Просмотр кода страницы Английская Википедия:Central Alaskan Yupʼik

{{Английская Википедия/Панель перехода}}
{{Redirect-distinguish2|Yup'ik language|the [[Yupik languages]]}}
{{short description|Language of the Yupik family, spoken in western and southwestern Alaska}}
{{Infobox language
| name = Central Alaskan Yupik
| altname = Yupʼik
| nativename = ''Yugtun, Cugtun''
| states = [[United States]]
| region = western and southwestern [[Alaska]]
| ethnicity = [[Yup'ik|Central Alaskan Yupik people]]
| speakers = 19,750
| date     = 2013
| ref      = <ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.census.gov/data/tables/2013/demo/2009-2013-lang-tables.html |title=Detailed Languages Spoken at Home and Ability to Speak English for the Population 5 Years and Over: 2009-2013 |date=2015 |website=U.S. Census Bureau}}</ref>
| familycolor = Eskimo-Aleut
| fam2 = [[Eskimo languages|Eskimo]]
| fam3 = [[Yupik languages|Yupik]]
| ancestor = [[Proto-Eskaleut language|Proto-Eskimo–Aleut]]
| ancestor2 = [[Proto-Eskimoan language|Proto-Eskimo]]
| ancestor3 = [[Proto-Yupik language|Proto-Yupik]]
| nation = {{flag|Alaska}}<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.npr.org/sections/thetwo-way/2014/04/21/305688602/alaska-oks-bill-making-native-languages-official|title = Alaska OKs Bill Making Native Languages Official|newspaper = NPR|date = 21 April 2014|last1 = Chappell|first1 = Bill}}</ref>
| dia1 = {{nowrap|[[Yugtun dialect|Yugtun]] (Yukon-Kuskokwim)}}
| dia2 = [[Chevak Cupʼik language|Cupʼik]] (Chevak)
| dia3 = [[Nunivak Cupʼig language|Cupʼig]] (Nunivak)
| script = [[Latin script|Latin]], formerly the [[Yugtun syllabary]]
| iso3 = esu
| glotto = cent2127
| glottorefname = Central Alaskan Yupik
| glottopedia = Zentralalaska-Yup'ik
| notice = IPA
| map = Lang Status 80-VU.svg
| mapcaption = {{center|{{small|Central Alaskan Yupik is classified as Vulnerable by the [[UNESCO]] [[Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger]]}}}}
}}
'''Central Alaskan Yupʼik''' (also rendered '''Yupik''',<ref name="Census.gov">{{cite web |url=https://www.census.gov/hhes/socdemo/language/data/acs/SupplementaryTable1_ACSBR10-10.xls |title=Supplementary Table 1. Native North American Languages and Residence in American Indian or Alaska Native Areas for the Population 5 Years and Over in the United States and Puerto Rico: 2006-2010 |format=xls |website=[[Census.gov]] |quote=Yupik}}</ref> '''Central Yupik''',<ref name=e25>{{e25|esu}}</ref><ref name="ISO 639-3/RA">{{cite web |url=http://www-01.sil.org/iso639-3/documentation.asp?id=esu |title=Documentation for ISO 639 identifier: ess |publisher=ISO 639-3 Registration Authority - SIL International |access-date=2017-07-08 |quote=Name: Central Yupik}}</ref> or indigenously '''Yugtun''') is one of the languages of the [[Yupik languages|Yupik]] family, in turn a member of the [[Eskimo–Aleut languages|Eskimo–Aleut]] language group, spoken in western and southwestern [[Alaska]]. Both in ethnic population and in number of speakers, the [[Yup'ik|Central Alaskan Yupik people]] form the largest group among [[Alaska Natives]]. As of 2010 Yupʼik was, after [[Navajo language|Navajo]], the second most spoken aboriginal language in the United States.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Siebens |first=Julie |last2=Julian |first2=Tiffany |date=2011 |title=Native North American Languages Spoken at Home in the United States and Puerto Rico: 2006–2010 |url=https://www2.census.gov/library/publications/2011/acs/acsbr10-10.pdf |access-date=2023-07-26 |website=U.S. Census Bureau}}</ref> Yupʼik should not be confused with the related language [[Central Siberian Yupik language|Central Siberian Yupik]] spoken in [[Chukchi Peninsula|Chukotka]] and [[St. Lawrence Island]], nor [[Naukan Yupik language|Naukan Yupik]] likewise spoken in Chukotka.

Yupʼik, like all Eskimo languages, is [[Polysynthetic language|polysynthetic]] and uses [[suffixation]] as primary means for word formation. There are a great number of derivational suffixes (termed ''postbases'') that are used [[Productivity (linguistics)|productively]] to form these polysynthetic words. Yupʼik has predominantly [[Ergative–absolutive alignment|ergative]] alignment: [[case marking]] follows the ergative pattern for the most part, but [[verb agreement]] can follow an ergative or an [[Nominative–accusative alignment|accusative]] pattern, depending on grammatical [[Grammatical mood|mood]].<ref name=":4" /> The language grammatically distinguishes three [[Grammatical number|numbers]]: singular, [[Dual (grammatical number)|dual]], and [[plural]]. There is no marking of [[grammatical gender]] in the language, nor are there [[Article (grammar)|articles]].

== Language name ==
The Yup'ik language goes by various names. Since it is a geographically central member of the [[Yupik languages]] and is spoken in [[Alaska]], the language is often referred to as ''Central Alaskan Yupik'' (for example, in Miyaoka's 2012 grammar of the language). The term ''Yup'ik'' [jupːik] is a common [[endonym]], and is derived from /juɣ-piɣ/ "person-genuine".<ref name=":4" /> The [[Alaska Native Language Center]] and Jacobson's (1995) learner's grammar use ''Central (Alaskan) Yup'ik'', which can be seen as a hybrid of the former two terms; there is, however, potential for confusion here: ''Central (Alaskan) Yup'ik'' may refer to either the language as a whole, or the geographically central dialect of the language, more commonly called ''General Central Yup'ik.''

Other endonyms are used regionally: ''Cup'ig'' in the Nunivak dialect, ''Cup'ik'' in Chevak (these terms are cognate with ''Yup'ik'', but represent the pronunciation of the word in the respective dialect), and ''Yugtun'' in the Yukon-Kuskokwim region''.''

