)'' and the accession of [[Leo III the Isaurian|Leo III]] in 717 ''(bottom)''
| direction   =
| total_width = 330
}}
Financially and territorially overextended, [[Justin II]] ({{reign|565|578}}) was soon at war on many fronts. The [[Lombards]], fearing the aggressive [[Pannonian Avars|Avars]], conquered much of northern Italy by 572.{{sfnm|Sarris|2002|1p=51|Haldon|2008|2p=254|Treadgold|1997|3pp=220–222}} The [[Byzantine–Sasanian War of 572–591|Sasanian wars restarted]] that year, and continued until the emperor [[Maurice (emperor)|Maurice]] finally emerged victorious in 591; by that time, the Avars and [[Slavic migrations to the Balkans|Slavs had repeatedly invaded the Balkans]], causing great instability.{{sfnm|Louth|2009a|1pp=124–127|Haldon|2008|2p=254|Sarris|2002|3p=51}} Maurice [[Maurice's Balkan campaigns|campaigned extensively in the region]] during the 590s, but although he managed to re-establish Byzantine control up to the [[Danube River|Danube]], he pushed his troops too far in 602—they mutinied, proclaimed an officer named [[Phocas]] as emperor, and executed Maurice.{{sfnm|Kaldellis|2023|1pp=336–338|Treadgold|1997|2pp=232–235|Haldon|2008|3p=254}} The Sasanians seized their moment and [[Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628|reopened hostilities]]; Phocas was unable to cope and soon faced [[Heraclian revolt|a major rebellion]] led by [[Heraclius]]. Phocas lost Constantinople in 610 and was soon executed, but the destructive civil war accelerated the empire's decline.{{sfnm|Kaldellis|2023|1pp=347–350|Haldon|2008|2p=254|Louth|2009b|3pp=226–227|Treadgold|1997|4p=241}}

Under [[Khosrow II]], the Sassanids occupied the [[Levant]] and Egypt and pushed into Asia Minor, while Byzantine control of Italy slipped and the Avars and Slavs ran riot in the Balkans.{{sfnm|Haldon|2008|1pp=254–255|Treadgold|1997|2pp=287–293|Kaldellis|2023|3pp=351–355}} Although Heraclius repelled [[Siege of Constantinople (626)|a siege of Constantinople]] in 626 and then, brilliantly, invaded and [[Battle of Nineveh (627)|defeated the Sassanids]] in 627, this was a [[pyrrhic victory]].{{sfnm|Sarris|2002|1pp=56–58|Haldon|2008|2p=255|Kaldellis|2023|3p=364–367, 369, 372|Louth|2009b|3pp=227–229|Treadgold|1997|4pp=397–400}} The [[early Muslim conquests]] soon saw the conquests [[Muslim conquest of the Levant|of the Levant]], [[Arab conquest of Egypt|of Egypt]], and [[Muslim conquest of Persia|of the Sassanid Empire]] by the newly-formed Arabic [[Rashidun Caliphate]].{{sfnm|Kaldellis|2023|1p=375|Haldon|2008|2p=256|Louth|2009b|3pp=229–230}} By Heraclius' death in 641, the empire had been severely reduced economically as well as territorially—the loss of the wealthy eastern provinces had deprived Constantinople of three-quarters of its revenue.{{sfnm|Kaldellis|2023|1p=387|Haldon|2008|2p=256|Treadgold|2002|3p=129}}

The next seventy-five years are poorly documented.{{sfn|Kaldellis|2023|p=387}} [[Arab–Byzantine wars#Arab attacks on Anatolia and sieges of Constantinople|Arab raids into Asia Minor]] began almost immediately, and the Byzantines resorted to holding fortified centres and avoiding battle at all costs; although it was invaded annually, Anatolia avoided permanent Arab occupation.{{sfnm|Haldon|2008|1p=257|Kaldellis|2023|2p=387}} The outbreak of the [[First Fitna]] in 656 gave Byzantium breathing space, which it used wisely: some order was restored in the Balkans by [[Constans II]] ({{reign|641|668}}),{{sfnm|Kaldellis|2023|1p=389|Louth|2009b|2pp=230–231}} who began the administrative reorganisation known as the [[Theme (Byzantine district)|theme system]], in which troops were allocated to defend specific provinces.{{sfnm|Treadgold|1997|1p=315–316|Louth|2009b|2pp=239–240}} With the help of the recently rediscovered [[Greek fire]], [[Constantine IV]] ({{reign|668|685}}) repelled the Arab efforts to [[Siege of Constantinople (674–678)|capture Constantinople in the 670s]],{{sfnm|Treadgold|1997|1pp=323–327|Haldon|2008|2p=257|Louth|2009b|3pp=232–233}} but suffered [[Battle of Ongal|a reversal]] against the [[Bulgars]], who soon established [[First Bulgarian Empire|an empire in the northern Balkans]].{{sfnm|Kaldellis|2023|1p=403|Haldon|2008|2pp=257–258|Treadgold|2002|3pp=134–135}} Nevertheless, he and Constans had done enough to secure the empire's position, especially as the [[Umayyad Caliphate]] was undergoing [[Second Fitna|another civil war]].{{sfnm|Kaldellis|2023|1p=403|Treadgold|2002|2p=135}}

[[Justinian II]] sought to build on the stability secured by his father Constantine but was overthrown in 695 after attempting to exact too much from his subjects; over the next twenty-two years, six more rebellions followed in [[Twenty Years' Anarchy|an era of political instability]].{{sfnm|Treadgold|2002|1p=136–138|Haldon|2008|2p=257|Kaldellis|2023|3pp=438–440}} The reconstituted caliphate sought to break Byzantium by taking Constantinople, but the newly-crowned [[Leo III the Isaurian|Leo III]] managed to [[siege of Constantinople (717–718)|repel the 717–718 siege]], the first major setback of the Muslim conquests.{{sfnm|Treadgold|2002|1pp=137–138|Haldon|2008|2p=257|Auzépy|2009|3p=265}}

[[File:Solidus-Leo III and Constantine V-sb1504.jpg|thumb|right|Gold ''solidus'' of [[Leo III the Isaurian|Leo III]] (left), and his son and heir, [[Constantine V]] (right)]]
Leo addressed himself to the task of reorganising and consolidating the ''themes'' in Asia Minor. In 740 a major Byzantine victory took place at the [[Battle of Akroinon]] where the Byzantines destroyed the Umayyad army.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/22733550 |title=The Oxford dictionary of Byzantium |date=1991 |publisher=Oxford University Press |editor1=A. P. Kazhdan |editor2=Alice-Mary Maffry Talbot |editor3=Anthony Cutler |editor4=Timothy E. Gregory |editor5=Nancy Patterson Ševčenko |isbn=978-0-19-504652-6 |location=New York |oclc=22733550 |access-date=27 September 2022 |archive-date=8 July 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190708220927/https://www.worldcat.org/title/oxford-dictionary-of-byzantium/oclc/22733550 |url-status=live }}</ref> Constantine V won noteworthy victories in northern Syria and also thoroughly undermined Bulgarian strength.<ref>{{Harvnb|Cameron|2009|pp=67–68}}.</ref> In 746, profiting from the [[Third Fitna|unstable conditions]] in the Umayyad Caliphate, he invaded Syria and captured [[Marash|Germanikeia]], and the [[Battle of Keramaia]] resulted in a major Byzantine naval victory over the Umayyad fleet. Coupled with military defeats on other fronts of the caliphate and internal instability, Umayyad expansion came to an end.

=== Macedonian dynasty and resurgence (867–1025) ===
{{further|Byzantine Empire under the Macedonian dynasty|Byzantine–Georgian wars|Byzantine–Seljuk wars}}
[[File:ByzantineEmpire867AD4-en.svg|thumb|upright=1.25|The Byzantine Empire, {{Circa|867}}]]

The accession of [[Basil I]] to the throne in 867 marks the beginning of the [[Macedonian dynasty]], which ruled for 150 years. This dynasty included some of the ablest emperors in Byzantium's history, and [[Macedonian Renaissance|the period is one of revival]]. The empire moved from defending against external enemies to reconquest of territories.<ref name="Browning-1992-95">{{Harvnb|Browning|1992|p=95}}.</ref> The Macedonian dynasty was characterised by a cultural revival in spheres such as philosophy and the arts. There was a conscious effort to restore the brilliance of the period before the [[Slavic migrations to Southeastern Europe|Slavic]] and subsequent Arab invasions, and the Macedonian era has been dubbed the "Golden Age" of Byzantium.<ref name="Browning-1992-95" /> Although the empire was significantly smaller than during the reign of Justinian I, it had regained much strength, as the remaining territories were less geographically dispersed and more politically, economically, and culturally integrated.

Between 1021 and 1022, following years of tensions, Basil II led a series of victorious campaigns against the [[Kingdom of Georgia]], resulting in the annexation of several Georgian provinces to the empire. Basil's successors also annexed [[Bagratid Armenia]] in 1045. Importantly, both Georgia and Armenia were significantly weakened by the Byzantine administration's policy of heavy taxation and abolishing of the levy. The weakening of Georgia and Armenia played a significant role in the Byzantine [[Battle of Manzikert|defeat at Manzikert]] in 1071.<ref name="RappCrego2018">{{Cite book |last=Cyril Toumanoff |title=Languages and Cultures of Eastern Christianity: Georgian |year= 2018 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=978-1-351-92326-2 |editor-last=Stephen H. Rapp |pages=62 |chapter=Caucasia and Byzantium |editor-last2=Paul Crego |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rH10DwAAQBAJ&pg=PT62 |access-date=30 December 2018 |archive-date=27 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200727162836/https://books.google.com/books?id=rH10DwAAQBAJ&pg=PT62 |url-status=live }}</ref>

[[File:Bizansist touchup.jpg|thumb|upright=1.45|[[Constantinople]] was the largest and wealthiest city in Europe throughout late antiquity and most of the Middle Ages until the [[Fourth Crusade]] in 1204.]]

Basil II is considered among the most capable Byzantine emperors and his reign as the apex of the empire in the [[Middle Ages]]. By 1025, the date of Basil II's death, the Byzantine Empire stretched from Armenia in the east to [[Calabria]] in southern Italy in the west.<ref name="Browning-1992-116">{{Harvnb|Browning|1992|p=116}}.</ref> Many successes had been achieved, ranging from the conquest of Bulgaria to the annexation of parts of Georgia and Armenia, and the [[Byzantine Crete|reconquests of Crete]], [[Cyprus in the Middle Ages|Cyprus]], and the important city of [[Siege of Antioch (968–969)|Antioch]]. These were not temporary tactical gains but long-term reconquests.<ref name="Browning-1992-96">{{Harvnb|Browning|1992|p=96}}.</ref>

Under the Macedonian emperors Constantinople flourished, becoming the largest and wealthiest city in Europe, with a population of approximately 400,000 in the 9th and 10th centuries.<ref>{{Harvnb|Laiou|Morisson|2007|pp=130–131}}; {{Harvnb|Pounds|1979|p=124}}.</ref> During this period, the Byzantine Empire employed a strong civil service staffed by competent aristocrats who oversaw the collection of taxes, domestic administration, and foreign policy. The Macedonian emperors also increased the empire's wealth by fostering trade with Western Europe, particularly through [[Byzantine silk|the sale of silk]] and metalwork.<ref>{{Harvnb|Duiker|Spielvogel|2010|p=317}}.</ref>

=== Crisis and fragmentation ===

The Byzantine Empire fell into a period of difficulties, caused to a large extent by the undermining of the theme system and the neglect of the military. Nikephoros II, John Tzimiskes, and Basil II shifted the emphasis of the military divisions ({{Lang|grc|τάγματα}}, ''[[tagma (military)|tagmata]]'') from a reactive, defence-oriented citizen army into an army of professional career soldiers, increasingly dependent on foreign mercenaries. Mercenaries were expensive, however, and as the threat of invasion receded in the 10th century, so did the need for maintaining large garrisons and expensive fortifications.<ref>{{Harvnb|Treadgold|1997|pp=548–549}}.</ref> Basil II left a burgeoning treasury upon his death, but he neglected to plan for his succession. None of his immediate successors had any particular military or political talent, and the imperial administration increasingly fell into the hands of the civil service. Incompetent efforts to revive the Byzantine economy resulted in severe inflation and a debased gold currency. The army was seen as both an unnecessary expense and a political threat. A number of standing local units were demobilised, further augmenting the army's dependence on mercenaries, which could be retained and dismissed on an as-needed basis.<ref name="PM">Markham, "[http://faculty.uml.edu/ethan_spanier/Teaching/documents/TheBattleofManzikert.pdf The Battle of Manzikert] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160429203111/http://faculty.uml.edu/ethan_spanier/Teaching/documents/TheBattleofManzikert.pdf |date=29 April 2016 }}".</ref>

[[File:The seizure of Edessa in Syria by the Byzantine army and the Arabic counterattack from the Chronicle of John Skylitzes.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|The seizure of [[Edessa]] (1031) by the Byzantines under [[George Maniakes]] and the counterattack by the [[Seljuk Turks]]]]

At the same time, Byzantium was faced with new enemies. Its provinces in southern Italy were threatened by the [[Italo-Normans|Normans]] who arrived in Italy at the beginning of the 11th century. During a period of strife between Constantinople and Rome culminating in the East-West Schism of 1054, the [[Norman conquest of southern Italy|Normans advanced slowly but steadily]] into Byzantine Italy.<ref>{{Harvnb|Vasiliev|1928–1935}}, "[http://www.intratext.com/IXT/ENG0832/_P17.HTM Relations with Italy and Western Europe] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171012025518/http://www.intratext.com/IXT/ENG0832/_P17.HTM |date=12 October 2017 }}".</ref> [[Reggio Calabria|Reggio]], the capital of the tagma of [[Calabria]], was captured in 1060 by [[Robert Guiscard]], followed by [[Otranto]] in 1068. [[Bari]], the main Byzantine stronghold in [[Apulia]], was besieged in August 1068 and [[Siege of Bari|fell in April 1071]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Hooper|Bennett|1996|p=82}}; {{Harvnb|Stephenson|2000|p=157}}.</ref>

About 1053, [[Constantine IX Monomachos|Constantine IX]] disbanded what the historian [[John Skylitzes]] calls the "Iberian Army", which consisted of 50,000 men, and it was turned into a contemporary [[Droungarios of the Watch|Drungary of the Watch]]. Two other knowledgeable contemporaries, the former officials [[Michael Attaleiates]] and [[Kekaumenos]], agree with Skylitzes that by demobilising these soldiers, Constantine did catastrophic harm to the empire's eastern defences. The emergency lent weight to the military aristocracy in Anatolia, who in 1068 secured the election of one of their own, [[Romanos IV Diogenes|Romanos Diogenes]], as emperor. In the summer of 1071, Romanos undertook a massive eastern campaign to draw the Seljuks into a general engagement with the Byzantine army. At the [[Battle of Manzikert]], Romanos suffered a surprise defeat by [[Sultan]] [[Alp Arslan]] and was captured. Alp Arslan treated him with respect and imposed no harsh terms on the Byzantines.<ref name="PM" /> In Constantinople a coup put in power [[Michael VII Doukas|Michael Doukas]], who soon faced the opposition of [[Nikephoros Bryennios the Elder|Nikephoros Bryennios]] and [[Nikephoros III Botaneiates]]. By 1081, the Seljuks had expanded their rule over virtually the entire Anatolian plateau from Armenia in the east to [[Bithynia]] in the west, and they had founded their capital at [[Nicaea]], just {{Convert|90|km|0|abbr=off}} from Constantinople.<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |date=2002 |title=Byzantine Empire |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica}}; Markham, "[http://faculty.uml.edu/ethan_spanier/Teaching/documents/TheBattleofManzikert.pdf The Battle of Manzikert] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160429203111/http://faculty.uml.edu/ethan_spanier/Teaching/documents/TheBattleofManzikert.pdf |date=29 April 2016 }}".</ref>

=== Komnenian dynasty and the Crusades ===
{{See also|Byzantine Empire under the Komnenos dynasty}}
[[File:Alexios I Komnenos.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Alexios I Komnenos|Alexios I]], founder of the [[Komnenos|Komnenos dynasty]]]]
==== Alexios I and the First Crusade ====
{{See also|First Crusade}}
[[File:Chora Church Constantinople 2007 panorama 002.jpg|thumb|250px|The [[Chora Church]], dating from the [[Byzantine Empire under the Komnenos dynasty|Komnenian period]], has some of the finest Byzantine frescoes and mosaics.]]

