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{{Short description|Byzantine Empire under the Heraclian dynasty}}
{{Infobox country
|native_name            = {{native name|grc|Βασιλεία Ῥωμαίων}}<br />{{native name|la|Imperium Romanum}}
|conventional_long_name = Byzantine Empire
|common_name            = Byzantium
|image_flag             = Byzantine Calvary cross potent (transparent).png
|flag_border            = no
|flag_size              = 65px
|flag_type              = The calvary [[cross potent]] motif was commonly minted on coins by various emperors.
|image_coat             = 
|symbol_type            = [[Tremissis]] with the image of [[Heraclius]]<br />(r. 610–641) <small>(see [[Byzantine insignia]])</small>
|coa_size               = 
|p1                     = Byzantine Empire under the Justinian dynasty
|s1                     = Twenty Years' Anarchy
|s2                     = Sasanian Empire
|s3                     = Umayyad Caliphate
|era                    = [[Late Antiquity]] to [[Early Middle Ages]]
|year_start             = 610
|year_end               = 711
|date_start             = 5 October
|date_end               = 4 November
|event_start            = Accession of [[Heraclius]]
|event_end              = Second deposition and execution of [[Justinian II]]
|image_map              = 4KHERECLIAN.png
|image_map_caption      = The Byzantine Empire after the death of Emperor Heraclius
|capital                = [[Constantinople]]
|common_languages       = [[Medieval Greek|Greek]] <br/> [[Latin]]
|government_type        = Monarchy
|title_leader           = [[List of Byzantine Emperors|Emperor]]
|leader1                = [[Heraclius]]
|year_leader1           = 610–641
|leader2                = [[Constantine III (Byzantine emperor)|Constantine III]]
|year_leader2           = February–May 641
|leader3                = [[Heraclonas]]
|year_leader3           = February–October 641
|leader4                = [[Constans II]]
|year_leader4           = 641–668
|leader5                = [[Constantine IV]]
|year_leader5           = 668–685
|leader6                = [[Justinian II]]
|year_leader6           = 685–695 · 705–711
}}
{{Heraclian dynasty}}
{{History of the Byzantine Empire}}
<!-- No boldface is needed here! [[MOS:BOLDLINKAVOID]] / [[MOS:TITLEABSENTBOLD]] -->The [[Byzantine Empire]] was ruled by emperors of the dynasty of [[Heraclius]] between 610 and 711. The Heraclians presided over a period of cataclysmic events that were a watershed in the history of the Empire and the world. Heraclius, the founder of his dynasty, was of [[Armenians|Armenian]] and [[Cappadocian Greeks|Cappadocian]] (Greek) origin.{{Sfn|Kaegi|2003|p=21}}{{Sfn|Geanakoplos|1984|p=344}}{{Sfn|Treadgold|1997|p=287}} At the beginning of the dynasty, the Empire's culture was still essentially [[Roman Empire|Ancient Roman]], dominating the [[Mediterranean]] and harbouring a prosperous [[Late antiquity|Late Antique]] urban civilization. This world was shattered by successive invasions, which resulted in extensive territorial losses, financial collapse and plagues that depopulated the cities, while religious controversies and rebellions further weakened the Empire.

By the dynasty's end, the Empire had been transformed into a different state structure: now known in historiography as medieval Byzantine rather than (Ancient) Roman, a chiefly agrarian, military-dominated society that was engaged in a lengthy struggle with the [[Islam|Muslim]] [[Rashidun Caliphate]] and successor [[Umayyad Caliphate]]. However, the Empire during this period became also far more homogeneous, being reduced to its mostly [[Medieval Greek|Greek]]-speaking and firmly [[Chalcedonian]] core territories, which enabled it to weather these storms and enter a period of stability under the successor [[Byzantine Empire under the Isaurian dynasty|Isaurian dynasty]].

The Heraclian dynasty was named after the general [[Heraclius|Heraclius the Younger]], who, in 610, sailed from [[Exarchate of Africa|Carthage]], overthrew the tyrant [[Phocas]], and was crowned Emperor. At the time, the Empire was embroiled in a war with the [[Sassanid Empire|Sassanid Persian Empire]], which in the next decade conquered the Empire's eastern provinces. After a long and exhausting struggle, Heraclius managed to defeat the Persians and restore the Empire, only to lose these provinces again shortly after to the sudden eruption of the [[Early Muslim conquests|Muslim conquests]].

His successors struggled to contain the Arab tide. The [[Levant]] and [[North Africa]] were lost, while in 674–678, a large Arab army [[Siege of Constantinople (674)|besieged]] [[Constantinople]] itself. Nevertheless, the state survived and the establishment of the [[Theme system]] allowed the imperial heartland of [[Asia Minor]] to be retained. Under [[Justinian II]] and [[Tiberius III]] the imperial frontier in the East was stabilized, although incursions continued on both sides. The latter 7th century also saw the first [[Byzantine–Bulgarian Wars|conflicts]] with the [[Bulgars]] and the establishment of a [[First Bulgarian Empire|Bulgarian state]] in formerly Byzantine lands south of the [[Danube]], which would be the Empire's chief antagonist in the West until the 12th century.

==Background==
{{further|History of the Byzantine Empire}}
[[File:626Byzantium.svg|thumb|right|300px|The Byzantine Empire after [[Heraclius]] reconquered the Eastern Provinces from the [[Sassanids]].]]
Ever since the fall of the [[Western Roman Empire]], the Eastern Roman Empire continued to see [[Western Europe]] as rightfully Imperial territory. However, only [[Justinian I]] attempted to enforce this claim with military might. Temporary success in the West was achieved at the cost of [[Sassanid Empire|Persian]] dominance in the East, where the Byzantines were forced to pay tribute to avert war.{{sfn|Norwich|1997|p=74}}

However, after Justinian's death, much of newly recovered Italy fell to the [[Lombards]], and the [[Visigoths]] soon reduced the [[Spania|imperial holdings]] in Spain.<ref name="Norwich76">{{harvnb|Norwich|1997|p=76}}</ref> At the same time, wars with the Persian Empire brought no conclusive victory.{{sfn|Norwich|1997|p=74}} In 591 however, the [[Roman-Persian War of 572–591|long war]] was ended with a treaty favorable to Byzantium, which gained Armenia. Thus, after the death of [[Tiberius II Constantine|Tiberius II]], [[Maurice (emperor)|Maurice]] sought to restore the prestige of the Empire.

Even though the Empire had gained smaller successes over the Slavs and [[Avars (Carpathians)|Avars]] in pitched battles across the [[Danube River|Danube]], both enthusiasm for the army and faith in the government had lessened considerably. Unrest had reared its head in Byzantine cities as social and religious differences manifested themselves into Blue and Green factions that fought each other in the streets. The final blow to the government was a decision to cut the pay of its army in response to financial strains. The combined effect of an army revolt led by a junior officer named [[Phocas]] and major uprisings by the Greens and Blues forced Maurice to abdicate. The Senate approved Phocas as the new Emperor and Maurice, the last emperor of the [[Justinian dynasty]], was murdered along with his four sons.{{sfn|Ostrogorsky|1997|pages=[https://archive.org/details/historyofbyzanti00ostr/page/82 82–83]}}

The Persian King [[Khosrau II]] responded by launching an assault on the Empire, ostensibly to avenge Maurice, who had earlier helped him to regain his throne. Phocas was already alienating his supporters with his repressive rule (introducing torture on a large scale), and the Persians were able to capture [[Syria (Roman province)|Syria]] and [[Mesopotamia]] by 607.<ref name="Norwich89">{{harvnb|Norwich|1997|pp=88–89}}</ref> By 608, the Persians were camped outside [[Chalcedon]], within sight of the imperial capital of [[Constantinople]], while [[Anatolia]] was ravaged by Persian raids.<ref name="Norwich89"/> Making matters worse was the advance of the [[Avars (Carpathians)|Avars]] and [[Slavs|Slavic tribes]] heading south across the [[Danube]] and into Imperial territory.<ref name="Norwich89"/>

While the Persians were making headway in their conquest of the eastern provinces, Phocas chose to divide his subjects rather than unite them against the threat of the Persians.<ref name="Norwich89"/> Perhaps seeing his defeats as divine retribution, Phocas initiated a savage and bloody campaign to forcibly convert the [[Jews]] to [[Christianity]]. Persecutions and alienation of the Jews, a frontline people in the war against the Persians helped drive them into aiding the Persian conquerors. As Jews and [[Christians]] began tearing each other apart, some fled the butchery into Persian territory. Meanwhile, it appears that the disasters befalling the Empire led the Emperor into a state of paranoia—although it must be said that there were numerous plots against his rule and execution followed execution. Among those individuals who were executed was the former empress [[Constantina (empress)|Constantina]] and her three daughters.<ref name="Norwich89"/>