==Geographic distribution and use==
Yupʼik is spoken primarily in southwestern Alaska, from [[Norton Sound]] in the north to the [[Alaska Peninsula]] in the south, and from [[Iliamna Lake|Lake Iliamna]] in the east to [[Nunivak Island]] in the west. Yup'ik lies geographically central relative to the other members of the Yupik language family: [[Alutiiq language|Alutiiq ~ Sugpiaq]] is spoken to south and east, and [[Central Siberian Yupik language|Central Siberian Yupik]] is spoken to the west on [[St. Lawrence Island]] (often called ''St. Lawrence Island Yupik'' in the Alaskan context) and on the [[Chukotka Peninsula|Chukotka peninsula]], where [[Naukan Yupik language|Naukan Yupik]] is also spoken. Yup'ik is bordered to the north by the more distantly related [[Iñupiaq language]]; the difference between Yupʼik and Iñupiaq is comparable to that of the difference between Spanish and French.<ref>{{Harvnb|Jacobson|1984|p=5}}</ref>

Of a total population of more than 23,000 people, more than 14,000 are speakers of the language.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.yupikscience.org/1intro/1-3.html|title=Yuungnaqpiallerput&nbsp;– The Way We Genuinely Live&nbsp;– Masterworks of Yupʼik Science and Survival|access-date=3 July 2015}}</ref> Children still grow up speaking Yupʼik as their first language in 17 of 68 Yupʼik villages, those mainly located on the lower [[Kuskokwim River]], on [[Nelson Island (Alaska)|Nelson Island]], and along the coast between the Kuskokwim River and Nelson Island. The variety of Yup'ik spoken by the younger generations is being influenced strongly by English: it is less [[Synthetic language|synthetic]], has a reduced inventory of spatial demonstratives, and is lexically Anglicized.<ref name=":4" />

==Dialects==
Yup'ik is typically considered to have five dialects: '''Norton Sound''', '''General Central Yup'ik''', '''[[Nunivak Cupʼig language|Nunivak]]''', '''[[Chevak Cupʼik language|Hooper Bay-Chevak]],''' and the extinct '''Egegik''' dialect.<ref name=":4" /><ref name="Jacobson, Steven A page 6">{{Harvnb|Jacobson|1984|p=6}}</ref><ref name=":52" /> All extant dialects of the language are [[mutually intelligible]], albeit with phonological and lexical differences that sometimes cause difficulty in cross-dialectal comprehension.<ref name="Jacobson, Steven A page 6" /><ref name="Fienupriordan1994boundaries">{{cite book|last=Fienup-Riordan|first=Ann|title=Boundaries and Passages: Rule and Ritual in Yupʼik Eskimo Oral Tradition|publisher=University of Oklahoma Press|year=1994|isbn=0-585-12190-7|location=Norman, OK|author-link=Ann Fienup-Riordan}}</ref> Lexical differences exist somewhat dramatically across dialects, in part due to a historical practice of name taboo.<ref name=":4">{{Cite book|last=Miyaoka|first=Osahito|title=A Grammar of Central Alaskan Yupik (CAY)|date=2012-10-29|publisher=De Gruyter Mouton|doi=10.1515/9783110278576|isbn=978-3-11-027857-6}}</ref> Speakers may be reluctant to take on the lexicon of another dialect because they "often feel proud of their own dialects".<ref name="Jacobson, Steven A page 6" /> 

The Yupʼik dialects, sub-dialects and their locations are as follows:<ref name="reedjacobsonkaplanleer">[[E. Irene Reed]], Steven Jacobson, Lawrence Kaplan, and Jeff Leer (1985). [http://www.uafanlc.arsc.edu/data/Online/CE984R1984/eskimo_census_1980.pdf ''Alaskan Eskimo Languages population, dialects, and distribution based on 1980 Census'']{{Dead link|date=June 2019 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}. Alaska Native Language Center, University of Alaska Fairbanks 1985.</ref>