The [[Komnenos|Komnenian dynasty]] attained power under [[Alexios I Komnenos|Alexios I]] in 1081. From the outset of his reign, Alexios faced a formidable attack by the Normans under Guiscard and his son [[Bohemond I of Antioch|Bohemund of Taranto]], who [[Battle of Dyrrhachium (1081)|captured Dyrrhachium]] and [[Corfu]] and laid siege to [[Larissa]] in [[Thessaly]]. Guiscard's death in 1085 temporarily eased the Norman problem. The following year, the Seljuq sultan died, and the sultanate was split by internal rivalries. By his own efforts, Alexios defeated the [[Pechenegs]], who were caught by surprise and annihilated at the [[Battle of Levounion]] on 28 April 1091.<ref name="Br">{{Cite encyclopedia |title=Byzantine Empire |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica}}</ref>

[[File:Byzantiumforecrusades.jpg|thumb|upright=1.15|The Byzantine Empire and the Seljuk [[Sultanate of Rûm]] before the [[First Crusade]] (1095–1099)]]

Having achieved stability in the West, Alexios could turn his attention to the severe economic difficulties and the disintegration of the empire's traditional defences.<ref name="Birkenmeier">{{Harvnb|Birkenmeier|2002}}.</ref> However, he still did not have enough manpower to recover the lost territories in Asia Minor and to advance against the Seljuks. At the [[Council of Piacenza]] in 1095, envoys from Alexios spoke to [[Pope Urban II]] about the suffering of the Christians of the East and underscored that without help from the West they would continue to suffer under Muslim rule.<ref name="Harris">{{Harvnb|Harris|2014}}; {{Harvnb|Read|2000|p=124}}; {{Harvnb|Watson|1993|p=12}}.</ref> Urban saw Alexios request as a dual opportunity to cement Western Europe and reunite the [[Eastern Orthodox Church]] with the [[Catholic Church|Roman Catholic Church]] under his rule.<ref name="Harris" /> On 27 November 1095, Urban called the [[Council of Clermont]] and urged all those present to take up arms under the sign of the [[Christian cross|Cross]] and launch an armed [[pilgrimage]] to recover Jerusalem and the East from the Muslims. The response in Western Europe was overwhelming.<ref name="Br" />

Alexios had anticipated help in the form of mercenary forces from the West, but he was totally unprepared for the immense and undisciplined force that arrived in Byzantine territory. It was no comfort to Alexios to learn that four of the eight leaders of the main body of the Crusade were Normans, among them Bohemund. Since the crusade had to pass through Constantinople, however, the emperor had some control over it. He required its leaders to swear to restore to the empire any towns or territories they might reconquer from the Turks on their way to the Holy Land. In return, he gave them guides and a military escort.<ref name="A261">{{Harvnb|Komnene|1928|loc=''Alexiad'', [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/basis/AnnaComnena-Alexiad10.html 10.261]}}</ref> Alexios was able to recover a number of important cities, islands and much of western Asia Minor. The Crusaders agreed to become Alexios' vassals under the [[Treaty of Devol]] in 1108, which marked the end of the Norman threat during Alexios' reign.<ref name="A348-358">{{Harvnb|Komnene|1928|loc=''Alexiad'', [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/basis/annacomnena-alexiad13.html 13.348–13.358]}}; {{Harvnb|Birkenmeier|2002|p=46}}.</ref>

==== John II, Manuel I and the Second Crusade ====
{{See also|Second Crusade}}[[File:Comnenus mosaics Hagia Sophia.jpg|thumb|250px|A [[mosaic]] from the [[Hagia Sophia]] of [[Constantinople]] (modern Istanbul), depicting [[Mary, mother of Jesus|Mary]] and [[Jesus]], flanked by [[John II Komnenos]] (left) and his wife [[Irene of Hungary]] (right), 12th century]]
[[File:The Byzantine Empire, c.1180.svg|thumb|250px|Byzantine Empire in orange, {{Circa|1180}}, at the end of the [[Komnenian restoration|Komnenian period]]]]

Alexios's son [[John II Komnenos]] succeeded him in 1118 and ruled until 1143. John was a pious and dedicated emperor who was determined to undo the damage to the empire suffered at the Battle of Manzikert half a century earlier.<ref>{{Harvnb|Norwich|1998|p=267}}.</ref> Famed for his piety and his remarkably mild and just reign, John was an exceptional example of a moral ruler at a time when cruelty was the norm.<ref>{{Harvnb|Ostrogorsky|1969|p=377}}.</ref> For this reason, he has been called the Byzantine [[Marcus Aurelius]]. During his twenty-five-year reign, John made alliances with the Holy Roman Empire in the West and decisively defeated the Pechenegs at the [[Battle of Beroia]].<ref name="B90">{{Harvnb|Birkenmeier|2002|p=90}}.</ref> He thwarted Hungarian and Serbian threats during the 1120s, and in 1130 he allied himself with [[List of German monarchs|German Emperor]] [[Lothair III, Holy Roman Emperor|Lothair III]] against Norman King [[Roger II of Sicily]].{{Sfn|Cinnamus|1976|pp=74–75}}

In the later part of his reign, John focused his activities on the East, personally leading [[Byzantine–Seljuk wars|numerous campaigns against the Turks]] in Asia Minor. His campaigns fundamentally altered the balance of power in the East, forcing the Turks onto the defensive, while restoring many towns, fortresses, and cities across the peninsula to the Byzantines. He defeated the [[Danishmendids|Danishmend Emirate]] of [[Malatya|Melitene]] and reconquered all of [[Cilicia]], while forcing [[Raymond of Poitiers]], Prince of Antioch, to recognise Byzantine suzerainty. In an effort to demonstrate the emperor's role as the leader of the Christian world, John marched into the [[Holy Land]] at the head of the combined forces of the empire and the Crusader states; yet despite his great vigour pressing the campaign, his hopes were disappointed by the treachery of his Crusader allies.<ref>{{Harvnb|Harris|2014|p=84}}.</ref> In 1142, John returned to press his claims to Antioch, but he died in the spring of 1143 following a hunting accident.

John's chosen heir was his fourth son, [[Manuel I Komnenos]], who campaigned aggressively against his neighbours both in the west and in the east. In Palestine, Manuel allied with the Crusader [[Kingdom of Jerusalem]] and sent a large fleet to participate in a combined invasion of [[Fatimid Caliphate|Fatimid Egypt]]. Manuel reinforced his position as overlord of the Crusader states, with his hegemony over Antioch and Jerusalem secured by agreement with [[Raynald of Châtillon|Raynald]], Prince of Antioch, and [[Amalric of Jerusalem]].<ref name="S">{{Harvnb|Magdalino|2002a|p=74}}.</ref> In an effort to restore Byzantine control over the ports of southern Italy, he sent an expedition to Italy in 1155, but disputes within the coalition led to the eventual failure of the campaign. Despite this military setback, Manuel's armies successfully invaded the southern parts of the [[Kingdom of Hungary]] in 1167, defeating the Hungarians at the [[Battle of Sirmium]]. By 1168, nearly the whole of the eastern Adriatic coast lay in Manuel's hands.<ref name="S372">{{Harvnb|Sedlar|1994|p=372}}.</ref> Manuel made several alliances with the pope and Western Christian kingdoms, and he successfully handled the passage of the crusaders through his empire.<ref name="M67">{{Harvnb|Magdalino|2002a|p=67}}.</ref>

In the East, Manuel suffered a major defeat in 1176 at the [[Battle of Myriokephalon]] against the Turks. Yet the losses were quickly recovered, and in the following year Manuel's forces inflicted a defeat upon a force of "picked Turks".<ref name="B129">{{Harvnb|Birkenmeier|2002|p=128}}.</ref> The Byzantine commander [[John Komnenos Vatatzes|John Vatatzes]], who destroyed the Turkish invaders at the [[Battle of Hyelion and Leimocheir]], brought troops from the capital and was able to gather an army along the way, a sign that the Byzantine army remained strong and that the defensive programme of western Asia Minor was still successful.<ref name="B196">{{Harvnb|Birkenmeier|2002|p=196}}.</ref> John and Manuel pursued active military policies, and both deployed considerable resources on sieges and city defences; aggressive fortification policies were at the heart of their imperial military policies.<ref name="B185-186">{{Harvnb|Birkenmeier|2002|pp=185–186}}.</ref> Despite the defeat at Myriokephalon, the policies of Alexios, John and Manuel resulted in vast territorial gains, increased frontier stability in Asia Minor, and secured the stabilisation of the empire's European frontiers. From {{Circa|1081}} to {{Circa|1180}}, the Komnenian army assured the empire's security, enabling Byzantine civilisation to flourish.<ref name="Br1">{{Harvnb|Birkenmeier|2002|p=1}}.</ref>

This allowed the Western provinces to achieve an economic revival that continued until the close of the century. It has been argued that Byzantium under the Komnenian rule was more prosperous than at any time since the Persian invasions of the 7th century. During the 12th century, population levels rose and extensive tracts of new agricultural land were brought into production. Archaeological evidence from both Europe and Asia Minor shows a considerable increase in the size of urban settlements, together with a notable upsurge in new towns. Trade was also flourishing; the Venetians, the [[Genoa|Genoese]] and others opened up the ports of the Aegean to commerce, shipping goods from the Crusader states and Fatimid Egypt to the west and trading with the empire via Constantinople.<ref name="Day">{{Harvnb|Day|1977|pp=289–290}}; {{Harvnb|Harvey|2003}}.</ref>

=== Decline and disintegration ===
{{Main|Decline of the Byzantine Empire}}

==== Angelid dynasty ====
{{Main|Byzantine Empire under the Angelos dynasty}}
[[File:4KANGELOS.png|thumb|upright=1.15|[[Constantinople|Byzantium]] in the late Angeloi period]]
Manuel's death on 24 September 1180 left his 11-year-old son [[Alexios II Komnenos]] on the throne. Alexios was highly incompetent in the office, and with his mother [[Maria of Antioch]]'s Frankish background, his regency was unpopular.<ref name="Norwich291">{{Harvnb|Norwich|1998|p=291}}.</ref> Eventually, [[Andronikos I Komnenos]], a grandson of Alexios I, overthrew Alexios II in a violent ''coup d'état''.<ref name="Norwich292">{{Harvnb|Norwich|1998|p=292}}.</ref>  After eliminating his potential rivals, he had himself crowned as co-emperor in September 1183. He eliminated Alexios II and took his 12-year-old wife [[Agnes of France, Byzantine Empress|Agnes of France]] for himself.<ref name="Norwich292" />

Andronikos began his reign well; in particular, the measures he took to reform the government of the empire have been praised by historians. According to [[George Ostrogorsky]], Andronikos was determined to root out corruption: under his rule, the sale of offices ceased; selection was based on merit, rather than favouritism; officials were paid an adequate salary to reduce the temptation of bribery. In the provinces, Andronikos's reforms produced a speedy and marked improvement.<ref name="M194" /> The aristocrats were infuriated against him, and to make matters worse, Andronikos seems to have become increasingly unbalanced; executions and violence became increasingly common, and his reign turned into a reign of terror.<ref>{{Harvnb|Harris|2014|p=118}}.</ref> Andronikos seemed almost to seek the extermination of the aristocracy as a whole. The struggle against the aristocracy turned into wholesale slaughter, while the emperor resorted to ever more ruthless measures to shore up his regime.<ref name="M194">{{Harvnb|Ostrogorsky|1969|p=397}}.</ref>

Despite his military background, Andronikos failed to deal with [[Isaac Komnenos of Cyprus|Isaac Komnenos]], [[Béla III of Hungary]] who [[Byzantine–Hungarian War (1180–1185)|reincorporated]] Croatian territories into Hungary, and [[Stefan Nemanja|Stephen Nemanja of Serbia]] who declared his independence from the Byzantine Empire. Yet, none of these troubles compared to [[William II of Sicily]]'s invasion force of 300 ships and 80,000 men, arriving in 1185 and [[Sack of Thessalonica (1185)|sacking Thessalonica]].<ref name="Norwich293">{{Harvnb|Norwich|1998|p=293}}.</ref> Andronikos mobilised a small fleet of 100 ships to defend the capital, but other than that he was indifferent to the populace. He was finally overthrown when [[Isaac II Angelos]], surviving an imperial assassination attempt, seized power with the aid of the people and had Andronikos killed.<ref name="Norwich294-295">{{Harvnb|Norwich|1998|pp=294–295}}.</ref>

The reign of Isaac II, and more so that of his brother [[Alexios III Angelos|Alexios III]], saw the collapse of what remained of the centralised machinery of Byzantine government and defence. Although the Normans were driven out of Greece, in 1186 the [[Vlachs]] and Bulgars began a rebellion that led to the formation of the [[Second Bulgarian Empire]]. The internal policy of the Angeloi was characterised by the squandering of the public treasure and fiscal maladministration. Imperial authority was severely weakened, and the growing power vacuum at the centre of the empire encouraged fragmentation. There is evidence that some Komnenian heirs had set up a semi-independent state in [[Trabzon|Trebizond]] before 1204.<ref name="AP">{{Harvnb|Angold|1997}}; {{Harvnb|Paparrigopoulos|Karolidis|1925|p=216}}</ref> According to [[Alexander Vasiliev (historian)|Alexander Vasiliev]], "the dynasty of the Angeloi, Greek in its origin,&nbsp;... accelerated the ruin of the Empire, already weakened without and disunited within."<ref name="VA">{{Harvnb|Vasiliev|1928–1935}}, "[http://www.intratext.com/IXT/ENG0832/_P1B.HTM Foreign Policy of the Angeloi] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210227032548/http://www.intratext.com/IXT/ENG0832/_P1B.HTM |date=27 February 2021 }}".</ref>

==== Fourth Crusade and aftermath ====
{{further|Fourth Crusade|Frankokratia|Byzantine Empire under the Palaiologos dynasty}}
[[File:Eugène Ferdinand Victor Delacroix 012.jpg|thumb|right|250px|''[[Entry of the Crusaders in Constantinople|The Entry of the Crusaders into Constantinople]]'', by [[Eugène Delacroix]] (1840)]]