==Heraclius==
{{see also|Heraclius|Byzantine-Sassanid War of 602–628}}

===Fall of Phocas===
[[File:Heraclius with sons.jpg|thumb|right|Solidus of Heraclius' reign, showing his son Constantine III as co-emperor.]]
Due to the overwhelming crisis facing the Empire that had pitched it into chaos, [[Heraclius the Elder]] now attempted to seize power from Phocas in an effort to better Byzantium's fortunes.<ref name="Norwich90">{{harvnb|Norwich|1997|p=90}}</ref> As the Empire was led into anarchy, the [[Exarchate of Carthage]] remained relatively out of reach of Persian conquest. Far from the incompetent Imperial authority of the time, [[Heraclius the Elder|Heraclius]], the Exarch of Carthage, with his brother Gregoras, began building up his forces to assault Constantinople.<ref name="Norwich89"/> After cutting off the [[annona|grain supply]] to the capital from his territory, Heraclius led a substantial army and a fleet in 608 to restore order in the Empire. Heraclius gave the command of the army to Gregoras' son, [[Nicetas (cousin of Heraclius)|Nicetas]], whilst command of the fleet went to Heraclius' son, [[Heraclius|Heraclius the Younger]].<ref name="Norwich298">{{harvnb|Norwich|1997|p=298}}</ref> Nicetas took part of the fleet and his forces to [[Egypt]], seizing [[Alexandria]] towards the end of 608. Meanwhile, Heraclius the Younger headed to [[Thessalonica]], from where, after receiving more supplies and troops, he sailed for Constantinople.<ref name="Norwich90"/> He reached his destination on 3 October 610, where he was unopposed as he landed off the shores of Constantinople, citizens greeting him as their deliverer.<ref name="Ostrogorsky85">{{harvnb|Ostrogorsky|1997|p=85}}</ref>

When Phocas was delivered to Heraclius, an interesting conversation took place:<ref>{{harvnb|Bury|1889|p=205}}</ref>

{{quotation|'''''Heraclius''''': ''"Is it thus that you have governed the Empire?"''<br>'''''Phocas''''': ''"Will you govern it better?"''}}
The reign of Phocas officially ended in his execution and the crowning of Heraclius by the Patriarch of Constantinople two days later on 5 October. A statue of Phocas that rested in the [[Hippodrome]] was pulled down and set aflame, along with the colors of the Blues that supported Phocas.<ref name="Ostrogorsky85"/>

===Early failures===
After having married his wife in an elaborate ceremony and crowned by the [[Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople|Patriarch]], the 36-year-old Heraclius set out to perform his work as Emperor. The early portion of his reign yielded results reminiscent of Phocas' reign with respect to trouble in the [[Balkans]]. The [[Avars (Carpathians)|Avars]] and [[Slavs]] poured through the western [[Adriatic Sea|Adriatic]], as well as through the southern and eastern portions of the [[Aegean Sea|Aegean]] area. Their sweeping movement into [[Dalmatia]] engulfed several Byzantine cities, namely [[Singidunum]] (Belgrade), [[Viminacium]] (Kostolac), [[Naissus]] (Niš), [[Sardica]] (Sofia), and destroyed [[Salona]] in 614. However, numerous attempts to take the city of [[Thessalonica]] by the Slavs and Avars ended in failure, allowing the Empire  to hold onto a vital city in the region.<ref>{{harvnb|Ostrogorsky|1997|p=93}}</ref>

In 613, the Byzantine army suffered a crushing [[Battle of Antioch (613)|defeat at Antioch]], allowing the Persians to move freely and swiftly in all directions. This surge caused the cities of [[Damascus]] and [[Tarsus, Mersin|Tarsus]] to fall, along with [[Armenia]]. More seriously, however, was the loss of [[Siege of Jerusalem (614)|Jerusalem]], which was besieged and captured by the Persians in three weeks.<ref>{{harvnb|Ostrogorsky|1997|p=95}}</ref> Countless churches in the city (including the [[Holy Sepulchre]]) were burnt and numerous relics, including the [[True Cross]], the [[Holy Lance]] and the [[Holy Sponge]], present at the time of [[Jesus Christ]]'s death, were now in [[Ctesiphon]], the Persian capital. The Persians remained poised outside of [[Chalcedon]], not too far from the capital, and the province of [[Syria (Roman province)|Syria]] was in total chaos.<ref name="Norwich90"/>

Despite Nicetas' earlier efforts, Egypt was also [[Siege of Alexandria (619)|conquered]], resulting in a significant loss in manpower, food supplies and revenue. However, the situation was not entirely hopeless. Constantinople's walls were as powerful and well-defended as ever, and Heraclius still had a large, better-trained, and better-armed fleet than any of his "barbarian" opponents (especially the Slavs and Avars). The Persians had no vessels in the [[Bosporus]], and thus unable to effectively besiege the city.<ref name="Norwich90"/>

===Byzantine counter offensive===
[[File:Murat 05.jpg|thumb|left|300px|The Arsanias River, now known as the [[Murat River]] in modern Turkey.]]
To recover from a seemingly endless number of defeats, Heraclius went about a reconstruction plan of the military, financing it by fining those accused of corruption, increasing taxes, and debasing the currency to pay more soldiers and forced loans. The Patriarch of Constantinople, [[Sergius I of Constantinople|Sergius]], placed the finances of the Church into the hands of the State, a surprising but well-needed sacrifice. Heraclius now aimed to eliminate one of his dangerous foes, the [[Sassanid Empire]]. The Persians had conquered extensive amounts of territory in [[Anatolia]], [[Mesopotamia]], the [[Levant]], and [[North Africa]], but had yet to consolidate their hold on it.<ref name="Norwich91">{{harvnb|Norwich|1997|p=91}}</ref> Heraclius decided to negotiate a peace with the Avars and Slavs by paying them a large amount of tribute so that he could freely move his armies from Europe to Asia in order to launch counter-offensives against the Persians.<ref>{{harvnb|Ostrogorsky|1997|p=100}}</ref> With his Eastern opponents still outside Chalcedon, in the spring of 622 Heraclius took the field. He sailed his newly created army down the Ionian coast and landed at [[Issus (town)|Issus]], the exact site where [[Alexander the Great]] had [[Battle of Issus|decisively defeated]] the Persians some 1,000 years prior. At Issus, Heraclius oversaw the extensive training of his men. In the autumn of that year, he marched his army northwards and encountered a Persian force in the [[Cappadocia]]n highlands. Despite having no military experience in leading an army in the field, the Byzantine Emperor decisively routed the forces of the experienced Persian General [[Shahrbaraz]], boosting his army's morale and recovering large amounts of territory.<ref name="Norwich91"/>

In early 623, Heraclius led his forces through [[Armenia]] and modern-day [[Azerbaijan]]. By moving towards Armenia, this forced the Persians to move from their positions in Asia Minor and to follow the army "like a dog on a chain".<ref name="Ostrogorsky101">{{harvnb|Ostrogorsky|1997|p=101}}</ref> It was in Armenia that the Byzantine army once again found success against the Persian general Shahrbaraz, winning a large victory. Events in the capital forced Heraclius and his army to return to Constantinople, as the Avar Khan was threatening action on the city. Heraclius was forced to increase the tribute being paid to the Avars, even having to go as far as sending hostages to the Khan to ensure payment. This once again shored up his rearguard, allowing him to re-engage the Persian army in March 623, as the Persian king [[Chosroes II]] had become ever more belligerent in his attitude, spurning a truce.<ref name="Ostrogorsky101"/> On the way to Persia, the Byzantine army pillaged and looted extensively, including the destruction of the Persian palace at [[Ganzak]]. Burning numerous cities of his opponents, Heraclius made a risky decision and led his troops deep within the heartland of the Sassanid Empire to [[Ctesiphon]], the Persian capital. However, Shahrbaraz began cutting off Heraclius' supply lines, forcing the latter to withdraw to the western shore of the [[Caspian Sea]]. There, his second wife and niece (Martina) safely delivered a child, although the marriage was seen by many as incestuous.<ref name="Norwich91"/>

In 624, Heraclius led another campaign towards [[Lake Van]]. However, the victory that he sought would not come to him until the following year. Leading his army through [[Ayrarat|Ararat]] down the [[Arsanias]] River for some {{convert|200|mi|km|-1}} to capture the cities of [[Silvan, Diyarbakır|Martyropolis]] and [[Amida (Roman city)|Amida]], Heraclius finally encountered a Persian army north of the town of [[Adana]] after marching {{convert|70|mi|km|0}} through [[Mesopotamia]].<ref name="Norwich91"/> Initially, the battle went well for the Persians, as they obliterated the vanguard of the Byzantine army.<ref name="Norwich92">{{harvnb|Norwich|1997|p=92}}</ref> However, Heraclius then seized the initiative by launching a seemingly suicidal charge across the [[River Euphrates]], thus turning the tide of the battle. Shahrbaraz expressed his admiration at Heraclius to a renegade Greek:

{{quote|''See your Emperor! He fears these arrows and spears no more than would an anvil!''|Shahr-Baraz|<ref name="Norwich92"/>}}

===Siege of Constantinople===
{{details|Siege of Constantinople (626)}}

[[File:Piero della Francesca 021.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Battle between Heraclius and the Persians. Fresco by [[Piero della Francesca]], {{Circa|1452}}]]
Victory belonged to the Byzantines, and now, the honours of the war were even. However, the Persian threat was not yet diminished. The long-awaited assault on [[Constantinople]] was finally beginning to materialize—the Avars began moving siege equipment towards the Capital (the siege began on June 29, 626) whilst Shahrbaraz was ordered by King [[Khosrau II]] to send his army to Chalcedon and link up with the Avars. Khosrau began conscripting able-bodied men into a new army, raising a crack force of approximately 50,000 men. Heraclius, it seems, was not only being outmaneuvered, but being outmaneuvered by several larger armies. However, Heraclius attempted to match the Persians by duplicating their strategy and dividing his forces into three separate contingents.<ref name="Norwich92"/> One army would defend the capital, whilst another, under the command of the Emperor's brother [[Theodore (brother of Heraclius)|Theodore]], would face the 50,000 conscripts in [[Mesopotamia]] who were commanded by the Persian General [[Shahin Vahmanzadegan|Shahin]]. Meanwhile, the third, which would be personally commanded by the Emperor, would march through [[Armenia]] and the [[Caucasus]] and into Persia, which he believed would have been stripped of most of the able-bodied men due to Khosrau's conscription. This would allow his forces to easily advance into the heartland of Persia.

Theodore's contingent fared well against Shahin in Mesopotamia, inflicting a crushing defeat on the Persians.<ref name="Norwich92"/> During this battle, at Constantinople, the city was well defended with a force of some 12,000 cavalry (presumably dismounted), supported by the entire city's population. Indeed, the efforts of the [[Sergius I of Constantinople|Patriarch Sergius]] in whipping up the population into a religious and patriotic frenzy cannot be overlooked. When the Byzantine fleet annihilated a Persian and an Avar fleet in two separate ambushes, the besiegers appeared to have withdrawn in panic. And when word of Theodore's victory in Mesopotamia came, it was concluded by the besiegers that Byzantium was now under the protection of the Romans' Christian God.<ref name="Norwich92"/>

===Triumph===
[[File:Cherub plaque Louvre MRR245 n2.jpg|thumb|275px|left|Heraclius overcoming Khosrau II; plaque from a cross ([[Champlevé]] [[Vitreous enamel|enamel]] over gilt copper, 1160–1170, [[Paris]], [[Louvre]])]]
For Heraclius, 626 was a year of little action—it appears that in an attempt to bolster his forces, he promised the hand of his daughter Epiphania to the [[Khan (title)|Khan]] of the [[Western Turkic Khaganate]], [[Ziebel]]. Impressed by the offer, the Khan fielded some 40,000 troops on the Byzantine side. However, the Khan died just two years later, in 628. Nonetheless, Byzantium made good use of the boost in troops when Heraclius marched into Mesopotamia the following year. His objective was clear: to destroy the Persians' army and march to Ctesiphon, doing what no Roman Emperor had done in nearly 300 years (since the days of [[Julian the Apostate]]): . His army marched cautiously into this hostile terrain.{{sfn|Norwich|1997|p=93}} It was known to Heraclius that a Persian force was close and an ambush was always a possibility. Meanwhile, [[Rhahzadh]], the new Persian commander, was also not keen to face Heraclius until his army was ready for a pitched battle.

After spending a greater part of 627 in Mesopotamia, Heraclius finally encountered the Persian army close to the ruins of the city of [[Ninevah]]. For eleven hours, the Byzantines and the Persians fought each other continuously. In the thick of the fighting Razates issued a challenge to Heraclius, who accepted.{{sfn|Norwich|1997|p=93}} Despite being wounded, Heraclius managed to decapitate Razates.{{sfn|Norwich|1997|p=93}}{{sfn|Grant|2005|pages=65}} When the sun finally began to set, the Persians had been defeated and both armies rested.

Heraclius later moved on to the Great Palace of [[Dastagird]] only to discover that Khosrau II had fled his Palace. In a fit of rage, Heraclius ordered that everything be burnt to the ground. Moving on, he soon found that Khosrau no longer commanded the loyalty of his subjects—as they refused to rally to defend Ctesiphon. Heraclius waited a week or two before marching his army back. Khosrau's son Siroes took power as [[Kavadh II]] and had his father shot to death with arrows.<ref name="Norwich94">{{harvnb|Norwich|1997|pp=93–94}}</ref> Later, the formation of a peace treaty favourable to the Byzantines led to the restoration of the pre-war boundaries. As an added bonus, all captives and Christian relics that had been captured by the Persians were returned.<ref name="Norwich94"/> Thus, it was at the head of the True Cross that Heraclius entered the Capital on September 14, 628 triumphant. Leading a procession which included four elephants, the True Cross was placed high atop the altar of the Hagia Sophia.

By this time, it was generally expected by the Byzantine populace that the Emperor would lead Byzantium into a new age of glory. However, all of Heraclius' achievements would come to naught, when, in 633, the [[Byzantine–Arab Wars]] began.<ref name="Norwich94"/>

===Decline===
The threat of the Arabs from Arabia was overlooked by both Persia and Byzantium for several reasons—most compelling of all were the wars between the two powers, and the lack of communication across the desert expanse.<ref name="Norwich94"/> Nonetheless, efforts were conducted, sometimes cooperatively, by the Byzantines and the Persians to stop the advance of the Arabs.

On 8 June 632, the Islamic Prophet [[Muhammad]] died of a fever.<ref name="Norwich95">{{harvnb|Norwich|1997|p=95}}</ref> However, the religion he left behind would transform the Middle East. In 633, the armies of Islam marched out of Arabia, their goal to spread the word of the prophet.<ref name="Norwich95"/> In 634, the Arabs defeated a Byzantine force sent into Syria and captured Damascus.<ref name="Norwich96">{{harvnb|Norwich|1997|p=96}}</ref> The arrival of another large Byzantine army outside Antioch forced the Arabs to retreat. The Byzantines advanced in May 636. However, a sandstorm blew on 20 August 636 against the Byzantines and when the Arabs charged against them they were utterly annihilated:<ref name="Norwich96"/>

{{quote|The [[Battle of Yarmouk|Battle fought at Yarmuk]] was of the fiercest and bloodiest kind ... the Romans and their followers tied themselves to each other by chains, so that no one might set his hope to flight. By Allah's help some 70,000 of them were put to death and their remnants took to flight ...|Al-Baladhuri|<ref>{{harvnb|Grant|2005}}</ref>}}

Jerusalem surrendered to the Arabs in 637, following a stout resistance; in 638, the Caliph Omar rode into the city. Heraclius stopped by Jerusalem to recover the True Cross whilst it was under siege.<ref name="Norwich96"/> In his old age he was becoming increasingly unstable in his rule. Once the commander of his father's fleet, he developed a phobia of the sea, and refused to cross the Bosporus to the capital. Only when several boats were tied along the length of the strait with shrubs placed along to hide the water did he ride across, "as if by land" as a contemporary put it. 
[[File:Map of expansion of Caliphate.svg|right|thumb|Because of the [[Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628]] both Byzantines and Persians exhausted themselves and made them vulnerable for the expansion of the Caliphate.]]
The Arab invasions and loss of territory was not all that bore heavily upon the Emperor's mind.<ref name="Norwich96"/> It was rumoured that the incestuous marriage to his niece had incurred the wrath of God—of the nine children that he had, four had died in infancy, one had a twisted neck and one was deaf and dumb.<ref name="Norwich96"/> Furthermore, it appears that the Empire was not even considering the Arab threat as a danger. The religious controversies once again emerged when the Patriarch of Constantinople Sergius proposed [[monothelitism]] as a compromise to the [[Chalcedonian]] Christians and the [[Monophysite]]s. Heraclius agreed to the proposal. However, it received much criticism from both sides of the theological debate of Christ's true nature. When [[Sophronius of Jerusalem|Sophronius]], a major critic of monothelitism was elected as [[Greek Orthodox Patriarch of Jerusalem|Patriarch of Jerusalem]], the Empire began once again to tear itself apart.<ref name="Norwich95"/> To some in the Empire the Arabs' promise of religious freedom seemed preferable to the other, seemingly blasphemous politically motivated proposals. At his death bed on 11 February 641, Heraclius died whispering that he had lied; he was reluctant to support monothelitism. It appears that unity was all that he sought.<ref name="Norwich78">{{harvnb|Norwich|1997|p=78}}</ref>

[[File:Byzantiumby650AD.svg|thumb|left|250px|The Byzantine Empire after the Arabs conquered the provinces of Syria and Egypt. At the same time the Slavs laid pressure and settled in the Balkan.]]
Before his death Heraclius was "persuaded" by his wife [[Martina (empress)|Martina]] to crown her son [[Heraclonas]] (''Flavius Heraclius'') co-heir to the throne of the Empire with [[Constantine III (Byzantine emperor)|Constantine]], the son of Heraclius' first wife [[Fabia Eudokia|Eudocia]]—all the meanwhile ignoring the numerous Byzantines who saw her as the reason for Byzantium's recent misfortunes.<ref name="Norwich95"/> Her ambitions for power ensured that Byzantium  would continue to succumb to disorder.