# '''Norton Sound''' (alternatively, Unaliq-Pastuliq); spoken around [[Norton Sound]]
## Unaliq sub-dialect; spoken by Unalirmiut (= Atnegmiut, Kuuyuŋmiut, Eŋlutaleġmiut etc.) tribes in [[Elim, Alaska|Elim]] (''Neviarcaurluq''), [[Golovin, Alaska|Golovin]] (''Cingik''), [[St. Michael, Alaska|St. Michael]] (''Taciq'')
## Kotlik sub-dialect; spoken by the Pastulirmiut tribe in [[Kotlik, Alaska|Kotlik]] (''Qerrulliik'')
# '''General Central Yupʼik''' (''Yugtun''); spoken on Nelson Island, on the Yukon-Kuskokwim delta, and in the Bristol Bay region of Alaska<ref name="Jacobson, Steven A page 6" />
## Core dialects; spoken on the lower [[Kuskokwim River|Kuskokwim]], on the coast up to [[Nelson Island (Alaska)|Nelson Island]], and in [[Bristol Bay]]<ref name=":52" />
### Lower Kuskokwim sub-dialect; spoken in [[Akiachak, Alaska|Akiachak]] (''Akiacuaq''), [[Akiak, Alaska|Akiak]] (''Akiaq''), [[Atmautluak, Alaska|Atmautluak]] (''Atmaulluaq''), [[Bethel, Alaska|Bethel]] (''Mamterilleq''), [[Eek, Alaska|Eek]] (''Ekvicuaq''), [[Goodnews Bay, Alaska|Goodnews Bay]] (''Mamterat''), [[Upper Kalskag, Alaska|Upper Kalskag]] (''Qalqaq''), [[Lower Kalskag, Alaska|Lower Kalskag]] (''Qalqaq''), [[Kipnuk, Alaska|Kipnuk]] (''Qipnek''), [[Kongiganak, Alaska|Kongiganak]] (''Kangirnaq''), [[Kwethluk, Alaska|Kwethluk]] (''Kuiggluk''), [[Kwigillingok, Alaska|Kwigillingok]] (''Kuigilnguq''), [[Napakiak, Alaska|Napakiak]] (''Naparyarraq''), [[Napaskiak, Alaska|Napaskiak]] (''Napaskiaq''), [[Nunapitchuk, Alaska|Nunapitchuk or Akolmiut]] (''Nunapicuar''), [[Oscarville, Alaska|Oscarville]] (''Kuiggayagaq''), [[Platinum, Alaska|Platinum]] (''Arviiq''), [[Quinhagak, Alaska|Quinhagak]] (''Kuinerraq''), [[Tuluksak, Alaska|Tuluksak]] (''Tuulkessaaq''), and [[Tuntutuliak, Alaska|Tuntutuliak]] (''Tuntutuliaq'')
### Bristol Bay sub-dialect; spoken in [[Aleknagik, Alaska|Aleknagik]] (''Alaqnaqiq''), [[Clark's Point, Alaska|Clark's Point]] (''Saguyaq''), [[Dillingham, Alaska|Dillingham]] (''Curyung''), [[Ekuk, Alaska|Ekuk]], [[Manokotak, Alaska|Manokotak]] (''Manuquutaq''), [[Togiak, Alaska|Togiak]] (''Tuyuryaq''), and [[Twin Hills, Alaska|Twin Hills]] (''Ingricuar'')
## Peripheral dialects; spoken on the upper [[Kuskokwim River|Kuskokwim]], on the [[Yukon River|Yukon]], and around [[Iliamna Lake|Lake Iliamna]]<ref name=":52" />
### Yukon or Lower Yukon sub-dialect; spoken in [[Alakanuk, Alaska|Alakanuk]] (''Alarneq''), [[Emmonak, Alaska|Emmonak]] (''Imangaq''), [[Holy Cross, Alaska|Holy Cross]] (''Ingirraller''), [[Marshall, Alaska|Marshall or Fortuna Ledge]] (''Masserculleq''), [[Mountain Village, Alaska|Mountain Village]] (''Asaacaryaraq''), [[Nunam Iqua, Alaska|Nunam Iqua or Sheldon Point]] (''Nunam Iqua''),  [[Pilot Station, Alaska|Pilot Station]] (''Tuutalgaq''), [[Pitkas Point, Alaska|Pitkas Point]] (''Negeqliim Painga''), [[Russian Mission, Alaska|Russian Mission]] (''Iqugmiut''), [[St. Mary's, Alaska|St. Mary's]] (''Negeqliq''), [[Scammon Bay, Alaska|Scammon Bay]] (''Marayaarmiut'')
### Upper or Middle Kuskokwim sub-dialect; spoken in [[Aniak, Alaska|Aniak]] (''Anyaraq''), [[Chuathbaluk, Alaska|Chuathbaluk]] (''Curarpalek''), [[Crooked Creek, Alaska|Crooked Creek]] (''Qipcarpak''), [[McGrath, Alaska|McGrath]], [[Sleetmute, Alaska|Sleetmute]] (''Cellitemiut''), [[Eek, Alaska|Stony River]]
### Lake Iliamna sub-dialect; spoken in [[Egegik, Alaska|Egegik]] (''Igyagiiq''), [[Igiugig, Alaska|Igiugig]] (''Igyaraq''), [[Iliamna, Alaska|Iliamna]] (''Illiamna''), [[Kokhanok, Alaska|Kokhanok]] (''Qarrʼunaq''), [[Levelock, Alaska|Levelock]] (''Liivlek''), [[Naknek, Alaska|Naknek]] (''Nakniq''), [[South Naknek, Alaska|South Naknek]] (''Qinuyang'')
## Mixed dialects (i.e., those that share features of core and peripheral varieties)
### Nelson Island & Stebbins sub-dialect; spoken in [[Chefornak, Alaska|Chefornak]] (''Cevvʼarneq''), [[Newtok, Alaska|Newtok]] (''Niugtaq''), [[Nightmute, Alaska|Nightmute]] (''Negtemiut''), [[Stebbins, Alaska|Stebbins]] (''Tapraq''), [[Toksook Bay, Alaska|Toksook Bay]] (''Nunakauyaq'' or ''Qaluuyarmiut''), [[Tununak, Alaska|Tununak]] (''Tununeq'')
### Nushagak River sub-dialect; spoken in [[Ekwok, Alaska|Ekwok]] (''Iquaq''), [[Koliganek, Alaska|Koliganek]] (''Qalirneq''), [[New Stuyahok, Alaska|New Stuyahok]] (''Cetuyaraq''), [[Portage Creek, Alaska|Portage Creek]]
# '''Egegik''' ([[Extinct language|extinct]]), once spoken in [[Egegik, Alaska|Egegik]] (''Igyagiiq'')
# '''Hooper Bay-Chevak'''
## Hooper Bay sub-dialect; spoken in [[Hooper Bay, Alaska|Hooper Bay]] (''Naparyaarmiut'')
##[[Chevak Cupꞌik dialect|Chevak]] sub-dialect; spoken in [[Chevak, Alaska|Chevak]] (''Cevʼaq''),
# [[Nunivak Cupʼig language|'''Nunivak''']]; spoken in [[Mekoryuk, Alaska|Mekoryuk]] (''Mikuryar'').
The last of these, the Nunivak dialect (''Cupʼig'') is distinct and highly divergent from mainland Yupʼik dialects. The only significant difference between Hooper Bay and Chevak dialects is the pronunciation of the initial ''y-'' [j] as ''c-'' [tʃ] in Chevak in some words: ''Yupʼik'' in Hooper Bay but ''Cupʼik'' in Chevak.<ref name=":4" />

Even sub-dialects may differ with regard to pronunciation and lexicon. The following table compares some words in two sub-dialects of General Central Yupʼik (''Yugtun'').<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.eric.ed.gov/PDFS/ED155911.pdf|title=ERIC&nbsp;– Education Resources Information Center|access-date=3 July 2015}}{{Dead link|date=June 2019 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>

{| class=wikitable
|-
! Yukon (''Kuigpak'')
! Kuskokwim (''Kusquqvak'')
! meaning
|-
|{{lang|esu|elicar-}}
|{{lang|esu|elitnaur-}}
|to study (intrans.); to teach someone (trans.)
|-
|{{lang|esu|elicaraq}}
|{{lang|esu|elitnauraq}}
|student
|-
|{{lang|esu|elicari-}}
|{{lang|esu|elitnauri}}
|to teach (intrans.)
|-
|{{lang|esu|elicarista}}
|{{lang|esu|elitnaurista}}
|teacher
|-
|{{lang|esu|aiggaq}}
|{{lang|esu|unan}}
|hand
|-
|{{lang|esu|ikusek}}
|{{lang|esu|cingun}}
|elbow
|-
|{{lang|esu|ayuqe-}}
|{{lang|esu|kenir-}}
|to cook by boiling
|-
|{{lang|esu|cella}}
|{{lang|esu|ella}}
|weather, outside, universe, awareness
|-
|{{lang|esu|naniq}}
|{{lang|esu|kenurraq}}
|lamp, light
|-
|{{lang|esu|uigtua-}}
|{{lang|esu|naspaa-}}
|to sample or taste, attempt, try
|}

==Writing and literature==
A [[syllabary]] known as the [[Yugtun script]] was invented for the language by [[Uyaquq]], a native speaker, in about 1900, although the language is now mostly written using the [[Latin script]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Yupik writing |url=http://www.blackwellreference.com/public/tocnode?id=g9780631214816_chunk_g978063121481627_ss1-8 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130119000021/http://www.blackwellreference.com/public/tocnode |archive-date=2013-01-19 |website=Blackwell Reference Online}}</ref>  Early linguistic work in Central Yupʼik was done primarily by [[Russian Orthodox]], then [[Jesuit]] and [[Moravian Church]] missionaries, leading to a modest tradition of literacy used in letter writing. In the 1960s, Irene Reed and others at the [[Alaska Native Language Center]] developed a modern writing system for the language. Their work led to the establishment of the state's first bilingual school programs in four Yupʼik villages in the early 1970s. Since then a wide variety of bilingual materials has been published, including Steven Jacobson's comprehensive dictionary of the language, his complete practical classroom grammar, and story collections and narratives by many others including a full novel by [[Anna Jacobson]].