In 1198, [[Pope Innocent III]] broached the subject of a new crusade through [[Papal legate|legates]] and [[encyclical]] letters.<ref name="Norwich299">{{Harvnb|Norwich|1998|p=299}}.</ref> The stated intent of the crusade was to conquer [[History of Arab Egypt#Ayyubid period|Egypt]], the centre of Muslim power in the Levant. The Crusader army arrived at [[Republic of Venice|Venice]] in the summer of 1202 and hired the Venetian fleet to transport them to Egypt. As a payment to the Venetians, they captured the (Christian) port of [[Zadar#History|Zara]] in [[Dalmatia]] (the vassal city of Venice, which had rebelled and placed itself under Hungary's protection in 1186).<ref name="BrC">Britannica Concise, [http://concise.britannica.com/ebc/article-9383275/Siege-of-Zara Siege of Zara] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070706062040/http://concise.britannica.com/ebc/article-9383275/Siege-of-Zara |date=6 July 2007 }}.</ref> Shortly afterward, [[Alexios IV Angelos]], son of the deposed and blinded Emperor Isaac II, made contact with the Crusaders. Alexios offered to reunite the Byzantine church with Rome, pay the Crusaders 200,000 silver marks, join the crusade, and provide all the supplies they needed to reach Egypt.<ref name="Norwich301">{{Harvnb|Norwich|1998|p=301}}.</ref>

[[File:LatinEmpire2.png|thumb|upright=1.15|The partition of the empire following the [[Fourth Crusade]], {{Circa|1204}}]]
The crusaders arrived at Constantinople in the summer of 1203 and [[Siege of Constantinople (1203)|quickly attacked]], starting a major fire that damaged large parts of the city, and briefly seized control. Alexios III fled from the capital, and Alexios Angelos was elevated to the throne as Alexios IV along with his blind father Isaac. Alexios IV and Isaac II were unable to keep their promises and were deposed by [[Alexios V Doukas|Alexios V]]. The crusaders again [[Sack of Constantinople|took the city on 13 April 1204]], and Constantinople was subjected to pillage and massacre by the rank and file for three days. Many priceless icons, relics and other objects later turned up in [[Western Europe]], a large number in Venice. According to chronicler [[Niketas Choniates]], a prostitute was even set up on the patriarchal throne.<ref name="NC">{{Harvnb|Choniates|1912}}, ''[http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/choniates1.html The Sack of Constantinople] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141030004048/http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/choniates1.html |date=30 October 2014 }}''.</ref> When order had been restored, the crusaders and the Venetians proceeded to implement their agreement; [[Baldwin I, Latin Emperor|Baldwin of Flanders]] was elected emperor of a new [[Latin Empire]], and the Venetian [[Thomas Morosini]] was chosen as patriarch. The lands divided up among the leaders included most of the former Byzantine possessions.<ref name="Br40&nbsp;million">{{Cite encyclopedia |title=The Fourth Crusade and the Latin Empire of Constantinople |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica}}</ref> Although Venice was more interested in commerce than conquering territory, it took key areas of Constantinople, and the [[Doge (title)|Doge]] took the title of "''Lord of a Quarter and Half a Quarter of the Roman Empire''".<ref>{{Harvnb|Norwich|1982|pp=127–143}}.</ref>

After the sack of Constantinople in 1204 by Latin crusaders, two Byzantine successor states were established: the [[Empire of Nicaea]] and the [[Despotate of Epirus]]. A third, the [[Empire of Trebizond]], was created after [[Alexios I of Trebizond|Alexios]] [[Komnenos]], commanding the [[Kingdom of Georgia|Georgian]] expedition in [[Chaldia]]<ref>A. A. Vasiliev, [https://www.jstor.org/stable/2846872 "The Foundation of the Empire of Trebizond (1204–1222)"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308162542/https://www.jstor.org/stable/2846872 |date=8 March 2021 }}, ''Speculum'', '''11''' (1936), pp. 18ff</ref> a few weeks before the sack of Constantinople, found himself [[de facto]] emperor and established himself in Trebizond. Of the three successor states, Epirus and Nicaea stood the best chance of reclaiming Constantinople. The Nicaean Empire struggled to survive the next few decades, however, and by the mid-13th century it had lost much of southern Anatolia.<ref>{{Harvnb|Kean|2006}}; {{Harvnb|Madden|2005|p=162}}.</ref> The weakening of the [[Sultanate of Rum|Sultanate of Rûm]] following the [[Battle of Köse Dağ|Mongol invasion in 1242–1243]] allowed many [[Anatolian beyliks|beyliks]] and [[Ghazi (warrior)|ghazis]] to set up their own principalities in Anatolia, weakening the Byzantine hold on Asia Minor.<ref>{{Harvnb|Köprülü|1992|pp=33–41}}.</ref> In time, one of the Beys, [[Osman I]], created the [[Ottoman Empire]] that would eventually conquer Constantinople. However, the Mongol invasion also gave Nicaea a temporary respite from Seljuk attacks, allowing it to concentrate on the Latin Empire to its north.

[[File:1263 Mediterranean Sea.svg|thumb|upright=1.35|The Byzantine Empire, {{Circa|1263}}]]
The Empire of Nicaea, founded by the [[Laskaris|Laskarid dynasty]], managed to [[Reconquest of Constantinople|recapture Constantinople]] in 1261 and defeat [[Epirus]]. This led to a short-lived revival of Byzantine fortunes under [[Michael VIII Palaiologos]], but the war-ravaged empire was ill-equipped to deal with the enemies that surrounded it. To maintain his campaigns against the Latins, Michael pulled troops from Asia Minor and levied crippling taxes on the peasantry, causing much resentment.<ref>{{Harvnb|Madden|2005|p=179}}; {{Harvnb|Reinert|2002|p=260}}.</ref> Massive construction projects were completed in Constantinople to repair the damage of the Fourth Crusade, but none of these initiatives were of any comfort to the farmers in Asia Minor suffering raids from Muslim ghazis.<ref name="{{Harvnb|reinert|2002|p=257}}.">{{Harvnb|Reinert|2002|p=257}}.</ref>

Rather than holding on to his possessions in Asia Minor, Michael chose to expand the empire, gaining only short-term success. To avoid another sacking of the capital by the Latins, he forced the Church to submit to Rome, again a temporary solution for which the peasantry hated Michael and Constantinople.<ref name="{{Harvnb|reinert|2002|p=257}}." /> The efforts of [[Andronikos II Palaiologos|Andronikos II]] and later his grandson [[Andronikos III Palaiologos|Andronikos III]] marked Byzantium's last genuine attempts to restoring the glory of the empire. However, the use of mercenaries by Andronikos II often backfired, with the [[Catalan Company]] ravaging the countryside and increasing resentment towards Constantinople.<ref>{{Harvnb|Reinert|2002|p=261}}.</ref>

=== Fall ===

{{Main|Byzantine–Ottoman wars|Fall of Constantinople}}
[[File:Le siège de Constantinople (1453) by Jean Le Tavernier after 1455.jpg|thumb|upright|right|The [[Fall of Constantinople|siege of Constantinople]] in 1453, depicted in a 15th-century French miniature]]

The situation became worse for Byzantium during the civil wars after Andronikos III died. A [[Byzantine civil war of 1341–1347|six-year-long civil war]] devastated the empire, allowing the Serbian ruler [[Stefan Dušan]] to overrun most of the empire's remaining territory and establish a [[Serbian Empire]]. In 1354, an earthquake at [[Gelibolu|Gallipoli]] devastated the fort, allowing the [[Ottoman Turks|Ottomans]] (who were hired as mercenaries during the civil war by [[John VI Kantakouzenos]]) to establish themselves in Europe.<ref>{{Harvnb|Reinert|2002|p=268}}.</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Vasilʹev |first=Aleksandr Aleksandrovich |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EXiWAwAAQBAJ |title=History of the Byzantine Empire, 324–1453 |date=1964 |publisher=Univ of Wisconsin Press |isbn=978-0-299-80925-6 |language=en |access-date=19 July 2021 |archive-date=8 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210808183933/https://books.google.com/books?id=EXiWAwAAQBAJ |url-status=live }}</ref> By the time the Byzantine civil wars had ended, the Ottomans had defeated the Serbians and subjugated them as vassals. Following the [[Battle of Kosovo]], much of the Balkans became dominated by the Ottomans.<ref>{{Harvnb|Reinert|2002|p=270}}.</ref>

Constantinople by this stage was underpopulated and dilapidated. The population of the city had collapsed so severely that it was now little more than a cluster of villages separated by fields. On 2 April 1453, [[Mehmed II|Sultan Mehmed]]'s army of 80,000 men and large numbers of irregulars laid siege to the city.<ref name="R84-86">{{Harvnb|Runciman|1990|pp=84–86}}.</ref> Despite a desperate last-ditch defence of the city by the massively outnumbered Christian forces (c. 7,000 men, 2,000 of whom were foreign),{{sfnm|Runciman|1990|1pp=84–85}} Constantinople finally fell to the Ottomans after a two-month siege on 29 May 1453. The final Byzantine emperor, [[Constantine XI Palaiologos]], was last seen casting off his imperial regalia and throwing himself into hand-to-hand combat after the walls of the city were taken.<ref>{{Harvnb|Hindley|2004|p=300}}.</ref>

== Geography and demography ==
{{Expand section|date=February 2024}}
{{Main|Population of the Byzantine Empire}}
At its peak, the population reached 26m people at 540 CE and 3,400,000&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup>. By contrast by the 14th century, it would drop to 2m people and 420,000&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup>.

== Society ==
{{Copy edit section|date=February 2024}}
=== Transition into an Eastern Christian empire ===
The [[Constitutio Antoniniana|granting of citizenship]] across the entire Empire in 212 is considered a turning point by some modern historians. Roman citizenship was an innovation of the Roman state, where people with no direct territorial claim to the city of Rome could have it.{{sfnm|Beard|2015|1p=165}} However, the decision in 212 would affect two-thirds of the Empire's population, fundamentally changing its nature.{{sfnm|Beard|2015|1pp=527–533|Kaldellis|2023|2pp=19–20}} For example, in 249, [[Decius]] required all subjects to make a public sacrifice to the gods for the Empire, which following 212 was unprecedented in scale and marked the progression towards uniform religious practice.{{sfnm|Kaldellis|2023|1pp=20, 60, 71}}

[[Constitution of the Late Roman Empire|Diocletian's constitutional reforms]] from 284 ended the facade of dyarchy created by the [[Constitutional reforms of Augustus|reforms by Augustus]] that created the [[principate]], seen as forming a new state.{{sfnm|Kaldellis|2023|1p=34}} The state would begin to intervene more in the private matters of families, such as with land and slavery.{{sfnm|Rotman|2022|1pp=41–43}} [[Constantine the Great|Constantine's]] support for Christianity and moving the imperial seat east changed the power structure permanently: the formation of the [[Byzantine senate|Constantinople Senate]] provided the East political independence.{{sfnm|Kaldellis|2023|1p=34}} [[Theodosius I|Theodosius]] issued a [[Persecution of pagans under Theodosius I|series of edicts]] essentially banning pagan religion: pagan sacrifices, ceremonies, and access to pagan places of worship were restricted.{{Sfn|Friell|Williams|2005|p=121}} The last [[Ancient Olympic Games|Olympic Games]] are believed to have been held in 393.{{Sfn|Perrottet|2004|p=190}}

By the second century CE, Hellenic culture had heavily impacted Roman identity.{{Sfn|Wallace-Hadrill |1998|pp=79–91}} Additionally, the theological debates in the Christian Church increased the importance of the Greek language, in turn making it highly dependent on [[Hellenistic philosophy|Hellenic thought]].{{sfnm|Kaldellis|2023|1p=111|A.H.M. Jones|1986|2p=991}} It enabled philosophy like [[Neoplatonism]] to loom large on Christian theology.{{sfnm|Kaldellis|2023|1p=180}} [[Anthony Kaldellis]] views Christianity as bringing no economic, social, or political changes to the state other than being more deeply integrated into it.{{sfnm|Kaldellis|2023|1pp=141, 186, 342}}

=== Slavery ===
{{further||Slavery in the Byzantine Empire}}
There were 3 million enslaved people (or 15% of the population) around the time of the Diocletian reforms.{{sfnm|Kaldellis|2023|1p=40|Rotman|2022|2p=32}} Youval Rotman calls the changes to slavery during this period, as different degrees of unfreedom.{{sfnm|Rotman|2009|1pp=18, 179|Rotman|2022|2p=59}} Previous slave roles became high-demand free market professions (like tutors), and the state encouraged the ''coloni'', tenants bound to the land, as a new legal category between free and slave.{{sfnm|Kaldellis|2023|1p=39}} In 294 the enslavement of children was forbidden; [[Honorius (emperor)|Honorius]] (r.  393–423) would begin to free enslaved people that were battle captives, and later emperors would free the slaves of conquered people.{{sfnm|Rotman|2009|1pp=30–31|Kaldellis|2023|2p=425|Rotman|2022|3p=42}}<ref>{{Cite journal |title=Review of: Response: Rotman on Lenski on Youval Rotman, Byzantine Slavery and the Mediterranean World |url=https://bmcr.brynmawr.edu/2010/2010.07.02 |journal=Bryn Mawr Classical Review |issn=1055-7660 |access-date=9 January 2024 |archive-date=9 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240109104527/https://bmcr.brynmawr.edu/2010/2010.07.02 |url-status=live }}</ref> Christianity as an institution had no direct impact, but state policies prohibited enslaved Christians, had limits on trading them, and made it a bishop's duty to ransom Christians.{{sfnm|Kaldellis|2023|1p=40|Rotman|2009|2loc=Chapter 2|Rotman|2022|3pp=37–38, 53}} Slavery ultimately would persist due to a steady source of non-Christians, though with stable prices.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Harper |first=Kyle |date=2010 |title=Slave Prices in Late Antiquity (and in the Very Long Term) |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/27809564 |journal=Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte |volume=59 |issue=2 |page=237 |doi=10.25162/historia-2010-0013 |jstor=27809564 |s2cid=160720781 |issn=0018-2311}}</ref>{{sfnm|Kaldellis|2023|1p=40|Rotman|2022|2p=53}}

=== Socio-economic ===
Agriculture was the main basis of taxation and the state sought to bind everyone to land for productivity{{sfnm|Kaldellis|2023|1p=38|Brandes|2012|2p=563}} The emperor held the largest landownership, with senators after that; Local city councillors were typically the richest in their respective areas, though there would be a noticeable disparity between smaller and larger towns.{{sfnm|Kaldellis|2023|1pp=38–39}} In an economic sense, a middle class existed, comprising merchants, smaller landowners, and artisans, yet it never coalesced as a distinct class.{{sfnm|Kaldellis|2023|1p=39}} Most land consisted of small and medium-sized lots, with family farms serving as the primary source of agriculture.{{sfnm|Kaldellis|2023|1p=39|Harvey|2012|2p=329}} The status of the Coloni once referred to as proto-serfs but actually, free citizens remains a subject of historical debate.{{sfnm|Kaldellis|2023|1p=39|Harvey|2012|2p=331}} Slaves would have been rare after the 7th century, primarily urban, with their socio-economic status tied principally to their masters.{{sfnm|Kaldellis|2023|1p=40}}

In 741, marriage had become a Christian institution, and no longer a private contract.{{sfnm|Kaldellis|2023|1p=444}} Monogamy had been a Roman definition of marriage, but Christianity introduced a prohibition on divorce and sexual relations outside of marriage, bringing a change in power relations with slavery{{sfnm|Rotman|2022|1p=85}} Marriage was considered an institution to sustain the population, transfer property rights, support the elderly family, and the empress Theodora had said it was needed to restrict sexual hedonism.{{sfnm|Mary-Talbot|1997|1p=121|Kazhdan|1990|2p=132}} Women usually married at ages 15–20, and were used as a way to connect men and create economic benefit among families{{sfnm|Rotman|2022|1p=83|Mary-Talbot|1997|2p=121}} The societal norm dictated that women should bear up to six children, yet only 2–3 were expected to survive.{{sfnm|Kaldellis|2023|1p=41}} Divorce could be done by mutual consent but would be restricted over time, such as only if joining a convent.{{sfnm|Kaldellis|2023|1p=88, 321, 444, 529, 588, 769|Mary-Talbot|1997|2p=119, 122, 128}}