===Assessment of his rule===
Heraclius's reign was one of mixed fortunes. He started his reign by [[Byzantine–Sassanian War of 602–628|losing the eastern provinces]], brought it to its peak by retaking them against all odds, and ended it by [[Muslim conquest of the Levant|losing them again]]. It was Heraclius who first withdrew the eastern field armies into Anatolia, sowing the seeds of the [[Theme (Byzantine district)|Theme system]], and it was he who, through depopulation and the razing of fortifications, stabilized the [[Arab–Byzantine wars|Anatolian frontier]], which would remain largely unchanged for the next 350 years.

By Heraclius's late reign, proper Latin had been reduced to a military and ceremonial role outside of [[Exarchate of Africa|the]] [[Exarchate of Ravenna|Exarchates]], replaced by Greek as the language of court and high administration. This was the result of natural demographic shifts, and there was never an official change from language one to the other, as is sometimes claimed. He was also the first emperor to, after defeating the Persians, officially adopt the title of [[Basileus]], "King" in Greek, though the title had been used unofficially for centuries; [[Procopius]] used the title frequently, for example. There is no indication, as is, again, sometimes claimed, that Basileus became Heraclius's "primary" title, and other prominent Imperial titles since ancient/Latin era of the Empire, such as [[Augustus (honorific)|Augustus]] and [[Imperator]], remained in varying degrees of use for the remainder of the empire's lifetime.

Had Heraclius lived only until 629, he might have been remembered for his successful military reorganization and impressive handling of the last Persian war, which saw hope and victory snatched from the jaws of defeat. However, his lengthy life meant that the Byzantines remembered him for his religious controversies, failures against the Arabs, and incestuous marriage to his niece, which many believed to have brought divine retribution upon the entire Empire.

After his death, Heraclius' corpse remained unburied for three days, guarded by his soldiers until it was laid to rest in the [[Church of the Holy Apostles]] within a sarcophagus of white onyx next to the founder of his Empire, [[Constantine I]].<ref name="Norwich97">{{harvnb|Norwich|1997|p=97}}</ref>

==The Theme system==
{{details|Theme system}}
[[File:Byzantine Empire Themata-750-en.svg|left|225px|thumb|The establishment of the themes in the Byzantine Empire]]
The army of the Empire that Heraclius worked so hard to improve eventually was reorganized in Asia Minor into four ''[[military district|Themes]]'', in what is now known as the [[Theme system]]. This system was originally credited by Byzantine historians like [[George Ostrogorsky]] to Heraclius. He provides [[Theophanes the Confessor|Theophanes]] as a source, quoting the expression "the district of the themes" in the year 622, showing the themes had begun to be created at this time.<ref>{{harvnb|Ostrogorsky|1997|p=101}} Ostrogorsky states in the footnotes that in ''Theophanes 303''(under the year 622), ''"the expression 'the districts of the themes' shows that the process of establishing troops (themes) in specific areas of Asia Minor has already begun at this time."''</ref> However, there is evidence presented by some modern historians that it could possibly be credited to Constans,<ref>{{harvnb|Treadgold|1997|p=316}} Treadgold in the footnotes states that [[Constantine VII|Constantine VII's]] ''De Thematibus'' first mentions the system under Constans in 668, and that because he was in the West at the time, Constans had to have first organized the themes before 662. Treadgold supposes that Constantine had access to state archives when he wrote it in the 10th century.</ref> and yet others leave the door open that Heraclius could possibly have done so in the late 630s in [[Cilicia]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Haldon|first=John F.|title=Warfare, State and Society in the Byzantine World|publisher=Routledge|location=London|year=2003|page=114}}</ref> In any case, the debate over exactly when the thematic system originated continues on.

The administrative regions created from this system were to be governed by a ''[[strategos]]'', a military governor. The aim of these Themes was to maximize military potential—many able-bodied men and their families were settled in these four themes and given land for farming. In return for land, these men were to provide the Empire with loyal soldiers, and so began the Thematic armies of the Byzantine Empire that would prove to be reliable, though not unbeatable fighting force for centuries to come. Nonetheless, a native, well-trained army loyal to the state would serve the Empire far more than ill-disciplined mercenaries, whose loyalty to coin could be manipulated and turned against the state itself, as had been exemplified during the Fall of the [[Western Roman Empire]].<ref name="Norwich90"/>

==Constans II==
{{details|Constans II}}

===Death of Heraclius===
[[File:Solidus Constans II (obverse).jpg|thumb|200px|right|Solidus of Constans II, the inscription reads "Constantinus" as that was his actual name.]]

Heraclius' inability to rule the Empire as his death neared did Byzantium no favors. After Heraclius' death in February 641, the former [[Empress]] [[Martina (empress)|Martina]] declared herself, her son, [[Heraclonas]], and her stepson, [[Constantine III (Byzantine emperor)|Constantine III Heraclius]], co-emperors. However, the citizens of Constantinople refused to accept this. And so, when Constantine III died sometime in May 641 (considered by the majority of the Byzantines to have been done by Martina's hand), Heraclonas and his mother were deposed the following summer. Heraclonas' nose was slit and Martina's tongue was wrenched out. These acts ensured that Heraclonas could never become ''[[Basileus]]'' (Emperor) – the physical deformation would have made it impossible. However, as suspects of committing [[regicide]], their exile to the island of [[Rhodes]] was a light punishment.<ref name="Norwich98">{{harvnb|Norwich|1997|p=98}}</ref>

With Constantine dead, the populace of Constantinople turned to his 11-year-old son (also known as Heraclius), who was [[coronation of the Byzantine emperor|crowned emperor]] and changed his name to Constantine. However, he later became known by the nickname "Constans", thus becoming [[Constans II]].

===Wars with the Arabs===
Constans II had inherited from his grandfather Heraclius the war with the Arabs, who were bent on conquering the Byzantine Empire and spreading the word of the Islamic Prophet Muhammad.<ref name="Norwich98"/> Upon his ascension, there was little time to implement a defence for [[Egypt]]—and when [[Muslim conquest of Egypt|the province fell]] in 642,<ref name="Norwich98"/> Constans II could hardly be blamed.

The loss of Egypt and the Levant was catastrophic—along with the manpower from these regions, the substantial supply of food from Egypt was now but a thing of the past. Food shortages were now added to an increasing list of problems that the Emperor was facing.<ref name="Norwich98"/> And to make matters worse for the Byzantines, the Arab armies gave no respite—by 647 the [[Exarchate of Carthage]] had been decisively defeated&nbsp;— another costly defeat as Africa was the Empire's main source of grain, aside from already lost Egypt. The list of defeats would continue to grow, as in 644, the Arabs began building a sizable fleet to take on the centuries of [[Greco-Roman]] naval dominance. In 657, the Arab fleet was sent to raid the Byzantine island of [[Cyprus]]—the island was barely defended, and the Arabs sacked the chief city of [[Salamis, Cyprus|Constantia]], destroyed its harbor installations, and ravaged the countryside. In 654, the Muslim fleet continued unopposed to the island of [[Rhodes]]. After the island fell, Constans II suffered another humiliating defeat at the [[Battle of the Masts]], when he sent his fleet to engage the Arabs off [[Lycia]]. During the engagement, Constans II, fearing the possibility of being captured, exchanged clothing with another man so that he could escape without being identified. Though never captured, the experience was rather embarrassing for the so-called "King of Kings".<ref name="Norwich99">{{harvnb|Norwich|1997|p=99}}</ref>