== Orthography ==
[[File:PLEDGE OF ALLEGIANCE in YUPIK (2840468808).jpg|thumb|The [[Pledge of Allegiance]] in Yupʼik. This uses a variant orthography with <gh> instead of <r> to indicate the [[voiced uvular fricative]].]]
While several different systems have been used to write Yupʼik, the most widely used orthography today is that adopted by the [[Alaska Native Language Center]] and exemplified in Jacobson's (1984) dictionary, Jacobson's (1995) learner's grammar, and Miyaoka's (2012) grammar. The orthography is a [[Latin-script alphabet]]; the letters and [[Digraph (orthography)|digraphs]] used in alphabetical order are listed below, along with an indication of their associated [[Phoneme|phonemes]] in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA).

{| class="wikitable"
!Letter / digraph
!IPA
! rowspan="16" |
!Letter / digraph
!IPA
!Notes
|-
|''a''
|/a/
|''p''
|/p/
|
|-
|''c''
|/tʃ/
|''q''
|/q/
|
|-
|''e''
|/ə/
|''r''
|/ʁ/
|represents /χ/ word-finally
|-
|''g''
|/ɣ/
|''rr''
|/χ/
|
|-
|''gg''
|/x/
|''s''
|/z/
|represents /s/ word-initially
|-
|''i''
|/i/
|''ss''
|/s/
|
|-
|''k''
|/k/
|''t''
|/t/
|
|-
|''l''
|/l/
|''u''
|/u/
|
|-
|''ll''
|/ɬ/
|''u͡g''
|/ɣʷ/
|
|-
|''m''
|/m/
|''u͡r''
|/ʁʷ/
|
|-
|''ḿ''
|/m̥/
|''u͡rr''
|[χʷ]
|does not [[Phonemic contrast|contrast]] with /ʁʷ/
|-
|''n''
|/n/
|v
|/v/
|
|-
|''ń''
|/n̥/
|vv
|/f/
|
|-
|''ng''
|/ŋ/
|w
|/xʷ/
|
|-
|''ńg''
|/ŋ̊/
|y
|/j/
|
|}
The vowel qualities /a, i, u/ may occur [[Vowel length|long]]; these are written ''aa'', ''ii'', ''uu'' when vowel length is not a result of [[Stress (linguistics)|stress]]. Consonants may also occur long ([[Geminate consonant|geminate]]), but their occurrence is often predictable by regular phonological rules, and so in these cases is not marked in the orthography. Where long consonants occur unpredictably they are indicated with an [[apostrophe]] following consonant. For example, ''Yupiaq'' and ''Yupʼik'' both contain a geminate ''p'' (/pː/). In ''Yupiaq'' length is predictable and hence is not marked; in ''Yupʼik'' the length is not predictable and so must be indicated with the apostrophe. An apostrophe is also used to separate ''n'' from ''g'', to distinguish ''n'g'' /nɣ/ from the digraph ''ng'' /ŋ/. Apostrophes are also used between two consonants to indicate that voicing [[Assimilation (phonology)|assimilation]] has not occurred (see below), and between two vowels to indicate the lack of gemination of a preceding consonant. A [[hyphen]] is used to separate a [[clitic]] from its host.

==Phonology==

=== Vowels ===
Yup'ik contrasts four [[Vowel quality|vowel qualities]]: {{IPA|/a i u ə/}}. The [[Vowel reduction|reduced]] vowel {{IPA|/ə/}} always manifests phonetically short in [[Vowel length|duration]], but the other three vowel qualities may occur phonetically short or long: {{IPA|[a aː i iː u uː]}}. Phonetically long vowels come about when a full vowel ({{IPA|/a i u/}}) is lengthened by [[Stress (linguistics)|stress]] (see below), or when two single vowels are brought together across a [[morpheme]] boundary. The effect is that while phonetic vowel length may yield a surface contrast between words, phonetic length is predictable and thus not [[Phonemic contrast|phonemically contrastive]].<ref name=":4" />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
|+Yup'ik vowel phonemes
!
![[Front vowel|Front]] (unrounded)
![[Central vowel|Central]]
(unrounded)
![[Back vowel|Back]]
[[Roundedness|rounded]]
|-
!<small>Non-low</small>
| width="20px" style="border-right: 0;" |[[Close front unrounded vowel|i]]
| width="20px" style="border-right: 0;" |[[Mid central vowel|ə]]
|[[Close back rounded vowel|u]]
|-
!<small>[[Low vowel|Low]]</small>
|
| style="border-right: 0;" |[[Open front unrounded vowel|a]]
| width="20px" style="border-right: 0;" |
|}

The vowel qualities {{IPA|[e o]}} are allophones of {{IPA|/i u/}}, and are found preceding uvular consonants (such as {{IPA|[q]}} or {{IPA|[ʁ]}}) and preceding the low vowel {{IPA|[a]}}.<ref name=":4" />

===Consonants===
Yup'ik does not contrast [[Voice (phonetics)|voicing]] in [[Plosive consonant|stops]], but has a wide range of [[Fricative consonant|fricatives]] that contrast in voicing. The phoneme {{IPA|/l/}} is not phonetically a fricative, but behaves as one phonologically in Yup'ik (in particular with regard to voicing alternations, where it alternates with {{IPAblink|ɬ}}; see below). Contrasts between {{IPA|/s/}} and {{IPA|/z/}} and between {{IPA|/f/}} and {{IPA|/v/}} are rare, and the greater part of the voicing contrasts among fricatives is between the laterals {{IPA|/l/}} and {{IPA|/ɬ/}}, the velars {{IPA|/x/}} and {{IPA|/ɣ/}}, and the uvulars {{IPA|/χ/}} and {{IPA|/ʁ/}}. For some speakers, there is also a voicing contrast among the nasal consonants, which is [[Linguistic typology|typologically]] somewhat rare. Any consonant may occur as a [[geminate]] word-medially, and consonant length is contrastive.<ref name=":4" />