Inheritance rights were well developed, including for all women.{{sfnm|Harris|2017|1p=13|Kaldellis|2023|2p=41|Garland|2006|3p=xiv}} It may have been what prevented the emergence of large properties and a hereditary nobility capable of intimidating the state.{{sfnm|Kaldellis|2023|1p=40}} The prevalence of widows (estimated at 20%) meant that women often controlled family assets as heads of households and businesses, contributing to the rise of some empresses to power.{{sfnm|Kaldellis|2023|1pp=40, 592|Stephenson|2010|2p=66}} Women were major taxpayers, landowners, and petitioners to the imperial court seeking resolution for primarily property-related disputes {{sfnm|Kaldellis|2023|1pp=40, 592|Mary-Talbot|1997|2p=129|Garland|2006|3p=xvi}}

Education maintained a standard and a continuation from the Hellenistic and Ancient Roman era's, and right through the Byzantine era.{{sfnm|Markopoulos|2012|1p=785}} Education was voluntary but required financial means to attend.{{sfnm|Markopoulos|2012|1p=786}} There is weak evidence that women were catered for, though we know that there was at least a school for girls in the capital.{{sfnm|Markopoulos|2012|1p=787|Kaldellis|2023|2p=592}} It's more likely that boys and girls, whose families could afford it, had private tutoring at home.{{sfnm|Markopoulos|2012|1p=787}}

=== Women ===
{{further||Women in the Byzantine Empire}}
While women shared the same socio-economic status as men, they faced legal discrimination and had limitations in economic opportunities and vocations.{{sfnm|Kaldellis|2023|1p=40|Mary-Talbot|1997|2pp=118–119}} Prohibited from serving as soldiers or holding political office, and restricted from serving as deaconesses in the Church from the 7th century (until a full ban likely in the 11th century), women most likely were assigned household responsibilities that were labour intensive.{{sfnm|Kaldellis|2023|1p=40|Mary-Talbot|1997|2pp=126–127|Karras|2004|3pp=309–314}} They worked in professions, such as in the food and textile industry, as medical staff, in public baths, had a heavy presence in retail, and were practicing members of artisan guilds.{{sfnm|Mary-Talbot|1997|1pp=130–131|Harris|2017|2p=133|Garland|2006|3p=xiv|Kaldellis|2023|4pp=40–41}} They also worked in disreputable occupations: entertainers, tavern keepers, and prostitutes, allegedly where some saints and empresses originated from{{sfnm|Mary-Talbot|1997|1p=131|Kazhdan|1990|2p=136}} (Prostitution was widespread, and attempts were made to limit it, especially during Justinian's reign under the influence of Theodora.){{sfnm|Grosdidier de Matons|1967|1pp=23–25|Garland|1999|2pp=11–39}}

Women participated in public life, engaging in social events such as dancing at festivals, processions, protests and attending the Hippodrome.{{sfnm|Kaldellis|2023|1p=40}} They played an important role in resisting imperial iconastic policy.{{sfnm|Karras|2004|1p=310}} Women's rights would not be better in comparative societies, nor Western Europe or America until the 19th century.{{sfnm|Kaldellis|2023|1p=529|Harris|2017|2p=133}}

=== Language ===
{{further||Languages of the Roman Empire}}
{{Multiple image
| align = right
| image1 = Mudil_Psalter.jpg
| width1 = 140
| alt1 =
| caption1 =
| image2 = Joshua_Roll.jpg
| width2 = 146
| alt2 =
| caption2 =
| footer = Left: The Mudil Psalter, the oldest complete [[psalter]] in the Coptic language ([[Coptic Museum]], Egypt, [[Coptic Cairo]])<br />
Right: The [[Joshua Roll]], a 10th-century illuminated Greek manuscript possibly made in Constantinople ([[Vatican Library]], Rome)
}}
[[File:Asia Minor dialects.png|thumb|Distribution of Greek dialects in [[Anatolia]] in the late Byzantine Empire through to 1923. [[Modern Greek#Demotic|Demotic]] in yellow. [[Pontic Greek|Pontic]] in orange. [[Cappadocian Greek|Cappadocian]] in green. (Green dots indicate Cappadocian Greek-speaking villages in 1910.<ref>[http://ia800306.us.archive.org/13/items/moderngreekinas00hallgoog/moderngreekinas00hallgoog.pdf Modern Greek in Asia Minor. A study of the dialects of Sílli, Cappadocia and Phárasa.] [[Richard MacGillivray Dawkins|Dawkins, R.M.]] 1916. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.</ref>)]]

There was never an official language but Latin and Greek were the main languages.{{sfnm|Rochette|2023|1p=285}} During the [[principate]], knowledge of Greek had been useful to pass as an educated noble, and knowledge of Latin was useful for a career in the military, government, or law.<ref>Rochette (1997, 2010, 1996, 1998, 2000, 2007), J. N. Adams (2003), Kearsley and Evans (2001), Binder (2000: 21–48), Rizakis (1995, 2008), Holford-Strevens (1993), Petersmann (1992), Dubuisson (1981, 1992a, 1992b), Millar (2006a: 84–93), Mullen (2011), Garcea (2019), Fournet (2019), Rapp (2019), Nocchi Macedo(2019), Pellizzari (2019), Rhoby (2019), Ghiretti (1996), García Domingo (1983), Zgusta (1980), Kaimio (1979a, 1979b), Hahn (1906), Mullen and James (2012), Stein (1915: 132–186) as cited in {{Cite book |last=Dickey |first=Eleanor |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/9781108888387/type/book |title=Latin Loanwords in Ancient Greek: A Lexicon and Analysis |date=2023 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-108-88838-7 |edition=1st |page=4 |doi=10.1017/9781108888387 |s2cid=258920619 |access-date=21 December 2023 |archive-date=9 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240209190604/https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/latin-loanwords-in-ancient-greek/F5D4E8C56689A2584BD68753B99CCDE9 |url-status=live }}</ref> Latin had experienced a period of spreading from the second century BCE, and especially in the western provinces, but not as much in the eastern provinces.<ref>{{Harvp|Rochette|2011|pp=562–563}}</ref> In the east, Greek was the dominant language, a legacy of the [[Hellenistic period]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Rochette|2018|pp=108}}; {{Harvnb|Millar|2006|pp=97–98}}; {{Harvp|Treadgold|1997|pages=5–7}}</ref> Greek was also the language of the Christian Church and trade.<ref>{{Harvnb|Bryce|1901|p=59}}; {{Harvnb|McDonnell|2006|p=77}}; {{Harvnb|Millar|2006|pp=97–98}}; {{Harvnb|Oikonomides|1999|pp=12–13}}.</ref> Most of the emperors were bilingual but had a preference for Latin in the public sphere for political reasons, a practice that first started during the [[Punic Wars]].{{sfnm|Rochette|2023|1pp=263, 268|Rochette|2018|2pp=114–115, 118|Wallace-Hadrill|1998|3pp=80–83}}

Following Diocletian's reforms in the 3rd century CE, there was a decline in the knowledge of Greek in the West, with Latin reasserted as the language of power in the East.{{sfnm|Rochette|2011|1p=560|Rochette|2018|2p=109}} Greek's influence grew however, such as when [[Arcadius]] in 397 allowed judges to issue decisions in Greek, [[Theodosius II]] in 439 expanded its use in legal procedures, 448 the first law, and the 460s when [[Leo I (emperor)|Leo I]] legislated in it.{{sfnm|Kaldellis|2023|1p=191|Rochette|2023|2p=283|Rochette|2011|3p=562}}<ref>{{Cite book |last=Wickham |first=Chris |title=The inheritance of Rome: a history of Europe from 400 to 1000 |date=2009 |page=90|publisher=Viking Penguin |isbn=978-0-670-02098-0 |location=New York}}</ref> [[Justinian I|Justinian I's]] ''[[Corpus Juris Civilis]]'', a compilation of mostly Roman jurists, was written almost entirely in Latin. However, the laws issued after 534, with Justinian's [[Novellae Constitutiones]], were in Greek and Latin which marks when the government switched officially.{{sfnm|Kaldellis|2023|1p=289|Rochette|2011|2p=562|Rochette|2023|3p=283}} Greek for a time became [[Diglossia|diglossic]] with the spoken language, known as [[Koine Greek|Koine]] (later, [[Demotic Greek]]), used alongside an older written form ([[Attic Greek]]) until [[Koine Greek|Koine]] won out as the spoken and written standard.<ref>{{Harvnb|Oikonomides|1999|pp=12–13}}.</ref>

Latin had begun to evolve in the 4th century. It later fragmented into the incipient romance languages in the 8th century CE, following the collapse of the West with the Muslim invasions that broke the connection between speakers.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Pei |first1=Mario |title=The story of Latin and the Romance languages |last2=Gaeng |first2=Paul A. |date=1976 | pages=76–81| publisher=Harper & Row |isbn=978-0-06-013312-2 |location=New York}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Sedlar|1994|pp=403–440}}.</ref> During the reign of Justinian, Latin disappeared in the east though it may have lingered in the military until [[Heraclius]].{{sfnm|Apostolides|1887|1pp=25–26|Rochette|2023|2p=283}}<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Rance |first=Philip |date=2010 |title=The De Militari Scientia or Müller Fragment as a philological resource. Latin in the East Roman army and two new loanwords in Greek: palmarium and *recala |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/41219881 |journal=Glotta |volume=86 |issue=1–4 |pages=63–64 |doi=10.13109/glot.2010.86.14.63 |jstor=41219881 |issn=0017-1298 |access-date=23 December 2023 |archive-date=7 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230407213721/https://www.jstor.org/stable/41219881 |url-status=live }}</ref> Contact with Western Europe in the 10th century revived Latin studies, and by the 11th century, knowledge of Latin was no longer unusual at Constantinople.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Runciman Steven |url=http://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.509885 |title=Byzantine Civilisation |date=1933|page=232}}</ref>

Many other languages are attested in the empire, not just in its cosmopolitan capital but also at its frontiers.{{sfnm|Oikonomides|1999|1p=20|Harris|2014|2p=12]}} They include [[Syriac language|Syriac]], [[Coptic language|Coptic]], [[Slavic languages|Slavonic]], [[Armenian language|Armenian]], [[Georgian language|Georgian]], [[Illyrian language|Illyrian]], [[Thracian language|Thracian]], and [[Celtic languages|Celtic]] who typically were the lower strata of the population and illiterate, the vast majority.{{sfnm|Beaton|1996|1p=10|A.H.M. Jones|1986|2pp=991–997|Versteegh|1977|3p=1|Harris|2014|4p=12}} It was a multi-lingual state, but Greek bound everyone and the forces of assimilation would lead to less diversity of languages over time.{{sfnm|Kaldellis|2007|1p=95|Nicol|1993|2pp=1–2}}

== Government and military ==
{{Multiple image
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| direction = vertical
| image1  = Byzantine Empire Themata-750-en.svg
| width1  = 220
| alt1   = Map of Byzantine Empire showing the themes in circa 750
| caption1 = The ''themes'', {{Circa|750}}
| image2  = Byzantine Empire Themata-950-en.svg
| width2  = 220
| alt2   = Map of Byzantine Empire showing the themes in circa 950
| caption2 = The ''themes'', {{Circa|950}}
}}

=== Central government ===
{{Main|Byzantine bureaucracy and aristocracy}}
Largely based on Emperor [[Diocletian]]'s [[Dominate]] reforms in the late 3rd and early 4th centuries, the [[List of Byzantine emperors|monarch]] was the sole and [[Autocracy|absolute ruler]], and his power was regarded as having divine origin.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Yale Courses |title=08. Survival in the East |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cfXChPJZLZE&pp=ygUfc3Vydml2YWwgb2YgdGhlIGJ5emFudGluZXMgeWFsZQ%3D%3D |website=Youtube |access-date=10 September 2023 |language=en |archive-date=30 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231030060447/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cfXChPJZLZE&pp=ygUfc3Vydml2YWwgb2YgdGhlIGJ5emFudGluZXMgeWFsZQ== |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Mango|2007|pp=259–260}}.</ref> From Justinian I on, the emperor was considered ''[[nomos empsychos]]'', the "living law", both lawgiver and administrator.<ref>{{Harvnb|Nicol|1988|pp=64–65}}.</ref> The [[Byzantine senate|senate]] had ceased to have real political and legislative authority but remained as an honorary council with titular members, resembling an emergency or ceremonial meeting made up of powerful Constantinopolitan aristocrats, very often friends and relatives of the emperor. By the end of the 8th century, a civil administration focused on the court was formed as part of a large-scale consolidation of power in the capital (the rise to pre-eminence of the position of ''[[sakellarios]]'' is related to this change).<ref name="L291">{{Harvnb|Louth|2005|p=291}}; {{Harvnb|Neville|2004|p=7}}.</ref> As a result of the different Orthodox and [[Diadochi|Hellenistic political]] philosophies, from Justinian onwards, an administrative simplification was given way for the emperor's easier management of the state as the sole administrator and lawgiver of the sacred [[Ecumene|Oikoumene]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Davies |first=Brian |date=March 1976 |title=Vladimir Lossky. In the Image and Likeness of God. pp. 232. (St Vladimir's Seminary Press, 1974.) No price given. |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0034412500009094 |journal=Religious Studies |volume=12 |issue=1 |pages=125–128 |doi=10.1017/s0034412500009094 |s2cid=170429521 |issn=0034-4125 |access-date=9 March 2022 |archive-date=31 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220831173933/https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/religious-studies/article/abs/vladimir-lossky-in-the-image-and-likeness-of-god-pp-232-st-vladimirs-seminary-press-1974-no-price-given/16D9DA937D987FBEA2C816A014E9180A |url-status=live }}</ref> Definitive powers began to be attached around single entities who acted as [[viceroy]]s, starting with the [[exarch|''exarchs'']] and their Justinianic-era predecessors ''[[stratelates]]'' who shared the extraordinary powers of the emperor in their respective districts and only answered to him, they also being appointed by the sovereign directly.