====Respite====
By this point, the Arabs appeared to the Romans as invincible, and thus, could only hinder themselves. Fortunately for Byzantium, the Arabs began to do just that. The [[Caliph]] [[Uthman ibn Affan]] was assassinated in [[Medina]]. As a result, [[Ali]], the Islamic Prophet [[Muhammed]]'s son-in law was elected as his successor. However, [[Muawiya I|Muawiya]], the governor of [[Syria]] who led the Arab fleet against Byzantium, was proclaimed Caliph in Syria, as well. Only when Ali was assassinated in 661 did the [[First Fitna|civil strife]] end, much to Byzantium's disappointment.<ref name="Norwich99"/>

===Attempts to deal with religious controversies===
Clearly, Byzantium stood no chance whatsoever of defending herself against her opponents when bishops tore the Empire over theological debates. Constans II saw this and it seems that he had enough of it. In 648, Constans still only 18 years of age, declared an edict that no one would raise the [[monothelitism]] versus [[chalcedonianism|Chalcedon]] controversy under the pain of banishment, following an [[excommunication]] by the [[Pope Theodore I]] to the [[Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople|Patriarch of Constantinople]] [[Patriarch Pyrrhus of Constantinople|Pyrrhus]].<ref name="Norwich99"/> When Theodore's successor, [[pope Martin I|Martin I]] once again added fuel to the fire by summoning a council in condemnation of Monethelitism in October 648, he was arrested, brought to the capital and badly mistreated as a common criminal.<ref>{{harvnb|Norwich|1997|pp=99–100}}</ref> In prison it is said that his mistreatment was "such that blood was on the floor." Finally, after being accused of treason and regicide he was banished to the [[Crimean Peninsula|Crimea]]. Such was the frustration of the Emperor.<ref name="Norwich100">{{harvnb|Norwich|1997|p=100}}</ref>

===To the West===
Constans II decided to turn his attention to the West in the hope of achieving better luck. Whilst the [[Saracens]] were establishing themselves in former Byzantine territory, the Avars and Bulgars still remained along the Danube river, as did the Slavs, whose annual payment to the Empire was falling short. Constans II then decided to move his capital to [[Syracuse, Sicily|Syracuse]] in [[Sicily]] in 662. Some say that this was to escape horrible visions of his brother whom he had murdered 2 years past. His stay in Italy and Sicily can only be imagined as unpleasant for the locals. Everything of any value in Rome was requisitioned by the Byzantine army—even copper from the rooftops. It was to many people's relief that Constans II was murdered while bathing by his Greek servant on 15 July 668.<ref>{{harvnb|Kazhdan|1991|p=[https://archive.org/details/odb_20210521/page/496/mode/1up 496]}}</ref><ref name="Norwich100"/>

Constans II left the Empire in a worse state than he had found it. The Byzantine-Arab wars became increasingly one-sided and the immense resources of the Caliphate meant that any reconquest was now remotely unlikely&nbsp;— and more so whilst disunity through dissatisfied peasants and restless Bishops lingered on.

===Tang-dynasty China===
{{further|Sino-Roman relations|Europeans in Medieval China}}
[[File:Emperor Taizong gives an audience to the ambassador of Tibet.jpg|thumb|300px|[[Emperor Taizong of Tang]] (r. 626–649) giving an audience to [[Gar Tongtsen Yulsung]], ambassador of the [[Tibetan Empire]], in a [[Emperor Taizong Receiving the Tibetan Envoy|painting]] by [[Tang dynasty|Tang Chinese]] artist [[Yan Liben]] (600–673 AD)]]
There also seem to [[Sino-Roman relations|have been interactions]] between the Byzantine realm and [[History of China|China]] at this time. Byzantine Greek historian [[Procopius]] stated that two [[Nestorian Christianity|Nestorian Christian]] monks eventually uncovered how [[silk]] was made. From this revelation monks were sent by Justinian I as spies on the [[Silk Road]] from Constantinople to China and back to [[Smuggling of silkworm eggs into the Byzantine Empire|steal the silkworm eggs]].<ref>Durant (2011), p. 118.</ref> This resulted in silk production in the Mediterranean, particularly in [[Soufli#Silk museums of Soufli|Thrace]], in northern Greece,<ref name="livius.org">LIVUS (28 October 2010). [https://www.livius.org/sh-si/silk_road/silk_road.html "Silk Road"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130906212218/https://www.livius.org/sh-si/silk_road/silk_road.html |date=2013-09-06 }}, ''Articles of Ancient History''. Retrieved on 22 September 2016.</ref> and giving the [[Byzantine silk|Byzantine Empire a monopoly on silk production]] in medieval Europe until the loss of [[Lucania (theme)|its territories in Southern Italy]]. The Byzantine historian [[Theophylact Simocatta]], writing during the reign of [[Heraclius]] (r. 610–641), relayed information about [[Geography of China|China's geography]], its capital city ''Khubdan'' ([[Old Turkic language|Old Turkic]]: ''Khumdan'', i.e. [[Chang'an]]), its current ruler ''Taisson'' whose name meant "[[Son of Heaven|Son of God]]" (Chinese: [[Chinese emperor|''Tianzi'']], although this could be derived from the name of [[Emperor Taizong of Tang]]), and correctly pointed to its reunification by the [[Sui dynasty]] (581–618) as occurring during the reign of [[Maurice (emperor)|Maurice]], noting that China had previously been divided politically along the [[Yangzi River]] by [[Southern and Northern dynasties|two warring nations]].{{sfn|Yule|1915|loc=pp. 29–31; see also footnote No. 4 on p. 29; footnote No. 2 on p. 30; and footnote #3 on page 31.}} This seems to match the conquest of the [[Chen dynasty]] in southern China by [[Emperor Wen of Sui]] (r. 581–604).{{sfn|Yule|1915|loc=p. 30 and footnote #2}}

The Chinese ''[[Old Book of Tang]]'' and ''[[New Book of Tang]]'' mention [[:zh:s:新唐書/卷221下|several embassies made by ''Fu lin'']] (拂菻; i.e. [[Byzantium]]), which they equated with [[Daqin]] (i.e. the [[Roman Empire]]), beginning in 643 with an embassy sent by the king ''Boduoli'' (波多力, i.e. [[Constans II|Constans II Pogonatos]]) to [[Emperor Taizong of Tang|Emperor Taizong]] of [[Tang dynasty|Tang]], bearing gifts such as [[Cranberry glass|red glass]].<ref name="halsall 2000">Hirth (2000) [1885], [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/eastasia/romchin1.html ''East Asian History Sourcebook'']. Retrieved 2016-09-22.</ref> These histories also provided cursory descriptions of [[Constantinople]], [[Walls of Constantinople|its walls]], and [[Siege of Constantinople (674-678)|how it was besieged]] by ''Da shi'' (大食; the Arabs of the [[Umayyad Caliphate]]) and their commander "Mo-yi" (摩拽伐之; i.e. [[Muawiyah I]], governor of Syria before becoming [[caliph]]), who forced them to pay tribute.<ref name="halsall 2000"/><ref>[[Henry Yule]] expressed some amazement that even the name of the Byzantine negotiator "Yenyo" (i.e. the patrician Ioannes Petzigaudias) was mentioned in Chinese sources, an envoy who was unnamed in [[Edward Gibbon]]'s account of the man sent to [[Damascus]] to hold a parley with the Umayyads, followed a few years later by the increase of tributary demands on the Byzantines; see {{harvnb|Yule|1915|pp=48–49}}; and for the brief summary of Edward Gibbon's account, see also footnote #1 on p. 49.</ref> [[Henry Yule]] highlights the fact that [[Yazdegerd III]] (r. 632–651), last ruler of the [[Sasanian Empire]], sent diplomats to China for securing aid from Emperor Taizong ([[Protectorate General to Pacify the West|considered the suzerain]] over [[Ferghana]] in Central Asia) during the loss of the [[Persian Empire|Persian heartland]] to the Islamic [[Rashidun Caliphate]], which may have also prompted the Byzantines to send envoys to China amid their [[Muslim conquest of the Levant|recent loss of Syria to the Muslims]].{{sfn|Yule|1915|pp=54–55}} Tang Chinese sources also recorded how Sassanid prince [[Peroz III]] (636–679) fled to Tang China following the [[Muslim conquest of Persia|conquest of Persia by the growing Islamic caliphate]].{{sfn|Schafer|1985|pp=10, 25–26}} Other Byzantine embassies in Tang China are recorded as arriving in 711, 719, and 742.{{sfn|Yule|1915|pp=55–56}}<ref name="halsall 2000"/> From [[Wenxian Tongkao|Chinese records]] it is known that [[Michael VII Doukas]] (Mie li sha ling kai sa 滅力沙靈改撒) of ''Fu lin'' [[Europeans in Medieval China|dispatched a diplomatic mission]] to China's [[Song dynasty]] that arrived in 1081, during the reign of [[Emperor Shenzong of Song]].{{sfn|Sezgin|Ehrig-Eggert|Mazen|Neubauer|1996|p=25}}<ref name="halsall 2000"/>