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
|+Yup'ik consonants
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |
! rowspan="2" |[[Labial consonant|Labial]]
! rowspan="2" |[[Alveolar consonant|Alveolar]]
! rowspan="2" |[[Postalveolar consonant|Postalv.]]/<br>[[Palatal consonant|Palatal]]
! colspan="2" |[[Velar consonant|Velar]]
! colspan="2" |[[Uvular consonant|Uvular]]
|-
!{{small|plain}}
!{{small|[[Labialization|labialised]]}}
!{{small|plain}}
!{{small|[[Labialization|labialised]]}}
|-
! rowspan="2" |[[Nasal consonant|Nasal]]
!{{small|[[voicelessness|voiceless]]}}
| width="20px" style="border-right: 0;" |{{IPAlink|m̥}}
| width="20px" style="border-right: 0;" |{{IPAlink|n̥}}
|
| width="20px" style="border-right: 0;" |{{IPAlink|ŋ̊}}
|
|
|
|-
!{{small|[[voice (phonetics)|voiced]]}}
|{{IPAlink|m}}
|{{IPAlink|n}}
|
|{{IPAlink|ŋ}}
|
|
|
|-
! colspan="2" |[[Stop consonant|Stop]]
| style="border-right: 0;" |{{IPAlink|p}}
| style="border-right: 0;" |{{IPAlink|t}}
|
| style="border-right: 0;" |{{IPAlink|k}}
|
| width="20px" style="border-right: 0;" |{{IPAlink|q}}
|
|-
! colspan="2" |[[Affricate consonant|Affricate]]
|
| style="border-right: 0;" |([[Voiceless alveolar affricate|t͡s]])
| width="20px" style="border-right: 0;" |[[Voiceless postalveolar affricate|t͡ʃ]]
|
|
|
|
|-
! rowspan="3" |[[Fricative consonant|Fricative]]
!{{small|[[voicelessness|voiceless]]}}
| style="border-right: 0;" |{{IPAlink|f}}
| style="border-right: 0;" |{{IPAlink|s}}
|
| style="border-right: 0;" |{{IPAlink|x}}
|[[Labialization|xʷ]]
| style="border-right: 0;" |{{IPAlink|χ}}
|([[Labialization|χʷ]])
|-
!{{small|[[voice (phonetics)|voiced]]}}
|{{IPAlink|v}}
|{{IPAlink|z}}
|
| style="border-right: 0;" |{{IPAlink|ɣ}}
|[[Labialization|ɣʷ]]
| style="border-right: 0;" |{{IPAlink|ʁ}}
|[[Labialization|ʁʷ]]
|-
![[Lateral consonant|l<small>ateral</small>]]
|
| style="border-right: 0;" |{{IPAlink|ɬ}}
|
|
|
|
|
|-
! colspan="2" |[[Approximant consonant|Approximant]]
|
|{{IPAlink|l}}
| style="border-right: 0;" |{{IPAlink|j}}
| style="border-right: 0;" |
|([[Voiced labial–velar approximant|w]])
| style="border-right: 0;" |
|
|}
The table above includes the allophones {{IPA|[χʷ]}}, {{IPA|[ts]}}, and {{IPA|[w]}}. The voiceless labialized uvular fricative {{IPA|[χʷ]}} occurs only in some speech variants and does not contrast with its voiced counterpart {{IPA|/ʁʷ/}}. The [[voiceless alveolar affricate]] {{IPA|[ts]}} is an allophone of {{IPA|/tʃ/}} before the schwa vowel. The [[voiced labiovelar approximant]] {{IPA|[w]}} is an allophone of {{IPA|/v/}} that typically occurs between two full vowels, excepting when it occurs adjacent to an inflectional suffix. For example, {{IPA|/tʃali-vig-∅/}} "work-place-<small>ABS</small>" is pronounced {{IPA|[tʃaliːwik]}} (orthographically, ''calivik''), since {{IPA|/v/}} occurs between two full vowels and it not adjacent to the inflectional suffix. With {{IPA|/tʃav-utə/}} "oar" by contrast, since {{IPA|/-utə/}} is an inflectional suffix, {{IPA|/v/}} does not undergo the allophonic alternation: {{IPA|[tʃavun]}} (''cavun'').<ref name=":4" />

==== Dialect variations ====
In Norton Sound, as well as some villages on the lower Yukon, {{IPA|/j/}} tends to be pronounced as {{IPA|[z]}} when following a consonant, and geminate {{IPA|/jː/}} as {{IPA|[zː]}}. For example, the word ''angyaq'' "boat" of General Central Yup'ik (GCY) is ''angsaq'' {{IPA|[aŋzaq]}} Norton Sound.<ref name=":52">{{Cite book|last=Jacobson, Steven A.|url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/883251222|title=A practical grammar of the central Alaskan Yup'ik Eskimo language|year=2007|orig-year= 1995|publisher=Alaska Native Language Center and Program, University of Alaska|isbn=978-1-55500-050-9|oclc=883251222}}</ref><ref name=":4" />

Conversely, in the Hooper Bay-Chevak (HBC) dialect, there is no {{IPA|/z/}} phoneme, and {{IPA|/j/}} is used in its place, such that GCY ''qasgiq'' {{IPA|[qazɣeq]}} is pronounced ''qaygiq'' {{IPA|[qajɣeq]}}. HBC does not have the {{IPA|[w]}} allophone of {{IPA|/v/}}, such that {{IPA|/v/}} is pronounced {{IPA|[v]}} in all contexts,<ref name=":52" /> and there are no labialized uvular fricatives.<ref name=":4" />

In the Nunivak dialect, one finds {{IPA|/aː/}} in place of GCY {{IPA|/ai/}}, such that GCY ''cukaitut'' "they are slow" is pronounced ''cukaatut'', there is no word-final fortition of {{IPA|/x/}} and {{IPA|/χ/}} (see below), and word-initial {{IPA|/xʷ/}} is pronounced {{IPA|[kʷ]}}.<ref name=":52" />

==== Voicing alternations ====
There are a variety of voicing [[Assimilation (phonology)|assimilation]] processes (specifically, [[devoicing]]) that apply mostly predictably to [[continuant]] consonants ([[Fricative|fricatives]] and [[Nasal consonant|nasals]]); these processes are not represented in the orthography.<ref name=":52" />

* The [[Voice (phonetics)|voiced]] [[Fricative consonant|fricatives]] {{IPA|/v, z, l, ɣ, ʁ/}} undergo voicing assimilation when adjacent to the voiceless stops {{IPA|/p, t, k, q/}}; this occurs [[Progressive assimilation|progressively]] (left-to-right) and [[Regressive assimilation|regressively]] (right-to-left). Thus ''ekvik'' is pronounced {{IPA|[əkfik]}}, and ''qilugtuq'' {{IPA|/qiluɣ-tu-q/}} is pronounced {{IPA|[qiluxtoq]}} (compare ''qilugaa'' {{IPA|/qiluɣ-a-a/}} {{IPA|[qiluːɣaː]}}).