The most important administrative reform, which probably started in the mid-7th century, was the creation of [[Theme (Byzantine district)|themes]], where civil and military administration were embodied in a single person, the ''[[strategos]],'' who, as the emperor's viceroy, shared his extraordinary powers in their respective "''thémata''", they too being also appointed by the emperor alone. The void left by the disappearance of the old semi-autonomous civic institutions was filled by the ''theme'' system, which entailed dividing Asia Minor into "provinces" occupied by distinct armies that assumed civil authority and answered directly to the imperial administration. This system may have had its roots in ''ad hoc'' measures taken by Heraclius, but over the course of the 7th century it developed into an entirely new system of imperial governance.<ref>{{Harvnb|Haldon|1990|pp=208–215}}; {{Harvnb|Kaegi|2003|pp=236, 283}}.</ref><ref name="M60">{{Harvnb|Cameron|2009|pp=138–142}}; {{Harvnb|Mango|2007|p=60}}.</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Heather |first1=Peter |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.3828/978-0-85323-106-6 |title=Politics, Philosophy, and Empire in the Fourth Century |last2=Moncur |first2=David |date=2001 |publisher=Liverpool University Press |isbn=978-0-85323-106-6 |location=Liverpool |doi=10.3828/978-0-85323-106-6 |doi-broken-date=31 January 2024 |access-date=31 March 2022 |archive-date=31 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220831173932/https://www.liverpooluniversitypress.co.uk/books/isbn/9781789628531 |url-status=live }}</ref> The massive cultural and institutional restructuring of the empire consequent on the loss of territory in the 7th century has been said to have caused a decisive break in east Mediterranean ''Romanness'', and that the Byzantine state is subsequently best understood as another successor state rather than a real continuation of the Roman Empire.<ref>{{Harvnb|Heather|2005|p=431}}.</ref>

Despite the occasionally derogatory use of the terms "Byzantine" and "[[Byzantinism]]", the Byzantine bureaucracy had a distinct ability of adapting to the empire's changing situations. The elaborate system of titulature and precedence gave the court prestige and influence. Officials were arranged in strict order around the emperor and depended upon the royal will for their ranks. There were also actual administrative jobs, but authority could be vested in individuals rather than offices.<ref name="L34">{{Harvnb|Cameron|2009|pp=157–158}}; {{Harvnb|Neville|2004|p=34}}.</ref>

In the 8th and 9th centuries, civil service constituted the clearest path to aristocratic status. However, beginning from the 9th century, the civil aristocracy was rivaled by an aristocracy of nobility. According to some studies of the Byzantine government, 11th-century politics were dominated by competition between the civil and the military aristocracy. During this period, Alexios I undertook important administrative reforms, including the creation of new courtly dignities and offices.<ref name="L13">{{Harvnb|Neville|2004|p=13}}.</ref>

=== Military ===
{{Main|Byzantine navy|Eastern Roman army|Byzantine army}}
The army started with the same basic organization as the classical Roman army, but between the 5th and 7th centuries, the cavalry became more important, the field armies took on more tasks, and the border armies were transformed into local militias.

Likewise, the navy was a direct continuation of its classical Roman predecessor, but played a far greater role in the defence and survival of the state than its earlier iteration. While the fleets of the Roman Empire faced few great naval threats, operating as a policing force vastly inferior in power and prestige to the army, command of the sea became vital to the very existence of the state, which has led several historians to call it a "maritime empire."

=== Diplomacy ===
{{main|Byzantine diplomacy}}
{{see also|Foreign relations of the Byzantine Empire}}

[[File:John the Grammarian as ambassador before Theophilos and Mamun.jpg|thumb|left|upright=1.15|The embassy of [[Patriarch John VII of Constantinople|John the Grammarian]] in 829, between the emperor [[Theophilos (emperor)|Theophilos]] and the Abbasid caliph [[Al-Ma'mun]] ]]

After the fall of Rome, the key challenge to the empire was maintaining relations with its neighbours. When these nations set about forging formal political institutions, they were often modeled after Constantinople. Byzantine diplomacy managed to draw its neighbours into a network of international and inter-state relations.<ref name="N1">{{Harvnb|Neumann|2006|pp=869–871}}.</ref> This network revolved around treaty-making and included the welcoming of the new ruler into the family of kings and the assimilation of Byzantine social attitudes, values, and institutions.<ref>{{Harvnb|Chrysos|1992|p=35}}.</ref> Whereas classical writers are fond of making ethical and legal distinctions between peace and war, Byzantines regarded diplomacy as a form of war by other means. For example, a Bulgarian threat could be countered by providing money to the Kievan Rus'.<ref name="Ant">{{Harvnb|Antonucci|1993|pp=11–13}}.</ref>

[[File:Sketch of Emperor John VIII Palaeologus.jpeg|thumb|upright=0.8|Italian sketch of Emperor [[John VIII Palaiologos|John VIII]] during his visit in [[Ferrara]] and [[Florence]] in 1438]]

Diplomacy was understood to have an intelligence-gathering function on top of its pure political function. The [[Bureau of Barbarians]] in Constantinople handled matters of protocol and record-keeping for any issues related to the "[[barbarian]]s", and thus had, perhaps, a basic intelligence function itself.<ref>{{Harvnb|Antonucci|1993|pp=11–13}}; {{Harvnb|Seeck|1876|pp=31–33}}</ref> [[J. B. Bury|John B. Bury]] believes that the office exercised supervision over all foreigners visiting Constantinople, and that they were under the supervision of the [[Logothetes tou dromou]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Bury|Philotheus|1911|p=93}}.</ref> While on the surface a protocol office—its main duty was to ensure foreign envoys were properly cared for and received sufficient state funds for their maintenance, and it kept all the official translators—it probably had a security function as well.<ref>{{Harvnb|Dennis|1985|p=125}}.</ref>

Byzantines availed themselves of several diplomatic practices. For example, embassies to the capital often stayed on for years. A member of other royal houses would routinely be requested to stay on in Constantinople as a potential hostage as well as a useful pawn in case political conditions changed. Another key practice was to overwhelm visitors by sumptuous displays.<ref name="N1" /> According to [[Dimitri Obolensky]], the preservation of the ancient civilisation in Europe could be accredited to the skill and resourcefulness of Byzantine diplomacy, which remains one of Byzantium's lasting contributions to the history of Europe.<ref name="O3">{{Harvnb|Obolensky|1994|p=3}}.</ref>

=== Law ===
{{Main|Byzantine law}}
In 438, the ''[[Codex Theodosianus]]'', named after Theodosius II, codified Byzantine law. It went into force in the Eastern Roman/Byzantine Empire as well as in the Western Roman Empire. It summarised the laws and gave direction on interpretation. In 529, Justinian appointed a commission to revise and codify the law into the "{{Lang|la|[[Corpus Juris Civilis]]}}", or the Justinian Code. In 534, the ''Corpus'' was updated and, along with the [[Novellae Constitutiones|enactments promulgated by Justinian after 534]], formed the system of law used for most of the rest of the Byzantine era.<ref>{{Harvnb|Gregory|2010|p=150}}.</ref> The ''Corpus'' forms the basis of [[civil law (legal system)|civil law]] of many modern states.<ref>{{Harvnb|Merryman|Perez-Perdomo|2007|p=7}}</ref> It was [[Tribonian]], a notable jurist, who supervised the {{Lang|la|[[Corpus Juris Civilis]]}}. Justinian's reforms had a clear effect on the evolution of [[jurisprudence]], with his ''Corpus'' becoming the basis for [[medieval Roman law|revived Roman law]] in the Western world, while Leo III's ''Ecloga'' influenced the formation of legal institutions in the Slavic world.<ref>{{Harvnb|Troianos|Velissaropoulou-Karakosta|1997|p=340}}</ref>

In the 10th century, Leo VI achieved the complete [[Basilika|codification of Byzantine law]] in Greek. This monumental work of 60 volumes became the foundation of all subsequent Byzantine law and is still studied today.<ref name="Browning-1992-97-98">{{Harvnb|Browning|1992|pp=97–98}}.</ref> Leo also reformed the administration of the empire, redrawing the borders of the administrative subdivisions (the ''[[Theme (Byzantine district)|themata]]'', or "themes") and tidying up the system of ranks and privileges, as well as regulating the behaviour of the various trade guilds in Constantinople. Leo's reform did much to reduce the previous fragmentation of the empire, which henceforth had one centre of power, Constantinople.<ref name="Browning-1992-98-99">{{Harvnb|Browning|1992|pp=98–99}}.</ref> The increasing military success of the empire greatly enriched and gave the provincial nobility more power over the peasantry, who were essentially reduced to a state of serfdom.<ref name="Browning-1992-98-109">{{Harvnb|Browning|1992|pp=98–109}}.</ref>

=== Flags and insignia ===
{{Main|Byzantine flags and insignia}}
[[File:Byzantine Palaiologos Eagle.svg|thumb|[[Double-headed eagle|The double-headed eagle]], a common Imperial symbol]]

For most of its history, the Byzantine Empire did not know or use [[heraldry]] in the West European sense. Various emblems ({{Lang-el|σημεία}}, ''sēmeia''; sing. σημείον, ''sēmeion'') were used in official occasions and for military purposes, such as banners or shields displaying various motifs such as the [[cross]] or the ''[[labarum]]''. The use of the cross and images of [[Jesus|Christ]], the [[Mary, mother of Jesus|Virgin Mary]] and various saints is also [[sigillography|attested on seals]] of officials, but these were personal rather than family emblems.{{Sfn|Kazhdan|1991|pp=472, 999}}

== Economy ==
{{main|Byzantine economy}}
{{Further|Byzantine silk|Sino-Roman relations}}
[[File:Gold coin of Justinian I 527CE 565CE excavated in India probably in the south.jpg|thumb|upright|Golden Solidus of [[Justinian I]] (527–565) excavated in India probably in the south, an example of [[Indo-Roman trade]] during the period]]

The Byzantine economy was among the most advanced in Europe and the Mediterranean for many centuries. Europe, in particular, could not match Byzantine economic strength until late in the Middle Ages. Constantinople operated as a prime hub in a trading network that at various times extended across nearly all of [[Eurasia]] and [[North Africa]], in particular as the primary western terminus of the famous [[Silk Road]]. Until the first half of the 6th century and in sharp contrast with the decaying West, the Byzantine economy was flourishing and resilient.<ref>{{Harvnb|Laiou|Morisson|2007|pp=1, 23–38}}.</ref>

The [[Plague of Justinian]] and the Arab conquests represented a substantial reversal of fortunes contributing to a period of stagnation and decline. Isaurian reforms and Constantine V's repopulation, public works and tax measures marked the beginning of a revival that continued until 1204, despite territorial contraction.<ref>{{Harvnb|Laiou|Morisson|2007|pp=3, 45, 49–50, 231}}; {{Harvnb|Magdalino|2002b|p=532}}.</ref> From the 10th century until the end of the 12th, the Byzantine Empire projected an image of luxury and travellers were impressed by the wealth accumulated in the capital.<ref name="M532">{{Harvnb|Laiou|Morisson|2007|pp=90–91, 127, 166–169, 203–204}}; {{Harvnb|Magdalino|2002b|p=535}}.</ref>

The Fourth Crusade resulted in the disruption of Byzantine manufacturing and the commercial dominance of the Western Europeans in the [[eastern Mediterranean]], events that amounted to an economic catastrophe for the empire.<ref name="M532" /> The [[Palaiologos|Palaiologoi]] tried to revive the economy, but the late Byzantine state did not gain full control of either the foreign or domestic economic forces. Gradually, Constantinople also lost its influence on the modalities of trade and the price mechanisms, and its control over the outflow of precious metals and, according to some scholars, even over the minting of coins.<ref name="M806">{{Harvnb|Matschke|2002|pp=805–806}}.</ref>

=== Governmental intervention in the economy ===
The government attempted to exercise formal control over interest rates and set the parameters for the activity of the [[guild]]s and [[corporation]]s, in which it had a special interest. The emperor and his officials intervened at times of crisis to ensure the provisioning of the capital, and to keep down the price of cereals. Finally, the government often collected part of the surplus through taxation, and put it back into circulation, through redistribution in the form of salaries to state officials, or in the form of investment in public works.<ref name="L3-4" />

=== Trade ===
One of the economic foundations of Byzantium was trade, fostered by the maritime character of the empire. Textiles must have been by far the most important item of export; [[silk]]s were certainly imported into Egypt and appeared also in Bulgaria, and the West.<ref name="L723">{{Harvnb|Laiou|2002b|p=723}}; {{Harvnb|Laiou|Morisson|2007|p=13}}.</ref> The state strictly controlled internal and international trade, and retained the monopoly of issuing [[Byzantine coinage|coinage]], maintaining a durable and flexible monetary system adaptable to trade needs.<ref name="L3-4">{{Harvnb|Laiou|2002a|pp=3–4}}; {{Harvnb|Laiou|Morisson|2007|p=18}}.</ref>

==Architecture==
{{main|Byzantine architecture}}
{{See also|Byzantine dress}}
{{multiple image
| perrow = 2
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| align =
| image1 = Hagia Sophia in Istanbul (focused on the original Roman building).jpg
| image2 = Istanbul Oct 2019 12 20 46 794000.jpeg
| image3 = Deesis mosaic Hagia Sophia.jpg
| image4 = Hagia Sophia Southwestern entrance mosaics 2.jpg
| footer = The [[Hagia Sophia]] ([[Istanbul]], Turkey), 537, by [[Anthemius of Tralles]] and [[Isidore of Miletus]]
}}

Influences from [[Byzantine architecture]], particularly in religious buildings, can be found in diverse regions from Egypt and Arabia to [[Neo-Byzantine architecture in the Russian Empire|Russia]] and Romania. Byzantine architecture is known for the use of [[dome]]s, and [[pendentive]] architecture was invented in the Byzantine Empire. In contrast to the [[basilica]] plans favored in medieval Western European churches, Byzantine churches usually had more centralized ground plans, such as the [[cross-in-square]] plan deployed in many Middle Byzantine churches.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ousterhout |first=Robert |url=https://pressbooks.pub/smarthistoryguidetobyzantineart/chapter/middle-byzantine-church-architecture/ |title=A Smarthistory Guide to Byzantine Art |date=2021 |editor-last=Freeman |editor-first=Evan |chapter=Middle Byzantine Church Architecture |access-date=30 December 2023 |archive-date=29 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231229225223/https://pressbooks.pub/smarthistoryguidetobyzantineart/chapter/middle-byzantine-church-architecture/ |url-status=live }}</ref>  It also often featured marble columns, [[coffer]]ed ceilings and sumptuous decoration, including the extensive use of [[mosaic]]s with golden backgrounds.  Byzantine architects used marble mostly as interior cladding, in contrast to the structural roles it had for the Ancient Greeks. They used mostly stone and brick, and also thin [[alabaster]] sheets for windows. Mosaics were used to cover brick walls, and any other surface where fresco would not resist. Good examples of mosaics from the proto-Byzantine era are in [[Hagios Demetrios]] in [[Thessaloniki]] (Greece), the [[Basilica of Sant'Apollinare Nuovo]] and the [[Basilica of San Vitale]], both in Ravenna (Italy), and Hagia Sophia in [[Istanbul]]. Christian liturgies were held in the interior of the churches, the exterior usually having little to no ornamentation.<ref>{{cite book|last1=George D. Hurmuziadis|title=Cultura Greciei|date=1979|publisher=Editura științifică și enciclopedică|pages=92 & 93|language=ro}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Hopkins|first1=Owen|title=Architectural Styles A Visual Guide|date=2014|publisher=Laurence King|isbn=978-1-78067-163-5|page=17|url=|language=en}}</ref>

<gallery widths="150px" heights="150px">
"The good Shepherd" mosaic - Mausoleum of Galla Placidia.jpg|Christ as the [[Good Shepherd]]; {{circa}} 425–430; mosaic; width: {{circa}} 3 m; [[Mausoleum of Galla Placidia]] ([[Ravenna]], Italy)<ref>{{cite book |last1=Fortenberry|first1=Diane|title=The Art Museum |date=2017|publisher=Phaidon|isbn=978-0-7148-7502-6|page=108|language=en}}</ref>

KHM Wien Kaiserin Ariadne X 39.jpg|Diptych Leaf with a Byzantine Empress; 6th century; ivory with traces of gilding and leaf; height: {{cvt|26.5|cm}}; [[Kunsthistorisches Museum]] ([[Vienna]], Austria)<ref>{{cite book |last1=Fortenberry|first1=Diane|title=The Art Museum |date=2017|publisher=Phaidon|isbn=978-0-7148-7502-6|page=114|language=en}}</ref>