==Constantine IV==
{{details|Constantine IV}}

===Siege of Constantinople===
{{details|Siege of Constantinople (674–678)}}
[[File:Byzantijnse stadsmuren.JPG|thumb|left|The Arabs failed to breach the heavy walls of Constantinople.]]
Like his predecessors, the wars with the Saracens continued relatively unabated. Before becoming Emperor, Constantine IV was the administrator of his father's lands for the eastern portions of the Empire, what few territories they were. They became fewer still when the Arabs began taking one Imperial Byzantine city after another along the coast of Ionia. Finally in 672, [[Muawiyah I|Muawiya]] the Caliph captured the peninsula of [[Cyzicus]], only {{convert|50|mi|km|0}} from Constantinople. The scene was all too depressingly familiar&nbsp;— the capital was under threat and the odds were not favorable to the defenders&nbsp;— the Arabs had brought with them heavy siege weapons and began the siege of Constantinople in 674. Despite this, Constantinople was simply too much for the Arabs&nbsp;— where else before disunity, sheer bad luck or skill & zeal had given the warriors of Islam victory, now it was the defenders of the capital who, armed with [[Greek fire]] repelled every Arab assault. Finally in 678, after suffering massive casualties, the Saracens withdrew and Muawiya accepted an offer of peace. By 680, Muawiya was dead and Constantine IV, now at the height of his popularity, had managed to defeat the Arabs, both at land in [[Lycia]] and at sea.<ref name="Norwich101">{{harvnb|Norwich|1997|p=101}}</ref>

===Wars with the Bulgars===
With the Saracen threat averted, the Byzantines turned their attention to the west, where the Bulgars were encroaching on Imperial territory. In 680, Constantine IV launched a naval expedition to drive them back&nbsp;— the expedition failed and the Bulgars grew even bolder.<ref name="Norwich101"/> Unable to stop them by force, Constantine settled for a humiliating, but not disastrous treaty whereby "protection" money had to be paid to the Bulgar King.<ref name="Norwich102">{{harvnb|Norwich|1997|p=102}}</ref> The greatest implication of this treaty was that Byzantium would no longer have to worry about the Bulgars for the rest of Constantine's reign.

===Third Council of Constantinople===
{{details|Third Council of Constantinople}}
Constantine IV was determined to solve the problem of the monotheletism/chalcedon controversy once and for all. Calling forth representatives from all corners of Christendom to discuss the matter at hand, they debated until in 681 when Constantine IV, who had presided over much of the meetings, endorsed the virtually unanimous findings. Four years later in 685, Constantine IV died. His death at thirty three years robbed Byzantium of a good Emperor who had defeated her enemies from within as well as without.<ref name="Norwich102"/>

Constantine's wife [[Anastasia (wife of Constantine IV)|Anastasia]] had given him a son, Justinian. As it would turn out, his name would dictate his foreign policy in an attempt to emulate Justinian I's conquest of the West&nbsp;— a risky move considering what few resources the Empire had to defend herself.<ref name="Norwich102"/>

==Justinian II==
{{details|Justinian II}}

===Victories===
[[File:Granting of privileges mosaic (detail) - Sant'Apollinare in Classe - Ravenna 2016 (2).jpg|350px|thumb|right|Mosaic of [[Constantine IV]] (center) with his co-emperors [[Heraclius (son of Constans II)|Heraclius]], [[Tiberius (son of Constans II)|Tiberius]] and [[Justinian II]] to his right.]]
The beginning of Justinian's reign continued the successes his father had enjoyed against the Arab invaders. Campaigning into Armenia, Georgia and even Syria, he was able to enforce a renewal of a peace treaty signed by his father and the Caliph.<ref name="Norwich102"/> With the wars in the east favorably concluded, Justinian II turned his attention to the west where he sent an expedition against the Slavs between 688 and 689. His success in the west was crowned with a triumphant entry into Thessalonika, the second city of the Empire.<ref name="Norwich103">{{harvnb|Norwich|1997|p=103}}</ref>

Following these victories, Justinian set about attempting to increase the [[Opsikion]] Theme by bringing in some 250,000 [[Asia Minor Slavs|settlers of Slavic origin]] into Asia Minor. The benefit of the move was twofold—in addition to opening up more agricultural land, there would also have been an increase in the population and a larger number of Thematic militia troops could be raised&nbsp;— allowing the Empire to wage war with more. Furthermore, the increase in the lower classes shifted the balance of power from the aristocracy to the class of well-off peasants. These self-sufficient peasants, who owned their own land formed the backbone of the Thematic armies. Under such circumstances the power of the Empire and the Emperor increased simultaneously. Since pre-Imperial times the Plebeians looked towards a military champion to combat the rule of the aristocracy, thus the Plebs supported a strong emperor.<ref name="Norwich103"/>

===Failures===
In 691, war with the Arabs resumed and Justinian began increasing taxes in order to finance the conflict. However, in the face of these extortionate requisitions some 20,000 Slavic soldiers deserted to the Arabs—with them went Armenia to the enemy. Enraged, Justinian ordered the extermination of all Slavs in Bithynia—countless men, women and children were put to the sword in rage.<ref name="Norwich103"/>

Justinian then turned his attention to religious matters, which had been quieted down by the efforts of his father. When he called another council to wrap up loose ends from the previous ([[Fifth Ecumenical Council|fifth]] and [[Sixth Ecumenical Council|sixth]] – thus called [[Quinisext Council]]) [[ecumenical council]]s, trivial and strict proposals were laid out including excommunication for "crimes" ranging from provocative or seductive hair curling, the mention of the [[Religion in Ancient Rome|pagan gods]] (especially [[Bacchus]] during the grape harvest), the selling of charms, dealing with fortune tellers and even dancing. Hermits were forbidden from talking with townsfolk or presenting themselves in a particular manner. To make matters worse, no representatives were summoned from Rome so when [[Pope Sergius I]] was asked to approve of 102 canons he not only refused but managed to use the militias of Rome and [[Exarchate of Ravenna|Ravenna]] against the [[Exarch]] Zacharias. The clemency of the pope allowed the Exarch of Ravenna to escape with his life.<ref name="Norwich103"/>

Upon hearing of this, Justinian is said to have gone into another one of his rages. He was already unpopular at the young age of 23. His heavy handedness in extracting the tax money from the peasants and the rich made him deeply resented, especially with his use of torture, which included the use of fire and whips. It was therefore to no one's surprise (though to many a Byzantine's delight) that rebellion came from the ranks of the aristocracy. The revolt found a leader in a professional but disgraced soldier, [[Leontius]].<ref name="Norwich104">{{harvnb|Norwich|1997|p=104}}</ref>

==Non-dynastic: Leontius==
{{details|Leontius}}

===Prisoner===
[[File:Karthago.JPG|thumb|right|The ruins of Carthage]]
Leontius was in prison when a monk once told him that he would one day wear the Imperial diadem.<ref name="Norwich104"/> Such talk was not only dangerous for the monk (who if discovered would have been blinded and exiled for treason) but also dangerous for the man whose ears received&nbsp;— and preyed upon Leontius' mind until in 695 (after being released) he immediately began a relatively unplanned coup. Fortunately for him many of his comrades had also been imprisoned (suggesting that perhaps his entire unit may well have been disgraced) so when he marched upon his former prison to release the inmates, many declared their support for him.

===Rise and fall===
Marching on to the Hagia Sophia, he was fortunate enough to find the support of the [[Patriarch Callinicus I of Constantinople|Patriarch Callinicus I]]—whose recent insults to the incumbent Emperor left him in fear of his life and with little choice.<ref name="Norwich104"/>

With the support of the fanatical [[Hippodrome]] Blue team, Leontius and his men overthrew Justinian II, cutting his nose off in the oriental process of ''rhinokopia'' and declaring himself as ''Basileus''.<ref name="Norwich104"/>

Leontius' rule was both brief and a miserable failure. The armies of Islam were once more on the march and this time the Exarch of Carthage was in serious trouble. Earlier defeats had established Arab supremacy in the region. Leontius, despite his military background, had an unsuccessful expedition sent to Carthage. Rather than report their loss and face the inevitable wrath of the Emperor, the defeated troops decided to name one of their own as ''Basileus'' (a German called Apsimar) and with the support of the Hippodrome Green team (a serious rival of the Blue team that promoted Leontius to the Imperial throne) established Apsimar as ''Basileus'' Tiberius III.<ref name="Norwich104"/>

==Non-dynastic: Tiberius III==
{{details|Tiberius III}}
Tiberius' rule was similarly short but slightly more impressive for his successful campaigning against the Saracens—indeed it seems that his Germanic heritage had given him the same appetite for war that had allowed many of his "barbarian" kind to conquer the Western Empire, with his troops reaching into Armenia and even Muslim-held Syria.<ref name="Norwich105">{{harvnb|Norwich|1997|p=105}}</ref> But by that time in 705, he was overthrown by military force. Justinian, who for ten years was in exile, returned. The Byzantine population could not have asked for a worse overthrow.