* Progressive voicing assimilation occurs from fricatives to fricatives: ''inarrvik'' {{IPA|/inaχ-vik/}} is pronounced {{IPA|[inaχfik]}}.
* Progressive voicing assimilation occurs from stops to nasals: ''ciut-ngu-uq'' "it is an ear" is pronounced {{IPA|[tʃiutŋ̊uːq]}}.
* Progressive voicing optionally occurs from voiceless fricatives to nasals: ''errneq'' is pronounced {{IPA|[əχn̥əq]}} or {{IPA|[əχnəq]}}.<ref name=":4" />

Occasionally these assimilation processes do not apply, and in the orthography an apostrophe is written in the middle of the consonant cluster to indicate this: ''at'nguq'' is pronounced {{IPA|[atŋoq]}}, not {{IPA|[atŋ̊oq]}}.<ref name=":52" />

Fricatives are devoiced word-initially and word-finally.<ref name=":4" />

==== Word-final fortition ====
Another common phonological alternation of Yup'ik is word-final [[fortition]]. Among consonants, only the stops {{IPA|/t k q/}}, the nasals {{IPA|/m n ŋ/}}, and the fricative {{IPA|/χ/}} may occur word-finally. Any other fricative (and in many cases also {{IPA|/χ/}}) will become a plosive when it occurs at the end of a word. For example, ''qayar-pak'' "big kayak" is pronounced {{IPA|[qaja'''χ'''pak]}}, while "kayak" alone is {{IPA|[qaja'''q''']}}; the [[Velar consonant|velar]] fricative becomes a stop word-finally. Moreover, the {{IPA|[k]}} of ''-pak'' is only a stop by virtue of it being word-final: if another suffix is added, as in ''qayar-pag-tun'' "like a big kayak" a fricative is found in place of that stop: {{IPA|[qajaχpa'''x'''tun]}}.<ref name=":4" />

==== Elision ====
The voiced velar consonants {{IPA|/ɣ ŋ/}} are elided between single vowels, if the first is a full vowel: {{IPA|/tuma-ŋi/}} is pronounced ''tumai'' {{IPA|[tumːai]}} (with geminate {{IPA|[mː]}} resulting from automatic gemination; see below).<ref name=":4" />

=== Prosody ===
Yup'ik has an iambic [[Stress (linguistics)|stress]] system. Starting from the leftmost syllable in a word and moving rightward, syllables usually are grouped into units (termed "feet") containing two syllables each, and the second syllable of each foot is stressed. (However, feet in Yup'ik may also consist of a single syllable, which is almost always [[Closed syllable|closed]] and must bear stress.) For example, in the word ''pissuqatalliniluni'' "apparently about to hunt", every second syllable (save the last) is stressed. The most prominent of these (i.e., the syllable that has [[Stress (linguistics)#Levels of stress|primary stress]]) is the rightmost of the stressed syllables.<ref name=":4" />

The iambic stress system of Yup'ik results in predicable [[iambic lengthening]], a processes that serves to increase the [[Syllable weight|weight]] of the prominent syllable in a foot.<ref name=":62">{{Cite journal|last=Buckley|first=Eugene|date=1998|title=Iambic Lengthening and Final Vowels|url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/1265684|journal=International Journal of American Linguistics|volume=64|issue=3|pages=179–223|doi=10.1086/466357|jstor=1265684|s2cid=145804018}}</ref> When lengthening cannot apply, a variety of processes involving either [[elision]] or [[gemination]] apply to create a well-formed prosodic word.<ref name=":52" /><ref name=":4" />

==== Iambic lengthening ====
Iambic lengthening is the process by which the second syllable in an iambic foot is made more prominent by lengthening the duration of the vowel in that syllable.<ref name=":62" /> In Yup'ik, a bisyllabic foot whose syllables each contain one phonologically single vowel will be pronounced with a long vowel in the second syllable. Thus ''pissuqatalliniluni'' {{IPA|/pisuqataɬiniluni/}} "apparently about to hunt" is pronounced {{IPA|[(pi.'suː)(qa.'taː)(ɬi.'niː)lu.ni]}}. Following standard linguistic convention, parentheses here demarcate feet, periods represent the remaining syllable boundaries, and apostrophes occur before syllables that bear stress. In this word the second, fourth, and sixth syllables are pronounced with long vowels as a result of iambic lengthening.<ref name=":62" /><ref name=":72">{{Cite book|last=Krauss, Michael.|url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/260177704|title=Yupic Eskimo prosodic systems : descriptive and comparative studies|date=1985|isbn=0-933769-37-7|oclc=260177704}}</ref><ref name=":82">{{Cite journal|last=Hayes|first=Bruce|date=1985|title=Iambic and trochaic rhythm in stress rules|journal=Proceedings of the Eleventh Annual Meeting of the Berkeley Linguistics Society, ed. Mary Niepokuj et Al.|pages=429–446}}</ref> Iambic lengthening does not apply to final syllables in a word.<ref name=":52" /><ref name=":4" />

Because the vowel {{IPA|/ə/}} cannot occur long in Yup'ik, when a syllable whose [[Nucleus (syllable)|nucleus]] is {{IPA|/ə/}} is in line to receive stress, iambic lengthening cannot apply. Instead, one of two things may happen. In Norton Sound dialects, the consonant following {{IPA|/ə/}} will [[Gemination|geminate]] if that consonant is not part of a [[Consonant cluster|cluster]]. This also occurs outside of Norton Sound if the consonants before and after {{IPA|/ə/}} are phonetically similar. For example, {{IPA|/tuməmi/}} "on the footprint" is ''not'' pronounced *{{IPA|[(tu.'məː)mi]}}, which would be expected by iambic lengthening, but rather is pronounced {{IPA|[(tu.'məm)mi]}}, with gemination of the second {{IPA|/m/}} to increase the weight of the second syllable.<ref name=":62" /><ref name=":72" /><ref name=":82" />

==== Regressive stress ====
There are a variety of prosodic factors that cause stress to retract (move backward) to a syllable where it would not otherwise be expected, given the usual iambic stress pattern. (These processes do not apply, however, in the Norton Sound dialects.<ref name=":4" />) The processes by which stress retracts under prosodically-conditioned factors are said to feature ''regression'' of stress in Miyaoka's (2012) grammar. When regression occurs, the syllable to which stress regresses constitutes a monosyllabic foot.<ref name=":4" />