Officina costantinopolitana, tesoro di asyut (egitto), V-VI sec ca. 01 collier.JPG|Collier; late 6th–7th century; gold, an [[emerald]], a [[sapphire]], [[amethyst]]s and [[pearl]]s; diameter: {{cvt|23|cm}}; from a [[Constantinopol]]itan workshop; [[Antikensammlung Berlin]] ([[Berlin]], Germany)<ref>{{cite book |last1=Fortenberry|first1=Diane|title=The Art Museum |date=2017|publisher=Phaidon|isbn=978-0-7148-7502-6|page=115|language=en}}</ref>
</gallery>

==Daily life==
=== Cuisine ===
{{Main|Byzantine cuisine}}

Byzantine culture was initially the same as Late Greco-Roman, but over the following millennium of the empire's existence it slowly changed into something more similar to modern Balkan and Anatolian culture. The cuisine still relied heavily on the Greco-Roman fish-sauce condiment [[garum|garos]], but it also contained foods still familiar today, such as the cured meat [[pastirma]] (known as "paston" in Byzantine Greek),<ref>{{Harvnb|Ash|1995|p=224: "Having inherited pastirma from the Byzantines, the Turks took it with them when they conquered Hungary and Romania."}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Davidson|2014|loc="Byzantine cookery", pp. 123–124: "This is certainly true of Byzantine cuisine. Dried meat, a forerunner of the ''pastirma'' of modern Turkey, became a delicacy."}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Dalby|Bourbou|Koder|Leontsinē|2013|p=81: "''paston'' or ''tarichon''... Cured meats were either eaten raw or cooked in ''pasto-mageireia'' with bulgur and greens, mainly cabbage."}}</ref> [[baklava]] (known as [[Placenta cake|koptoplakous]] κοπτοπλακοῦς),<ref>{{Harvnb|Ash|1995|p=223}}; {{Harvnb|Faas|2005|p=184}}; {{Harvnb|Vryonis|1971|p=482}}.</ref> [[tiropita]] (known as plakountas tetyromenous or tyritas plakountas),<ref>{{Harvnb|Faas|2005|pp=184–185}}; {{Harvnb|Vryonis|1971|p=482}}; {{Harvnb|Salaman|1986|p=184}}.</ref> and the famed medieval sweet wines ([[Malvasia]] from [[Monemvasia]], [[Commandaria]] and the eponymous [[Rumney wine]]). [[Retsina]], wine flavoured with pine resin, was also drunk, as it still is in Greece today, producing similar reactions from unfamiliar visitors; "To add to our calamity the Greek wine, on account of being mixed with pitch, resin, and plaster was to us undrinkable", complained [[Liutprand of Cremona]], who was the ambassador sent to Constantinople in 968 by the German Holy Roman Emperor [[Otto I]].<ref name="Fordham">{{Cite web |last=Halsall |first=Paul |date=January 1996 |title=Medieval Sourcebook: Liutprand of Cremona: Report of his Mission to Constantinople |url=http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/liudprand1.asp |access-date=25 June 2016 |website=Internet History Sourcebooks Project |publisher=Fordham University |archive-date=17 October 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141017151834/http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/liudprand1.asp |url-status=dead }}</ref> The garos fish sauce condiment was also not much appreciated by the unaccustomed; Liutprand of Cremona described being served food covered in an "exceedingly bad fish liquor."<ref name="Fordham" /> The Byzantines also used a soy sauce-like condiment, [[murri (condiment)|murri]], a fermented barley sauce, which, like soy sauce, provided [[umami]] flavouring to their dishes.<ref>{{Harvnb|Jayyusi|Marín|1994|p=729}}.</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Perry |first=Charles |date=31 October 2001 |title=The Soy Sauce That Wasn't |url=http://articles.latimes.com/2001/oct/31/food/fo-63688 |access-date=25 June 2016 |website=Los Angeles Times |archive-date=27 May 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160527001857/http://articles.latimes.com/2001/oct/31/food/fo-63688 |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== Recreation ===
[[File:Tabula - boardgame - Zeno game.svg|thumb|A game of [[tabula (game)|τάβλι (tabula)]] played by [[Byzantine]] emperor [[Zeno (emperor)|Zeno]] in 480 and recorded by [[Agathias]] in {{Circa|530}} because of a very unlucky dice throw for Zeno (red), as he threw 2, 5 and 6 and was forced to leave eight pieces alone.<ref name="Austin">{{Harvnb|Austin|1934|pp=202–205}}.</ref>]]

Byzantines were avid players of [[tabula (game)|tavli]] ([[Byzantine Greek]]: τάβλη), a game known in English as [[backgammon]], which is still popular in former Byzantine realms and still known by the name tavli in Greece.<ref name=Austin/> Byzantine nobles were devoted to horsemanship, particularly [[Tzykanisterion|tzykanion]], now known as [[polo]]. The game came from Sassanid Persia, and a Tzykanisterion (stadium for playing the game) was built by Theodosius II inside the [[Great Palace of Constantinople]]. Emperor Basil I excelled at it; Emperor Alexander died from exhaustion while playing, Emperor Alexios I Komnenos was injured while playing with [[Tatikios]], and John I of Trebizond died from a fatal injury during a game.<ref>{{Harvnb|Kazhdan|1991}}.</ref><ref>[[Anna Komnene]],''The Alexiad'', [[s:The Alexiad/Book XIV#Chapter IV|Book XIV, Chapter IV]], translator Elizabeth Dawes</ref> Aside from Constantinople and Trebizond, other Byzantine cities also featured ''tzykanisteria'', most notably [[Sparta]], [[Ephesus]], and [[Athens]], an indication of a thriving urban aristocracy.<ref>{{Harvnb|Kazanaki-Lappa|2002|p=643}}.</ref> The game was introduced to the West by crusaders, who developed a taste for it particularly during the pro-Western reign of Emperor Manuel I Komnenos. Chariot races were popular and held at hippodromes across the empire. There were initially four major factions in chariot racing, differentiated by the colour of the uniform in which they competed; the colours were also [[Byzantine dress|worn]] by their supporters. These were the Blues (''Veneti''), the Greens (''Prasini''), the Reds (''Russati''), and the Whites (''Albati''), although by the Byzantine era the only teams with any influence were the Blues and Greens. Emperor Justinian I was a supporter of the Blues.

=== Clothing ===
{{Main|Byzantine dress}}
In the early period the traditional Roman toga was still used as formal or official dress.  By Justinian's reign, this had been replaced by the tunica, or long chiton, for all people, over which the upper classes wore other garments, like a dalmatica (dalmatic), a heavier and shorter type of tunica. Colour and pattern were heavily employed, and there was production of richly patterned cloth, especially [[Byzantine silk]], woven and embroidered for the upper classes, and resist-dyed and printed for the lower segments of society.

== Arts ==
{{main|Byzantine art}}
{{Byzantine culture}}
Surviving [[Byzantine art]] is mostly religious and with exceptions at certain periods is highly conventionalised, following traditional models that translate carefully controlled church theology into artistic terms. Painting in [[fresco]], [[illuminated manuscript]]s and on wood panel and, especially in earlier periods, mosaic were the main media, and figurative [[sculpture]] very rare except for small [[ivory carving|carved ivories]]. Manuscript painting preserved to the end some of the classical realist tradition that was missing in larger works.<ref>{{Harvnb|Rice|1968}}; {{Harvnb|Weitzmann|1982}}.</ref> Byzantine art was highly prestigious and sought-after in Western Europe, where it maintained a continuous influence on [[medieval art]] until near the end of the period. This was especially so in Italy, where Byzantine styles persisted in modified form through the 12th century, and became formative influences on [[Italian Renaissance]] art. But few incoming influences affected the Byzantine style. With the expansion of the Eastern Orthodox Church, Byzantine forms and styles spread throughout the Orthodox world and beyond.<ref>{{Harvnb|Rice|1968|loc=Chapters 15–17}}; {{Harvnb|Weitzmann|1982|loc=Chapters 2–7}}; {{Harvnb|Evans|2004|pp=389–555}}.</ref>

=== Literature ===
{{See also|Byzantine literature}}
In [[Byzantine literature]], three different cultural elements are recognised: the [[Greek literature|Greek]], the Christian, and the [[Ancient Near East|Oriental]]. Byzantine literature is often classified in five groups: historians and annalists; encyclopaedists ([[Photios I of Constantinople|Patriarch Photios]], [[Michael Psellos|Michael Psellus]], and [[Michael Choniates]] are regarded as the greatest encyclopaedists of Byzantium) and essayists; writers of secular poetry (the only genuine heroic epic of the Byzantines is the ''[[Digenes Akritas|Digenis Acritas]]);'' ecclesiastical and theological literature; and popular poetry.<ref name="Mango275–276">{{Harvnb|Mango|2007|pp=275–276}}.</ref> Of the 2,000 to 3,000 volumes of Byzantine literature that survive, only 330 consist of secular poetry, history, science and pseudo-science.<ref name="Mango275–276" /> While the most flourishing period of the secular literature of Byzantium runs from the 9th to the 12th century, its religious literature ([[sermon]]s, [[liturgical book]]s and poetry, theology, devotional treatises, etc.) developed much earlier with [[Romanos the Melodist]] being its most prominent representative.<ref name="CLi">{{Cite encyclopedia |title=Byzantine Literature |encyclopedia=Catholic Encyclopedia |url=http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/03113a.htm |access-date=6 June 2007 |archive-date=19 February 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110219014014/http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/03113a.htm |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== Music ===
{{See also|Byzantine music|List of Byzantine composers}}
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| caption = Late 4th century "Mosaic of the Musicians" with [[pipe organ|organ]], [[aulos]], and [[lyre]] from a Byzantine villa in [[Maryamin, Hama|Maryamin]], [[Syria]]<ref name="Ring">{{Cite book |last=Ring |first=Trudy |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=R44VRnNCzAYC |title=International Dictionary of Historic Places: Middle East and Africa |publisher=Taylor & Francis |date=1994 |isbn=978-1-884964-03-9 |volume=4 |page=318 |access-date=23 October 2016 |archive-date=9 June 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190609091417/https://books.google.com/books?id=R44VRnNCzAYC |url-status=live }}</ref>
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The ecclesiastical forms of [[Byzantine music]]—composed to Greek texts as ceremonial, festival, or church music<ref>The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, 6th ed. 2007 – "Byzantine music"</ref>—are today the most well-known forms. Ecclesiastical chants were a fundamental part of this genre. Greek and foreign historians agree that the ecclesiastical tones and in general the whole system of Byzantine music is closely related to the [[Music of ancient Greece|ancient Greek system]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.ec-patr.net/en/psaltai/index.htm |last=Ecumenical Patriarchate |title=Byzantine Music |access-date=23 November 2014 |archive-date=16 April 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160416204900/http://www.ec-patr.net/en/psaltai/index.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> It remains the oldest genre of extant music, of which the manner of performance and (with increasing accuracy from the 5th century onwards) the names of the composers, and sometimes the particulars of each musical work's circumstances, are known.

[[File:Byzantine Lyra Museo Nazionale.jpg|thumb|upright|200px|Earliest known depiction of a [[Byzantine lyra|bowed lyra]], from a Byzantine ivory casket (900–1100) (''Museo Nazionale, Florence'')]]

The 9th-century Persian geographer [[Ibn Khordadbeh]], in his lexicographical discussion of instruments, cited the [[Byzantine lyra|lyra]] (lūrā) as the typical instrument of the Byzantines along with the ''urghun'' (organ), ''shilyani'' (probably a type of [[harp]] or [[lyre]]) and the ''salandj'' (probably a [[Bagpipes|bagpipe]]).<ref name="Kartomi124">{{Harvnb|Kartomi|1990|p=124}}.</ref> The first of these, the early bowed stringed instrument known as the Byzantine lyra, came to be called the ''[[lira da braccio]]'',<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |date=2009 |title=lira |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]] |url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/343204/lira |access-date=2 June 2022 |archive-date=1 August 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090801000612/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/343204/lira |url-status=live }}</ref> in Venice, where it is considered by many to have been the predecessor of the contemporary violin, which later flourished there.<ref name="Arkenberg109">{{Cite web |last=Arkenberg |first=Rebecca |date=October 2002 |title=Renaissance Violins |url=http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/renv/hd_renv.htm |access-date=22 September 2006 |publisher=[[Metropolitan Museum of Art]] |archive-date=7 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210307212424/http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/renv/hd_renv.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> The bowed "lyra" is still played in former Byzantine regions, where it is known as the [[Classical kemençe|Politiki lyra]] ({{Literal translation|lyra of the City}}, i.e. Constantinople) in Greece, the [[Calabrian lira]] in southern Italy, and the [[lijerica]] in Dalmatia. The [[water organ]] originated in the Hellenistic world and was used in the [[Hippodrome]] during races.<ref>Journal of Sport History, Vol. 8, No. 3 (Winter, 1981) [http://rbedrosian.com/Byz/Byz_Sports.pdf p. 44] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170622090211/http://rbedrosian.com/Byz/Byz_Sports.pdf |date=22 June 2017 }}.</ref><ref name="Bush-Kassel-327">Douglas Earl Bush, Richard Kassel editors, ''The Organ: An Encyclopedia'' Routledge. 2006. {{ISBN|978-0-415-94174-7}}. [https://books.google.com/books?id=cgDJaeFFUPoC&pg=PA327 p. 327] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160530120840/https://books.google.com/books?id=cgDJaeFFUPoC&pg=PA327 |date=30 May 2016 }}</ref> A [[pipe organ]] with "great leaden pipes" was sent by Emperor Constantine V to [[Pepin the Short]], [[List of Frankish kings#Later Kings of the Franks (679–751)|King of the Franks]] in 757. Pepin's son [[Charlemagne]] requested a similar organ for his chapel in [[Aachen]] in 812, beginning its establishment in Western church music.<ref name=Bush-Kassel-327/> The [[aulos]] was a double-reeded woodwind like the modern [[oboe]] or Armenian [[duduk]]. Other forms include the ''plagiaulos'' (''πλαγίαυλος'', from ''πλάγιος'' "sideways"), which resembled the [[flute]],<ref name="Howard">{{Cite journal |last=Howard |first=Albert A. |date=1893 |title=The Αὐλός or Tibia |journal=Harvard Studies in Classical Philology |volume=4 |pages=1–60 |doi=10.2307/310399 |jstor=310399}}<!-- | access-date = 16 August 2006 --></ref> and the ''askaulos'' (ἀσκός ''askos'' – [[wineskin]]), a bagpipe.<ref name="google15">{{Cite book |last=Flood |first=William Henry Grattan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DOfuAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA15 |title=The story of the bagpipe |publisher=Рипол Классик |isbn=978-1-176-34422-8 |access-date=23 October 2016 |archive-date=26 February 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170226140149/https://books.google.com/books?id=DOfuAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA15 |url-status=live }}</ref> Bagpipes, also known as ''[[dankiyo]]'' (from ancient Greek: angion (Τὸ ἀγγεῖον) "the container"), had been played even in Roman times and continued to be played throughout the empire's former realms through to the present. (See Balkan [[Gaida]], Greek [[Tsampouna]], [[Pontic Greek|Pontic]] [[Tulum (bagpipe)|Tulum]], Cretan [[Askomandoura]], Armenian [[Parkapzuk]], and Romanian [[Cimpoi]].) The modern descendant of the aulos is the Greek [[Zurna|Zourna]]. Other instruments used in Byzantine music were the [[Qanun (instrument)|Kanonaki]], [[Oud]], [[Laouto]], [[Santouri]], [[Tambouras]], Seistron (defi tambourine), [[Toubeleki]], and Daouli. Some claim that the [[Lavta]] may have been invented by the Byzantines before the arrival of the Turks.{{Citation needed|date=May 2021}}