==Justinian II (restored)==

===Years in exile===
After having been deposed by Leontius, Justinian escaped to the [[Khazar Khaganate|Khagan of the Khazars]] who welcomed him and even gave his sister as a wife to him. Renaming his wife [[Theodora of Khazaria|Theodora]] he settled at [[Phanagoria]] at the entrance to the [[Sea of Azov]] where they could keep an eye on Imperial events. Justinian was forced to act when in 704 word reached that he was wanted dead or alive for a handsome reward. Such rumors were confirmed when a band of soldiers arrived at his location. Realizing that his life was in danger, he invited two of the officers (whom he suspected as the assassins) to his house and murdered them. Leaving his wife in the safety of her brother, he fled to Bulgaria, Byzantium's chief opponent in the West. There he secured a pact with the Bulgar King [[Tervel of Bulgaria|Tervel]] granting him the title of Caesar if he aided him in regaining the throne of Byzantium.<ref name="Norwich105"/>

===Restoration and rule===
[[File:Monete d'oro di giustiniano II e tiberio IV, 705-711, 02, 9.jpg|thumb|200px|right|[[Justinian II]] and his son [[Tiberius (son of Justinian II)|Tiberius]]]]
In the spring of 705, Constantinople found itself surrounded by yet another army of Slavs and Bulgars, led by Justinian. After three days of scouting his men found an abandoned conduit running across the walls and managed to slip inside. There he surprised the sleeping guards at the [[Palace of Blachernae]]. Within moments, the building was his and Tiberius fled to [[Bithynia]] whilst the citizens of the capital surrendered—the alternative would have been a savage sack that in the mind of the vengeful Justinian, was what it needed.<ref name="Norwich105"/>  The following day, Justinian was given the title of Caesar and a purple robe.

With his coup successful, Justinian II set about bringing his wife back and settling the numerous scores he had with his disloyal subjects. Tiberius and his predecessor Leontius were both executed the previous day after a humiliating pelting at the Hippodrome. Next the [[Patriarch Callinicus I of Constantinople|Patriarch Callinicus]], whose offence had led to his hasty support of Leontius and the crowning of both of Justinian's successors led to his [[Political mutilation in Byzantine culture|blinding]] and exile to Rome.<ref name="Norwich106">{{harvnb|Norwich|1997|p=106}}</ref> After that Justinian set about killing Tiberius' brother, Heraclius who was perhaps the best general in the Empire. With him and his staff of officers dead, Byzantium's neighbours lost no time in exploiting the weakened army—suffering major defeats against the barbarian tribes near the mouth of the Danube and losing the vital stronghold of [[Tyana]] in [[Cappadocia]].

===Expeditions of revenge===

====Ravenna====
Bent upon making others suffer as he had, Justinian had an expedition sent against the Exarchate of Ravenna, for reasons which elude historians today—though sheer madness cannot be ruled out. Upon arriving there the expedition led by Theodore sacked the city whilst his men deceptively invited the officials to a banquet where they were seized and sent to Constantinople. Upon arrival they were met by Justinian, who had them all executed except the Archbishop, who nonetheless suffered a blinding and the usual exile—not being able to return until Justinian was in his grave. It was this execution that led to Ravenna being looted by Theodore and his men.<ref name="Norwich106"/>

In Rome however the mood was calmed by the [[Pope Constantine]] the Syrian. Relations between the Pope and the Emperor had greatly improved—with the Emperor kissing the Pope's feet and sending an impressive delegation before him to meet the Pope (consisting of the [[Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople|Patriarch of Constantinople]] and Justinian's son and co-emperor). Arriving at Constantinople in 711 he came to an accord with Justinian finally approving half of the 102 canons still outstanding from the [[Quinisext Council]] (dealing with the trivial matters he addressed before his exile) and agreeing to drop the other, perhaps less important canons. Satisfied he allowed the Pope a safe journey to Rome.<ref name="Norwich107">{{harvnb|Norwich|1997|p=107}}</ref>

====Cherson====
[[File:Map of Ukraine political simple Oblast Krim.png|thumb|right|Map of the Crimea. The Ancient Greeks had colonized the region as a trade outpost for the [[Black Sea]].]]
Justinian then targeted his former place of exile in the Crimea. There his brother-in-law, the Khagan, had infringed on Imperial territory by establishing a Khazar governor of his own to run Cherson. Upon arriving there, the expedition set about doing its work—countless citizens were drowned (apparently with weights attached) and seven were roasted alive. The ''Tudun'', the governor appointed by the Khagan was sent to Constantinople with 30 others. However, a storm destroyed his army and his fleet when he ordered it to return. Justinian is said to have greeted the news with great laughter. Another fleet was sent but the arrival of the Khagan's army made Justinian reconsider his move to a more diplomatic one. He decided to send the ''Tudun'' back to the Khagan with his apologies and had George of Syria to present the Imperial apology. The citizens of Cherson were naturally in no mood to hear any apology after what Justinian had done. When the Tudun died along the way, the Khazars took it upon themselves to send his 300-strong escort to the afterlife with him.<ref name="Norwich107"/>

====Overthrow====
After the fiasco of the Cherson expedition, the citizens there proclaimed a new man, Bardanes (an exiled General) the ''Basileus'' of Byzantium.<ref name="Norwich107"/> Justinian was enraged at these turn of events. Once more he began redirecting resources to another expedition under the Patriarch Maurus against Cherson, resources that could have been better spent against the Arabs or the Bulgars. The Khazars appeared at the scene preventing the expedition from destroying no more than two defense towers before being obliged to make terms.<ref name="Norwich108">{{harvnb|Norwich|1997|p=108}}</ref> The Patriarch realized that returning to the capital in defeat would undoubtedly lead to a violent retirement at the hands of Justinian. Therefore, in a similar case to Leontius and Tiberius' usurpation, he defected and, with the army and navy under his command, declared his support for the renegade Bardanes, who changed his name to [[Philippicus]].

As Philippicus headed for the Capital Justinian was making his way to Armenia, a warzone between the Byzantines and Arabs. He reached as far as Nicomedia when attempting to turn back, he was caught at the twelfth mile stone of the Capital and executed on the spot.<ref name="Norwich108"/> Philippicus had arrived before he could and was greeted with open arms at the capital.

[[Theodora of Khazaria|Theodora]], the Khazar wife of Justinian II escaped to a nearby monastery with her son and former co-emperor [[Tiberius (son of Justinian II)|Tiberius]]. The young boy was holding on to the [[True Cross]] when a soldier entered and forced his hand from it. It is said that the soldier then laid the Cross with great respect on the altar. Following this rather pious act, he then dragged the boy outside and beneath the porch of a nearby church, butchered the line of [[Heraclius]] into extinction forever.<ref name="Norwich108"/>