The first of these processes is related to the inability of {{IPA|/ə/}} to occur long. Outside of Norton Sound, if the consonants before and after {{IPA|/ə/}} are phonetically dissimilar, {{IPA|/ə/}} will [[Elision|elide]], and stress will retract to a syllable whose nucleus is the vowel before the elided {{IPA|/ə/}}. For example, {{IPA|/nəqə-ni/}} "his own fish" is not pronounced *{{IPA|[(nə.'qəː)ni]}}, which would be expected by iambic lengthening, but rather is pronounced ''neq'ni'' {{IPA|[('nəq)ni]}}, which features the elision of {{IPA|/ə/}} and a monosyllabic foot.<ref name=":4" />

Second, if the first syllable of a word is [[Closed syllable|closed]] (ends in a consonant), this syllable constitutes a monosyllabic foot and receives stress. Iambic footing continues left-to-right from the right edge of that foot. For example, ''nerciqsugnarquq'' "(s)he probably will eat" has the stress pattern {{IPA|[('nəχ)(tʃiq.'sux)naχ.qoq]}}, with stress on the first and third syllables.<ref name=":52" /><ref name=":4" />

Another third prosodic factor that influences regressive  is [[Hiatus (linguistics)|hiatus]]: the occurrence of adjacent vowels. Yup'ik disallows hiatus at the boundaries between feet: any two consecutive vowels must be grouped within the same foot. If two vowels are adjacent, and the first of these ''would'' be at the right edge of a foot (and thus stressed) given the usual iambic footing, the stress retracts to a preceding syllable. Without regressive accent, ''Yupiaq'' {{IPA|/jupiaq/}} would be pronounced *{{IPA|[(ju.'piː)aq]}}, but because of the ban on hiatus at foot boundaries, stress retracts to the initial syllable, and consonant gemination occurs to increase the weight of that initial syllable, resulting in {{IPA|[('jup)pi.aq]}}.<ref name=":4" /> This process is termed ''automatic gemination'' in Jacobson's (1995) grammar.

Yup'ik also disallows iambic feet that consist of a closed syllable followed by an open one, i.e. feet of the form CVC.'CV(ː), where C and V stand for "consonant" and "vowel" respectively. To avoid this type of foot, stress retracts: ''cangatenrituten'' {{IPA|/tʃaŋatənʁitutən/}} has the stress pattern {{IPA|[(tʃa.'ŋaː)('tən)(ʁi.'tuː)tən]}} to avoid the iambic foot *(tən.'ʁiː) that would otherwise be expected.<ref name=":4" />

==Grammar==
Yup'ik has highly [[Synthetic language|synthetic]] morphology: the number of [[Morpheme|morphemes]] within a word is very high. The language is moreover [[Agglutinative language|agglutinative]], meaning that [[affixation]] is the primary strategy for word formation, and that an affix, when added to a word, does not unpredictably affect the forms of neighboring affixes. Because of the tendency to create very long verbs through suffixation, a Yupʼik verb often carries as much information as an English sentence, and word order is often quite free.

Three parts of speech are identified: nouns, verbs, and [[Grammatical particle|particles]]. Because there are fewer parts of speech than in (e.g.) English, each category has a wider range of uses. For example, Yup'ik [[grammatical case]] fulfills the role that English [[Preposition and postposition|prepositions]] do, and nominal [[Derivational morpheme|derivational affixes]] or [[Root (linguistics)|roots]] fulfill the role that English adjectives do.<ref name=":4" />

===Morphology===
In [[Linguistic description|descriptive]] work on Yup'ik, there are four regions within nouns and verbs that are commonly identified. The first of these is often called the ''stem'' (equivalent to the notion of a [[Root (linguistics)|root]]), which carries the core meaning of the word. Following the stem come zero or more ''postbases'',<ref name=":52" /> which are [[Derivational morphemes|derivational]] [[Grammatical modifier|modifiers]] that change the [[Part of speech|category]] of the word or augment its meaning. (Yup'ik does not have adjectives; nominal roots and postbases are used instead.) The third section is called an ''ending'', which carries the [[Inflection|inflectional]] categories of [[Case (linguistics)|case]] (on nouns), [[grammatical mood]] (on verbs), [[Grammatical person|person]], and [[Grammatical number|number]].<ref name="Reed 1977 182">{{Harvnb|Reed|Miyaoka|Jacobson|Afcan|1977|p=18}}</ref> Finally, optional ''[[enclitics]]'' may be added, which usually indicate "the speaker's attitude towards what he is saying such as questioning, hoping, reporting, etc."<ref name="Reed 1977 182" /> [[Orthography|Orthographically]], enclitics are separated from the rest of the word with a [[hyphen]].<ref name=":52" /><ref name=":4" /> However, since hyphens are already used in [[Interlinear gloss|glosses]] to separate morphemes, there is potential for confusion as to whether a morpheme is a suffix or an enclitic, so in glosses the [[equals sign]] is used instead.

{| class="wikitable"
|+Example verb: ''angyarpaliyukapigtellruunga'' <ref name=":4" />
!Stem
!Postbases
!Ending
!Enclitic
|-
| {{interlinear|glossing=link|angyar|boat|}}
| {{interlinear|glossing=link|-pa -li -yu -kapigte -llru|AUG make DES INT PST|}}
| {{interlinear|glossing=link|-u -nga|IND 1SG|}}
|
|-
| colspan="4" |"I wished very much to build a big boat"
|}
{| class="wikitable"
|+Example verb: ''assirtua-gguq'' <ref name=":4" />
!Stem
!Postbases
!Ending
!Enclitic
|-
| {{interlinear|glossing=link|assir|good|}}
|
| {{interlinear|glossing=link|-tu -a|IND 1SG|}}
| {{interlinear|glossing=link|{{=}}gguq|{{gcl|RPR|reportative}}|}}
|-
| colspan="5" |"(he says) I'm fine"
|-
| colspan="5" |"(tell him) I'm fine"
|}
{| class="wikitable"
|+Example noun: ''kipusvik'' <ref name=":52" />
!Stem
!Postbases
!Ending
!Enclitic
|-
| {{interlinear|kipus|buy|}}
| {{interlinear|-vik|{{gcl|LOC|locative case ("place for")}}|}}
| {{interlinear|glossing=link|-Ø|ABS.SG|}}
|
|-
| colspan="5" |"store" (lit. "place for buying")
|}
{| class="wikitable"
|+Example noun: ''qayarpaliyaraqa'' <ref name=":4" />
!Stem
!Postbases
!Ending
!Enclitic
|-
| {{interlinear|glossing=link|qayar|kayak|}}
| {{interlinear|glossing=link|-pa -li -yara|AUG make NMLZ|}}
| {{interlinear|glossing=link|-q -a|ABS.SG 1SG|}}
|
|-
| colspan="7" |"the way I make a big kayak"
|}

Because post-bases are derivational morphemes, and thus can change the part of speech of a word, many verbs are built from noun stems, and vice versa. For example, ''{{lang|esu|neqe-ngqer-tua}}'' "I have fish" is a verb, despite the fact that ''{{lang|esu|neqe-}}'' "fish" is a noun; the postbase ''{{lang|esu|-ngqerr}}'' "have" makes the resulting word a verb. These changes in grammatical category can apply iteratively, such that over the course of word formation, a word may become a noun, then a verb, then back to a noun, and so on.<ref name=":4" /><ref>{{Cite book|last=Woodbury, Anthony|url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/1078287179|title=Study of the Chevak Dialect of Central Yup'ik Eskimo|date=1981-01-01|publisher=eScholarship, University of California|oclc=1078287179}}</ref>

=== Verb conjugation ===
The [[Conjugation (grammar)|conjugation]] of Yup'ik verbs involves obligatory marking of [[grammatical mood]] and [[Agreement (linguistics)|agreement]]. 