===12th-century renaissance===
{{Further|Byzantine civilisation in the 12th century}}
{{See also|Byzantine army (Komnenian era)}}
[[File:Meister von Nerezi 001.jpg|thumb|upright=1.16|''The Lamentation of Christ'' (1164), a fresco from the [[Church of St. Panteleimon (Nerezi)|church of Saint Panteleimon]] in [[Nerezi]], [[North Macedonia]], considered a superb example of 12th-century [[Comnenus|Komnenian]] art]]

During the 12th century, there was a revival in [[mosaic]], and regional schools of architecture began producing many distinctive styles that drew on a range of cultural influences.<ref name="Diehl">{{Harvnb|Diehl|1948}}.</ref> In this period, the Byzantines provided their model of early [[Renaissance humanism|humanism]] as a renaissance of interest in classical authors. In [[Eustathius of Thessalonica]], Byzantine humanism found its most characteristic expression.<ref name="TM">{{Harvnb|Tatakes|Moutafakis|2003|p=110}}.</ref> In philosophy, there was a resurgence of classical learning not seen since the 7th century, characterised by a significant increase in the publication of commentaries on classical works.<ref name="Browning-1992-190-218">{{Harvnb|Browning|1992|pp=198–208}}.</ref> Besides, the first transmission of classical Greek knowledge to the West occurred during the Komnenian period.<ref name="Browning-1992-218">{{Harvnb|Browning|1992|p=218}}.</ref> In terms of prosperity and cultural life, the Komnenian period was one of the peaks in Byzantine history,<ref>{{Harvnb|Cameron|2006|p=42}}.</ref> and Constantinople remained the leading city of the Christian world in size, wealth, and culture.<ref>{{Harvnb|Cameron|2006|p=47}}.</ref> There was a renewed interest in [[Ancient Greek philosophy|classical Greek philosophy]], as well as an increase in literary output in vernacular Greek.<ref name="Browning-1992-190-218" /> Byzantine art and literature held a pre-eminent place in Europe, and the cultural impact of Byzantine art on the West during this period was enormous and of long-lasting significance.<ref name="Browning-1992-218" />

== Science and medicine ==
{{Main|Byzantine science}}
{{See also|Byzantine medicine|4=List of Byzantine inventions|Byzantine philosophy}}
[[File:20131203 Istanbul 048.jpg|thumb|upright=1.15|Interior of the [[Hagia Sophia]], the patriarchal [[basilica]] in Constantinople designed 537 by [[Isidore of Miletus]], the first compiler of Archimedes' various works. The influence of Archimedes' principles of solid geometry is evident.]]
[[Byzantine science]] played an important and crucial role in the [[Greek contributions to the Islamic world|transmission of classical knowledge]] to the [[Muslim world|Islamic world]] and to [[Italian Renaissance|Renaissance Italy]].<ref>{{cite web|author=George Saliba|author-link=George Saliba|title=Islamic Science and the Making of Renaissance Europe|website=[[Library of Congress]]|date=27 April 2006|url=https://www.loc.gov/today/cyberlc/feature_wdesc.php?rec=3883|access-date=1 March 2008|archive-date=29 June 2006|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060629204411/https://www.loc.gov/today/cyberlc/feature_wdesc.php?rec=3883|url-status=live}}</ref>{{sfn|Robins|1993|p=8}} Many of the most distinguished classical scholars held high office in the [[Eastern Orthodox Church]].<ref>The faculty was composed exclusively of philosophers, scientists, rhetoricians, and [[philology|philologists]]; {{cite book | last=Tatakes |first=Vasileios N. |author2=Moutafakis, Nicholas J. | title=Byzantine Philosophy | year=2003 | publisher=Hackett Publishing|isbn=978-0-87220-563-5|page=189}}</ref>

The [[University of Constantinople|Imperial University of Constantinople]], sometimes known as the ''University of the Palace Hall of Magnaura'' ({{lang-el|Πανδιδακτήριον τῆς Μαγναύρας}}), was an [[Eastern Roman Empire|Eastern Roman]] educational institution that could trace its corporate origins to AD 425, when Emperor Theodosius II founded the ''Pandidakterion'' ({{lang-grc-x-byzant|Πανδιδακτήριον}}).<ref>"The Formation of the Hellenic Christian Mind" by [[Demetrios Constantelos]], {{ISBN|978-0-89241-588-5}}: "The fifth century marked a definite turning point in Byzantine higher education. Theodosios ΙΙ founded in 425 a major university with 31 chairs for law, philosophy, medicine, arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, music, rhetoric and other subjects. Fifteen chairs were assigned to Latin and 16 to Greek. The university was reorganized by Michael III (842–867) and flourished down to the fourteenth century".</ref> The Pandidakterion was refounded in 1046<ref>John H. Rosser, ''Historical Dictionary of Byzantium'', Scarecrow Press, 2001, p. xxx.</ref> by [[Constantine IX Monomachos]] who created the Departments of Law (Διδασκαλεῖον τῶν Νόμων) and Philosophy (Γυμνάσιον).<ref>Aleksandr Petrovich Kazhdan, Annabel Jane Wharton, ''Change in Byzantine Culture in the Eleventh and Twelfth Centuries'', University of California Press, 1985, p. 122.</ref> At the time various economic schools, colleges, polytechnics, libraries and fine arts academies also operated in the city of Constantinople. And a few scholars have gone so far as to call the Pandidakterion the first "university" in the world.<ref name="Loukaki 1997, 1553">Marina Loukaki: "Université. Domaine byzantin", in: ''[[Dictionnaire encyclopédique du Moyen Âge]]'', Vol. 2, Éditions du Cerf, Paris, 1997, {{ISBN|978-2-204-05866-7}}, p.&nbsp;1553: {{blockquote|Le nom "université" désigne au Moyen Âge occidental une organisation corporative des élèves et des maîtres, avec ses fonctions et privilèges, qui cultive un ensemble d'études supérieures. L'existence d'une telle institution est fort contestée pour Byzance. Seule l'école de Constantinople sous Théodose Il peut être prise pour une institution universitaire. Par la loi de 425, l'empereur a établi l'"université de Constantinople", avec 31 professeurs rémunérés par l'État qui jouissaient du monopole des cours publics.}}</ref>

The writings of [[classical antiquity]] were cultivated and preserved in Byzantium. Therefore, Byzantine science was in every period closely connected with [[ancient philosophy]], and [[metaphysics]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Anastos|1962|p=409}}.</ref> In the field of engineering [[Isidore of Miletus]], the Greek mathematician and architect of the Hagia Sophia, produced the first compilation of [[Archimedes]]' works {{Circa|530}}, and it is through this manuscript tradition, kept alive by the school of mathematics and engineering founded {{Circa|850}} during the "Byzantine Renaissance" by [[Leo the Mathematician]], that such works are known today (see [[Archimedes Palimpsest]]).<ref>Alexander Jones, [https://www.ams.org/notices/200505/rev-jones.pdf "Book Review, Archimedes Manuscript"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220302190047/https://www.ams.org/notices/200505/rev-jones.pdf |date=2 March 2022 }} American Mathematical Society, May 2005.</ref>

Alexandrian philosopher [[John Philoponus]] was the first to question [[Aristotelian physics]]. Unlike Aristotle, who based his physics on verbal argument, Philoponus relied on observation. Philoponus' criticism of Aristotelian principles of physics was an inspiration for [[Galileo Galilei]]'s refutation of Aristotelian physics during the [[Scientific Revolution]] many centuries later, as Galileo cites Philoponus substantially in his works.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Wildberg |first=Christian |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2016/entries/philoponus/ |title=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |date= 2018 |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |editor-last=Zalta |editor-first=Edward N. |via=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |access-date=8 March 2018 |archive-date=22 August 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190822110331/https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2016/entries/philoponus/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="lindberg162">Lindberg, David. (1992) ''The Beginnings of Western Science''. University of Chicago Press. p.&nbsp;162.</ref>

The Byzantines pioneered the concept of the hospital as an institution offering medical care and the possibility of a cure for the patients, as a reflection of the ideals of Christian charity, rather than merely a place to die.<ref>Lindberg, David. (1992) ''The Beginnings of Western Science''. University of Chicago Press. p. 349.{{ISBN?}}</ref>

[[File:Liquid fire granades Chania.jpg|thumb|upright|left|Ceramic grenades that were filled with Greek fire, surrounded by [[caltrop]]s, 10th–12th century, [[National Historical Museum (Greece)|National Historical Museum]], Athens, Greece]] Greek fire, an incendiary weapon which could even burn on water, is attributed to the Byzantines. It played a crucial role in the empire's victory over the Umayyad Caliphate during the siege of Constantinople (717–718).<ref>{{Cite web |title=Greek fire &#124; weaponry |url=https://www.britannica.com/technology/Greek-fire |website=Encyclopedia Britannica |access-date=1 March 2018 |archive-date=10 March 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180310022524/https://www.britannica.com/technology/Greek-fire |url-status=live }}</ref> The discovery is attributed to [[Callinicus of Heliopolis]] from Syria who fled during the Arab conquest of Syria. However, it has also been argued that no single person invented Greek fire, but rather, that it was "invented by the chemists in Constantinople who had inherited the discoveries of the Alexandrian chemical school...".<ref name="auto">Partington, J.R. (1999). "A History of Greek Fire and Gunpowder". The Johns Hopkins University Press. p.&nbsp;13.</ref>

In the final century of the empire, [[astronomy]] and other [[mathematics|mathematical sciences]] were taught in Trebizond; medicine attracted the interest of almost all scholars.<ref name="TM189">{{Harvnb|Tatakes|Moutafakis|2003|p=189}}.</ref> The Fall of Constantinople in 1453 fuelled the era later commonly known as the "[[Italian Renaissance]]". During this period, [[Greek scholars in the Renaissance|refugee Byzantine scholars]] were principally responsible for carrying, in person and writing, ancient Greek grammatical, literary studies, mathematical, and astronomical knowledge to early Renaissance Italy.<ref>{{Harvnb|Robins|1993|p=8}}.</ref> They also brought with them classical learning and texts on botany, medicine and zoology, as well as the works of Dioscorides and John Philoponus' criticism of Aristotelian physics.<ref name="lindberg162" />[[File:Tribonian bas-relief in the U.S. House of Representatives chamber.jpg|thumb|upright|right|Bas-relief plaque of [[Tribonian]] in the Chamber of the [[United States House of Representatives|House of Representatives]] in the [[United States Capitol]]]]

== Religion ==
{{Main|Christianity as the Roman state religion|Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople}}{{See also|Byzantine Rite}}
[[File:Fethiye Museum 9607.jpg|thumb|250px|Mosaic of Jesus in [[Pammakaristos Church]], Istanbul]]
[[File:Basilica of San Vitale - triumphal arch mosaics.jpg|thumbnail|200px|Triumphal arch mosaics of [[Jesus Christ]] and the Apostles. In [[Basilica of San Vitale]] in [[Ravenna]], Italy.]]

The Byzantine Empire was a [[theocracy]], said to be ruled by [[God in Christianity|God]] working through the emperor. Jennifer Fretland VanVoorst argues, "The Byzantine Empire became a theocracy in the sense that Christian values and ideals were the foundation of the empire's political ideals and heavily entwined with its political goals."<ref>{{Cite book |last=Jennifer Fretland VanVoorst |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RyOoBQiCm88C&pg=PA14 |title=The Byzantine Empire |publisher=Capstone |date=2012 |isbn=978-0-7565-4565-9 |page=14 |access-date=14 August 2015 |archive-date=29 June 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160629114102/https://books.google.com/books?id=RyOoBQiCm88C&pg=PA14 |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Steven Runciman]] says in his book ''The Byzantine Theocracy'':

{{blockquote|The constitution of the Byzantine Empire was based on the conviction that it was the earthly copy of the Kingdom of Heaven. Just as God ruled in Heaven, so the Emperor, made in his image, should rule on earth and carry out his commandments&nbsp;... It saw itself as a universal empire. Ideally, it should embrace all the peoples of the Earth who, ideally, should all be members of the one true Christian Church, its own Orthodox Church. Just as man was made in God's image, so man's kingdom on Earth was made in the image of the Kingdom of Heaven.<ref>{{Harvnb|Runciman|2004|pp=1–2, 162–163}}.</ref>}}

The survival of the empire in the East assured an active role of the emperor in the affairs of the Church. The Byzantine state inherited from pagan times the administrative and financial routine of administering religious affairs, and this was applied to the [[Christian Church]]. Following the pattern set by [[Eusebius]] of Caesarea, the Byzantines viewed the emperor as a representative or messenger of [[Jesus|Christ]], responsible particularly for the propagation of Christianity among pagans, and for the "externals" of the religion, such as administration and finances. As [[Cyril Mango]] points out, the Byzantine political thinking can be summarised in the motto "One God, one empire, one religion".<ref name="M108">{{Harvnb|Mango|2007|p=108}}.</ref>

Constantinople is generally considered the "cradle of Orthodox [[Role of Christianity in civilization|Christian civilization]]".<ref>{{cite book|title=Christianity: Religions of the World|first=Ann Marie |last=B. Bahr|year= 2009| isbn=978-1-4381-0639-7| page =139|publisher=Infobase Publishing|quote= }}</ref> The imperial role in the affairs of the Church never developed into a fixed, legally defined system.<ref name="M14">{{Harvnb|Meyendorff|1982|p=13}}.</ref> The decline of Rome and the internal dissension in the other Eastern patriarchates made the Church of Constantinople, between the 6th and 11th centuries, the richest and most influential centre of [[Christendom]].<ref name="M19">{{Harvnb|Meyendorff|1982|p=19}}.</ref> Even when the empire was reduced to only a shadow of its former self, the Church continued to exercise significant influence both inside and outside of the imperial frontiers. As [[George Ostrogorsky]] points out:

{{blockquote|The [[Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople|Patriarchate of Constantinople]] remained the centre of the Orthodox world, with subordinate [[Metropolitan bishop|metropolitan sees]] and archbishoprics in the territory of Asia Minor and the Balkans, now lost to Byzantium, as well as in [[Caucasus]], Russia and Lithuania. The Church remained the most stable element in the Byzantine Empire.<ref name="M130">{{Harvnb|Meyendorff|1982|p=130}}.</ref>}}

Byzantine monasticism especially came to be an "ever-present feature" of the empire, with monasteries becoming "powerful landowners and a voice to be listened to in imperial politics".<ref>{{Cite web |last=Mark Cartwright |date=18 December 2017 |title=Byzantine Monasticism |url=https://www.worldhistory.org/article/1163/byzantine-monasticism/ |website=World History Encyclopedia |access-date=20 April 2021 |archive-date=20 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210420182244/https://www.worldhistory.org/article/1163/byzantine-monasticism/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

The official state Christian doctrine was determined by the [[first seven ecumenical councils]], and it was then the emperor's duty to impose it on his subjects. An imperial decree of 388, which was later incorporated into the ''Codex Justinianeus'', orders the population of the empire "to assume the name of Catholic Christians", and regards all those who will not abide by the law as "mad and foolish persons"; as followers of "heretical dogmas".<ref>[http://www.uwyo.edu/lawlib/blume-justinian/ajc-edition-1/_files/docs/book-1pdf/book%201-1.pdf Justinian Code: Book 1, Title 1] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210309035557/http://www.uwyo.edu/lawlib/blume-justinian/ajc-edition-1/_files/docs/book-1pdf/book%201-1.pdf |date=9 March 2021 }}; {{Harvnb|Blume|2008|loc=Headnote C. 1.1}}; {{Harvnb|Mango|2007|p=108}}.</ref>

Despite imperial decrees and the stringent stance of the [[state church of the Roman Empire|state church]], which came to be known as the Eastern Orthodox Church or [[Eastern Christianity]], the Eastern Orthodox Church never represented all Christians in Byzantium. Mango believes that in the early stages of the empire, the "mad and foolish persons"—those labelled "[[heretics]]" by the state church—were the majority of the population.<ref name="M109">{{Harvnb|Mango|2007|pp=108–109}}.</ref> Besides the [[paganism|pagans]] who existed until the end of the 6th century, and the [[History of the Jews in the Byzantine Empire|Jews]], there were many followers—sometimes even emperors—of various Christian doctrines, such as [[Nestorianism]], [[Monophysitism]], [[Arianism]], and [[Paulicianism]], whose teachings were in some opposition to the main theological doctrine as determined by the Ecumenical Councils.<ref>{{Harvnb|Blume|2008|loc=Headnote C. 1.1}}; {{Harvnb|Mango|2007|pp=108–109, 115–125}}.</ref>

The [[Byzantine Empire under the Macedonian dynasty|Macedonian period]] included events of momentous religious significance. The conversion of the Bulgarians, Serbs and Rus' to Orthodox Christianity drew the religious map of Europe which still resonates today. [[Cyril and Methodius]], two Byzantine Greek brothers from Thessaloniki, contributed significantly to the [[Christianization of the Slavs|Christianisation of the Slavs]] and in the process devised the [[Glagolitic script|Glagolitic alphabet]], ancestor to the [[Cyrillic script]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Timberlake|2004|p=14}}.</ref>

=== Dispute over iconoclasm ===
{{Main|Byzantine iconoclasm}}
[[File:Irenekirken.jpg|thumb|left|A Simple Cross: An example of [[Iconoclasm|Iconoclast]] art in the [[Hagia Irene]] Church in Istanbul.]]