==Heraclian dynasty family tree==
<ref>{{harvnb|Treadgold|1997|p=308}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Bury|1889|p=vi}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Kazhdan|1991|p=  [https://archive.org/details/odb_20210521/page/916/mode/1up 916]}}</ref><br/>
<small>{{Tree chart/start|align=center|title=Imperial Palaiologos family tree}}
{{Tree chart| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |,|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|.| }}
{{Tree chart| | | | | ||Mau| | | | | | | | | | | | | |Gre||||||Ep|~|HEE || |Mau=''[[Maurice (emperor)|Maurice]]''<br>emperor|Gre=Gregoras<br>patricius|HEE=[[Heraclius&nbsp;the&nbsp;Elder]]<br>exarch of Africa|Ep=Epiphania}}
{{Tree chart| | | | | | | |!| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |!| | | | | | | | | | | |!| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | }}
{{Tree chart| | | | | | | |!| | | |,|-|-|-|.| | | | | | | |!| | | | | | | | | | | |)|-|-|-|Thd| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |Thd=[[Theodore (brother of Heraclius)|Theodore]]<br>curopalates}}
{{Tree chart| | | | | | |Mar|~| Koh | | sis |~| Sah | | Nic | | FAB |~|~|y|~|~| HER |~|~|y|~|~|~|~|~|Mrt| | | | | | | ||| | |Mrt=[[Martina (empress)|Martina]]<br/>empress&nbsp;regent|Mar=[[Maria (daughter of Maurice)|Maria]]|Koh=[[Khosrow&nbsp;II]]<br>shah of Persia|sis=(sister)|Sah=[[Shahrbaraz]]<br>shah of Persia|HER=<big>'''[[Heraclius]]'''</big><br/>610–641|FAB=[[Eudokia (wife of Heraclius)|Fabia Eudokia]]|Nic=[[Nicetas (cousin of Heraclius)|Nicetas]]<br>governor of Egypt}}
{{Tree chart| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |!| | | |!| | | |,|-|-|-|(| | | |!| | | |)|-|-|-|v|-|v|-|v|-|-|-|.| |||||||| }}
{{Tree chart| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Nke | | GRE |y| CO3 | | EUD | | ATA | | THE | | FAB |!| CON | | COH ||  | | |EUD=[[Eudoxia Epiphania]]|CO3='''[[Constantine III (Byzantine emperor)|Constantine&nbsp;III]]'''<br/>641|GRE=[[Gregoria]]|ATA=<small>illegaitimate<br></small>[[John Athalarichos]]|THE=Theodosios|COH='''[[Heraclonas]]'''<br/>641|FAB=Fabius (Flavius) (?)|CON=Constantine<br>caesar|Tho=Theodosios|Nke=Nike}}
{{Tree chart| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |L|~|~|~|~|~|!|~|~|~|~|~|~|~|~|~|~|~|~|~|J| | | | | |!| | | | | | | | | | | | | || }}
{{Tree chart| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |,|-|-|-|+|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|.| | | |,|-|-|-|v|-|-|-|+|-|-|-|v|-|-|-|.| | | | | || }}
{{Tree chart| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | THD | | MAN | | FAU |y| CO2 | | DAV | | MAR | | AUG | | ANA | | FEB | | | | |THD=Theodosios|MAN=Manyanh|CO2='''[[Constans II]]'''<br/>641–668|FAU=[[Fausta (wife of Constans II)|Fausta]]|DAV=[[David Tiberius]]<br>caesar|MAR=[[Martinos|Martinus]]<br>caesar|AUG=Augoustin|ANA=Martina|FEB=Febronia}}
{{Tree chart| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |,|-|-|-|+|-|-|-|.| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | || }}
{{Tree chart| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | TIB | | HER | | CO4 |y| ANA | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |TIB=[[Tiberius (son of Constans II)|Tiberius]]|HER=[[Heraclius (son of Constans II)|Heraclius]]|CO4='''[[Constantine IV]]'''<br/>668–685|ANA=[[Anastasia (wife of Constantine IV)|Anastasia]]}}
{{Tree chart| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |,|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|(| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | || }}
{{Tree chart| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | HER | | EUD |y| JU2 |y| THK | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |HER=Heraclius|JU2='''[[Justinian II]]'''<br/>685–695<br/>705–711|THK=[[Theodora of Khazaria]]|EUD=[[Eudokia (wife of Justinian II)|Eudokia]]}}
{{Tree chart| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |!| | | |!| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | || }}
{{Tree chart| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | ANS | | TIB | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |ANS=Anastasia|TIB=[[Tiberius (son of Justinian II)|Tiberius]]}}
{{Tree chart/end}}</small>

==See also==
* [[Byzantine–Arab Wars]]
* [[Family tree of Byzantine emperors]]

==Notes==
{{reflist}}

==References==
{{Refbegin|30em}}
*{{cite book|last1=Treadgold|first1=Warren T.|author-link1=Warren Treadgold|title=A History of the Byzantine State and Society|date=1997|publisher=[[Stanford University Press]]|isbn=9780804726306|pages=287}}
*{{cite book|last1=Geanakoplos|first1=Deno J.|title=Byzantium: Church, Society, and Civilization Seen Through Contemporary Eyes|date=1984|publisher=[[University of Chicago Press]]|isbn=9780226284606|page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=2rayUr0j28wC&dq=Byzantine+emperor+Heraclius+Armenian&pg=PA344 344]|quote=Some of the greatest Byzantine emperors—Nicephorus Phocas, John Tzimisces and probably Heraclius—were of Armenian descent.}}
*{{cite book|author-link=J. B. Bury|last=Bury|first=J. B.|title=A History of the Later Roman Empire: From Arcadius to Irene|publisher=Macmillan and Co.|year=1889|pages=205|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=K1YZAAAAYAAJ}}
* {{cite book|author=Durant, Will|title=The Age of Faith: The Story of Civilization|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cusRoE1OJvEC|date=1949|publisher=Simon and Schuster|isbn=978-1-4516-4761-7|page=118}}
* {{cite book |last=Grant |first=R. G. |title=Battle a Visual Journey Through 5000 Years of Combat |location=London |publisher=Dorling Kindersley |year=2005 }}
* {{cite book |last = Haldon |first = John F. |title = Byzantium in the Seventh Century: The Transformation of a Culture |year = 1997 |publisher = Cambridge University Press |isbn = 978-0-521-31917-1 |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=pSHmT1G_5T0C }}
* {{Warfare, State and Society in the Byzantine World, 565–1204}}
* {{cite web|orig-year=1885|date=2000|author=Hirth, Friedrich|author-link=Friedrich Hirth|editor=Jerome S. Arkenberg|url=http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/eastasia/romchin1.html|title=East Asian History Sourcebook: Chinese Accounts of Rome, Byzantium and the Middle East, c. 91 B.C.E. – 1643 C.E.|publisher=[[Fordham University]]|website=Fordham.edu|access-date=2016-09-22}}
* {{citation | first = James | last = Howard-Johnston | title = Witnesses to a World Crisis: Historians and Histories of the Middle East in the Seventh Century | publisher = Oxford University Press | year = 2010 | isbn = 978-0-19-920859-3}}
* {{cite book | last = Jenkins | first = Romilly | title = Byzantium: The Imperial Centuries, 610–1071 | publisher = University of Toronto Press | year = 1987 | isbn = 0-8020-6667-4}}
* {{cite book|last=Kaegi|first=Walter Emil|title=Heraclius, Emperor of Byzantium|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2003|isbn=978-0-521-81459-1|pages=21|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tlNlFZ_7UhoC}}
* {{cite book|last1=Kazhdan|first1=Alexander P.|title=[[The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium]]|date=1991|isbn=978-0-19-504652-6|location=[[Oxford]]|author-link=Alexander Kazhdan|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]}}
* LIVUS (28 October 2010). [https://www.livius.org/sh-si/silk_road/silk_road.html "Silk Road"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130906212218/https://www.livius.org/sh-si/silk_road/silk_road.html |date=2013-09-06 }}, ''Articles of Ancient History''. Retrieved on 22 September 2016.
* {{cite book |last=Mango |first=Cyril |title=The Oxford History of Byzantium |location=New York |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2002 |isbn=0-19-814098-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Z6-kHUyyUIsC }}
* {{cite book |last=Norwich |first=John Julius |title=A Short History of Byzantium |location=New York |publisher= Vintage Books |year=1997 }}
* {{cite book|last=Ostrogorsky|first=George|title=History of the Byzantine State|location=New Jersey|publisher=Rutgers University Press|year=1997|isbn=978-0-8135-1198-6|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/historyofbyzanti00ostr}}
* {{cite book |last=Schafer |first=Edward H. |year=1985 |orig-year=1963 |title=The Golden Peaches of Samarkand: A study of T'ang Exotics |edition=1st paperback |location=Berkeley and Los Angeles |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=0-520-05462-8}}
* {{cite book|last1=Sezgin|first1=Fuat|first2=Carl|last2=Ehrig-Eggert|first3=Amawi|last3=Mazen|first4=E.|last4=Neubauer|title=نصوص ودراسات من مصادر صينية حول البلدان الاسلامية|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=k3ygAAAAMAAJ|year=1996|place=Frankfurt am Main|publisher=Institut für Geschichte der Arabisch-Islamischen Wissenschaften (Institute for the History of Arabic-Islamic Science at the Johann Wolfgang Goethe University)|page=25|isbn=9783829820479}}
* {{cite book |last=Sherrard |first=Philip |title=Great Ages of Man, Byzantium |location=New Jersey |publisher= Time-Life Books |year=1975 }}
*{{cite book |last=Treadgold |first=Warren T. |title=Byzantium and Its Army, 284–1081 |year=1995 |publisher=Stanford University Press |isbn=0-8047-3163-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xfV0LkMNaLUC }}
*{{A History of the Byzantine State and Society}}
* {{cite book |author-link=Henry Yule |last=Yule |first=Henry |year=1915 |editor-first=Henri |editor-last=Cordier |url=https://archive.org/stream/cathaywaythither01yule#page/n3/mode/2up |title=Cathay and the Way Thither: Being a Collection of Medieval Notices of China, Vol I: Preliminary Essay on the Intercourse Between China and the Western Nations Previous to the Discovery of the Cape Route |location=London |publisher=Hakluyt Society |access-date=22 September 2016 }}
{{Refend}}

{{Byzantine Empire topics|state=collapsed}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Heraclians, Byzantium Under The}}
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