The 8th and early 9th centuries were dominated by controversy and religious division over [[iconoclasm]], which constituted a primary political issue in the empire for over a century. [[Icon]]s, in this context referring to all forms of religious imagery, were banned by Leo III and Constantine V around the year 730, leading to revolts by [[Iconodulism|supporters of icons]] throughout the empire. After the efforts of Empress [[Irene of Athens|Irene]], the [[Second Council of Nicaea]] met in 787 and affirmed that icons could be venerated but not worshipped. Irene is said to have endeavoured to negotiate a marriage between herself and [[Charlemagne]], but according to [[Theophanes the Confessor]] the scheme was frustrated by [[Aetios (eunuch)|Aetios]], one of her advisors.<ref name="G89">{{Harvnb|Cameron|2009|pp=167–170}}; {{Harvnb|Garland|1999|p=89}}.</ref>

In the early 9th century, [[Leo V the Armenian|Leo V]] reintroduced the policy of iconoclasm, but in 843 Empress [[Theodora (wife of Theophilos)|Theodora]] restored the veneration of icons with the help of [[Methodios I of Constantinople|Patriarch Methodios]].<ref name="P11">{{Harvnb|Parry|1996|pp=11–15}}.</ref> Iconoclasm played a part in the further alienation of East from West, which worsened during the so-called [[Photian schism]] when [[Pope Nicholas I]] challenged the elevation of [[Photios I of Constantinople|Photios]] to the patriarchate.<ref>{{Harvnb|Cameron|2009|p=267}}.</ref>

=== Relationship with Western Christendom ===
{{Further|Foreign_relations of the Byzantine Empire#Holy See relations}}
{{see also|East–West Schism}}
[[File:Cyril-methodius-small.jpg|thumb|upright|Mural of [[Saints Cyril and Methodius]], 19th century, [[Troyan Monastery]], Bulgaria]]
The Bishop of Rome was part of the Empire until the 8th century. It would eventually form as the [[Vatican state]] and be involved in western Europe's rivalry with the Empire.

===Status of non-Christians===

Jews were a significant minority in the Byzantine state throughout its history, and according to Roman law, they constituted a legally recognised religious group. In the early Byzantine period they were generally tolerated, but then periods of tensions and persecutions ensued. After the Arab conquests the majority of Jews found themselves outside the empire; those left inside the Byzantine borders apparently lived in relative peace from the 10th century onward.<ref name="M114">{{Harvnb|Mango|2007|pp=111–114}}.</ref>

== Legacy ==
=== Political aftermath ===
[[File:Eastern Mediterranean 1450.svg|thumb|upright|200px|The Eastern Mediterranean just before the [[Fall of Constantinople]]]]
[[File:Byzantine imperial flag, 14th century.svg|thumb|200px|right|[[Byzantine flags and insignia|Flag of the late Empire]] under the Palaiologoi, sporting the [[tetragrammic cross]] symbol of the [[Palaiologos dynasty]]]]
By the time of the fall of Constantinople, the Byzantine Empire, already an empire in name only since the Fourth Crusade, had been reduced to three [[rump state]]s: the [[Despotate of the Morea]], the Empire of Trebizond and the [[Principality of Theodoro]]. The Morea was ruled by the brothers of Constantine XI, [[Thomas Palaiologos]] and [[Demetrios Palaiologos]]. The despotate continued as an independent state by paying an annual tribute to the Ottomans. Incompetent rule, failure to pay the annual tribute, and a revolt against the Ottomans finally led to Mehmed II's invasion of Morea in May 1460.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Russell |first=Eugenia |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gCwU8eqbxBoC&q=Mehmed+II%27s+invasion+of+Morea+in+May+1460.&pg=PA160 |title=Literature and Culture in Late Byzantine Thessalonica |date=2013 |publisher=A&C Black |isbn=978-1-4411-5584-9 |language=en |access-date=2 October 2020 |archive-date=28 June 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180628225720/https://books.google.com/books?id=gCwU8eqbxBoC |url-status=live }}</ref>

A few holdouts remained for a time. In the Morea, the island of [[Monemvasia]] came under the pope's protection before the end of 1460, while the [[Mani Peninsula]] submitted to Venice.<ref>{{Harvnb|Miller|1907|loc=[https://archive.org/stream/journalofhelleni27sociuoft#page/236/mode/1up p. 236]}}</ref> The Empire of Trebizond, which had split away from the Byzantine Empire just weeks before Constantinople was taken by the Crusaders in 1204, became the last remnant and last de facto successor state to the Byzantine Empire. Efforts by Emperor [[David of Trebizond|David]] to recruit European powers for an anti-Ottoman crusade provoked war between the Ottomans and Trebizond in the summer of 1461. After a [[Siege of Trebizond (1461)|month-long siege]], David surrendered the city of Trebizond on 14 August 1461. Trebizond's Crimean principality, the [[Principality of Theodoro]] (part of the [[Perateia]]), lasted another 14 years, falling to the Ottomans in December 1475.

Mehmed II and his successors continued to [[Ottoman claim to Roman succession|consider themselves heirs]] to the Roman Empire. They considered that they had shifted their religious basis as Constantine had done before, and they continued to refer to their conquered Eastern Roman inhabitants ([[Orthodoxy#Christiannity|Orthodox Christians]]) as [[Rum (endonym)|Rûm]]. This claim gradually faded away as the Ottoman Empire assumed a more Islamic political identity.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Üre |first=Pinar |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=d7rEDwAAQBAJ |title=Reclaiming Byzantium: Russia, Turkey and the Archaeological Claim to the Middle East in the 19th Century |year= 2020 |publisher=Bloomsbury Academic |isbn=978-1-78831-012-3 |language=en}}</ref> Meanwhile, the [[Danubian Principalities]] (whose rulers also considered themselves the heirs of the Eastern Roman Emperors<ref>{{Harvnb|Clark|2000|p=213}}.</ref>) harboured Orthodox refugees, including some Byzantine nobles.

At Constantine's death, the role of the emperor as a patron of Eastern Orthodoxy was claimed by [[Ivan III of Russia|Ivan III]], Grand Prince of [[Grand Duchy of Moscow|Muscovy]]. He had married Andreas' sister, [[Sophia Palaiologina]], whose grandson, [[Ivan the Terrible|Ivan IV]], would become the first tsar of Russia (''tsar'', or ''czar'', meaning ''caesar'', is a term traditionally applied by Slavs to the Byzantine emperors). Their successors supported the idea that Moscow was the proper heir to Rome and Constantinople. The idea of the [[Russian Empire]] as the successive [[Succession of the Roman Empire|Third Rome]] was kept alive until its demise with the [[Russian Revolution]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Seton-Watson|1967|p=31}}.</ref>

=== Cultural aftermath ===
{{See also|Succession of the Roman Empire|Greek scholars in the Renaissance}}
[[File:Christ Pantocrator mosaic from Hagia Sophia 2744 x 2900 pixels 3.1 MB.jpg|thumb|250px|Christ Pantocrator mosaic in [[Hagia Sophia]], {{circa|1261}}]]
Byzantium has been often identified with absolutism, orthodox spirituality, orientalism and exoticism, while the terms "Byzantine" and "Byzantinism" have been used as bywords for decadence, complex bureaucracy, and repression. Both Eastern and Western European authors have often perceived Byzantium as a body of religious, political, and philosophical ideas contrary to those of the West. Even in [[History of modern Greece|19th-century Greece]], the focus was mainly on the classical past, while Byzantine tradition had been associated with negative connotations.<ref name="A1">{{Harvnb|Cameron|2009|pp=277–281}}.</ref>

This traditional approach towards Byzantium has been partially or wholly disputed and revised by modern studies, which focus on the positive aspects of Byzantine culture and legacy. [[Averil Cameron]] regards as undeniable the Byzantine contribution to the formation of medieval Europe, and both Cameron and Obolensky recognise the major role of Byzantium in shaping Orthodoxy, which in turn occupies a central position in the history, societies and culture of Greece, Romania, Bulgaria, Russia, Georgia, Serbia and other countries.<ref>{{Harvnb|Cameron|2009|pp=186–277}}.</ref> The Byzantines also preserved and copied classical manuscripts, and they are thus regarded as transmitters of classical knowledge, as important contributors to modern European civilisation, and as precursors of both [[Renaissance humanism]] and Slavic-Orthodox culture.<ref name="C311" />

As the only stable long-term state in Europe during the Middle Ages, Byzantium isolated Western Europe from newly emerging forces to the East. Constantly under attack, it distanced Western Europe from Persians, Arabs, Seljuk Turks, and for a time, the Ottomans. From a different perspective, since the 7th century, the evolution and constant reshaping of the Byzantine state were directly related to the respective progress of Islam.<ref name="C311">{{Harvnb|Cameron|2009|p=261}}.</ref> Following the conquest of Constantinople by the Ottoman Turks in 1453, Sultan Mehmed II took the title "''Kaysar-i Rûm''" (the Ottoman Turkish equivalent of [[Caesar (title)|Caesar]] of Rome), since he was determined to make the Ottoman Empire the heir of the Eastern Roman Empire.<ref>{{Harvnb|Béhar|1999|p=38}}; {{Harvnb|Bideleux|Jeffries|1998|p=71}}.</ref>

== See also ==

* [[Family tree of Byzantine emperors]]
* [[Index of Byzantine Empire–related articles]]
* [[Legacy of the Roman Empire]]
* [[List of Byzantine revolts and civil wars]]
* [[List of Byzantine wars]]
* [[List of Roman dynasties]]
* [[Succession of the Roman Empire]]

== References ==

=== Notes ===
{{Notelist}}

=== Citations ===
{{Reflist}}

=== Sources ===

==== Primary sources ====
{{Refbegin|30em|indent=yes}}
* {{Cite book |last=Choniates |first=Nicetas |title=Translations and Reprints from the Original Sources of European History by D.C. Munro (Series 1, Vol 3:1) |publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press |date=1912 |location=Philadelphia |pages=15–16 |chapter=The Sack of Constantinople (1204) |author-link=Nicetas Choniates}}
* {{Cite book |last=Cinnamus |first=Ioannes |title=Deeds of John and Manuel Comnenus |publisher=Columbia University Press |date=1976 |isbn=978-0-231-04080-8 |location=New York and West Sussex |author-link=John Kinnamos}}
* {{Cite book |last=Komnene |first=Anna |title=The Alexiad |translator-first=Elizabeth A.S.|translator-last=Dawes|publisher=Internet Medieval Sourcebook |date=1928 |chapter=Books X–XIII |author-link=Anna Komnene |chapter-url=http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/basis/annacomnena-alexiad00.html |access-date=18 May 2007 |archive-date=13 April 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200413122745/http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/basis/annacomnena-alexiad00.html |url-status=live }}
* {{Cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/notitiadignitat00silvgoog |title=Notitia Dignitatum; accedunt Notitia Urbis Constantinopolitanae Laterculi Prouinciarum |publisher=Weidmann |date=1876 |language=la |editor-last=Seeck |editor-first=Otto |location=Berlin }}

{{Refend}}

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{{Refend}}

== External links ==
{{Library resources box |onlinebooks = yes }}

* {{In Our Time|Byzantine Empire|p00547j9|Byzantine_Empire}}
* [http://www.roman-emperors.org/ De Imperatoribus Romanis]. Scholarly biographies of many Byzantine emperors.
* [http://www.anders.com/lectures/lars_brownworth/12_byzantine_rulers/ 12 Byzantine Rulers] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160718092221/http://www.anders.com/lectures/lars_brownworth/12_byzantine_rulers/ |date=18 July 2016 }} by Lars Brownworth of [[The Stony Brook School]]; audio lectures.
* [http://www.cit.gu.edu.au/~s285238/Roman/RomanEmpire.html 18 centuries of Roman Empire by Howard Wiseman] (Maps of the Roman/Byzantine Empire throughout its lifetime).
* [http://www.byzantinemuseum.gr/en/ Byzantine & Christian Museum]

; Byzantine studies, resources and bibliography
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20080410123427/http://www.doaks.org/Byzantine.html Byzantine studies homepage] at [[Dumbarton Oaks]]. Includes links to numerous electronic texts.
* [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/byzantium/ Byzantium: Byzantine studies on the Internet] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141008060507/http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/byzantium/ |date=8 October 2014 }}. Links to various online resources.
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20111107172532/http://homepage.mac.com/paulstephenson/trans.html Translations from Byzantine Sources: The Imperial Centuries, c. 700–1204]. Online sourcebook.
* [http://www.deremilitari.org/ De Re Militari]. Resources for medieval history, including numerous translated sources on the Byzantine wars.
* [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/sbook1c.html Medieval Sourcebook: Byzantium] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140814170022/http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/sbook1c.html |date=14 August 2014 }}. Numerous primary sources on Byzantine history.
* [http://www.univie.ac.at/byzantine/ Bibliography on Byzantine Material Culture and Daily Life]. Hosted by the [[University of Vienna]]; in English.
* [http://www.ellopos.net/elpenor/greek-texts/greek-resources-constantinople.asp Constantinople Home Page]. Links to texts, images and videos on Byzantium.
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20160816053828/http://graal.org.ua/en/theodoro-principality Byzantium in Crimea: Political History, Art and Culture].
* [http://www.oeaw.ac.at/byzanz/ Institute for Byzantine Studies of the Austrian Academy of Sciences (with further resources and a repository with papers on various aspects of the Byzantine Empire)]

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