==== Grammatical mood ====
Yup'ik has a great number of grammatical moods. The moods can be categorized according to whether the clause in which they are found is independent or subordinate. There are four so-called ''independent moods'': the indicative, optative, interrogative, and participial; these typically are found on the main verbs of [[Independent clause|independent clauses]]. Yupʼik also has ten ''connective moods,'' which occur on the verbs of adverbial clauses; the connective moods are the Yup'ik equivalent of many [[Subordinating conjunction|subordinating conjunctions]] of English, and are often translated as 'because', 'although', 'if' and 'while'.<ref name=":33">{{Cite book|last=Mithun|first=Marianne|title=The Languages of Native North America|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2006|isbn=978-0-521-29875-9|location=Cambridge|pages=234–235}}</ref> The form of a given mood may depend on the [[Transitivity (grammar)|transitivity]] of the verb (e.g., the intransitive form of the participial mood suffix is usually ''-lriar'', but when this mood is suffixed to a transitive verb, its form is ''-ke'' instead),<ref name=":4" /> on the [[Grammatical person|person]] of the [[Subject (grammar)|grammatical subject]] (e.g., the optative mood is marked with ''-li'' only if the subject is third person), or on the phonological or morphological environment.
{| class="wikitable"
|+Yup'ik grammatical moods
!
!
!Forms
!Common uses (not exhaustive)
|-
! rowspan="4" |Independent moods
!Indicative
|''-gur'' (intransitive)
''-gar'' (transitive)
|Used to form [[Declarative sentence|declarative]] sentences
|-
!Participial
|''-lriar'', or ''-ngur'' after /t/ (intransitive)
''-ke'' (transitive)
|(Varied)
|-
!Interrogative
|''-ta'' (after a consonant, if subject is third person)
''-ga'' (after a vowel, if subject is third person)

''-ci'' (if subject is first or second person)
|Used to form [[Question#By grammatical form|wh-questions]]
|-
!Optative
|''-li'' (if subject is third person)
''-la'' (if subject is first person)

''-gi'' or ''-na'' (if subject is second person)
|Used to express wishes, requests, suggestions, commands,
and occasionally to make declarative statements
|-
!Co-subordinate
!Appositional
|''-lu'', or ''-na'' after certain suffixes
|Used for cosubordination, coordination, and in independent clauses
|-
! rowspan="9" |Connective moods
!Causal
|''-nga''
|Used to form subordinate clauses (translated "because, when")
|-
!Constative
|''-gaq(a)''
|Used to form subordinate clauses (translated "whenever")
|-
!Precessive
|''-pailg''
|Used to form subordinate clauses (translated "before")
|-
!Concessive
|''-ngrrarr''
|Used to form subordinate clauses (translated "although, even if")
|-
!Conditional
|''-k(u)''
|Used to form subordinate clauses (translated "if")
|-
!Indirective
|''-cu(a)''
|Used to express indirect suggestions, admonishment
|-
!Contemporative
|''-llr''
|Used to form subordinate clauses (translated "when")
|-
!Simultaneous
|''-nginanrr''
|Used to form subordinate clauses (translated "while")
|-
!Stative
| -Ø
|Used to form subordinate clauses (translated "being in the state of")
|}In addition to the connective moods listed above, there are five so-called "quasi-connective" moods. Though these are adverbial adjuncts to main clauses and thus are similar in function to the connective moods, they inflect like nominals (they inflect with case, not agreement).<ref name=":4" />

==== Agreement ====
Yup'ik has a rich system of [[Agreement (linguistics)|agreement]] on verbs. Up to two nominal [[Argument (linguistics)|arguments]] may be cross-referenced (intransitive verbs agree with their sole argument, and transitive verbs agree with both arguments). Three [[Grammatical number|numbers]] (singular, dual, and plural) are distinguished, as well as at least three [[Grammatical person|persons]] (first, second, and third). The third person is unmarked when cross-referencing subjects,<ref name=":4" /> and the verbs of dependent clauses may have two types of third person forms depending on whether some argument is co-refers with the subject of the verb in the independent clause (see "Co-reference across clauses" below).<ref name=":52" /><ref name=":4" /> To the extent that subject and object agreement markers are not [[Fusional language|fusional]], subject agreement linearly precedes object agreement. 

Depending on the grammatical mood of the verb and which grammatical persons are being cross-referenced, agreement may display either an [[Ergative–absolutive alignment|ergative]] pattern (where the sole argument of an intransitive verb is cross-referenced with the same morpheme that it would be if it were the object of a transitive verb) or an [[Nominative–accusative alignment|accusative]] pattern (where the sole argument of an intransitive verb is cross-referenced with the same morpheme that it would be if it were the ''subject'' of a transitive verb).<ref name=":4" />

Agreement markers vary in form depending on the grammatical mood of the verb. The two examples below illustrate this. In (1), the 1<small>SG</small>>3<small>SG</small> agreement marker is ''-qa'' because the verb is in the indicative mood, while in (2) the agreement marker is ''-ku'' due to verb being in the optative mood.

{{interlinear|number=(1)
|assik-a-qa
|like-IND.TR-1SG>3SG
|"I like him/her/it"}}

{{interlinear|number=(2)
|patu-la-ku{{=}}tuq  egaleq
|close-OPT-1SG>3SG{{=}}wish  window.ABS
|"I hope I will close the window"}}

The participial and indicative share a set of agreement markers, and all the connective moods likewise share a common set (which is shared also with some possessed nouns).<ref name=":4" />

==== Co-reference across clauses ====
The form of 3rd-person agreement in dependent clauses may vary depending on whether that 3rd-person argument is the same [[referent]] as, or a different referent than, a 3rd-person subject of the independent clause. In some descriptive work on the language, when the subject of the independent clause is co-referential with the relevant argument in the dependent clause, the agreement in the dependent clause is said to reflect a "fourth"<ref name=":52" /> or a "reflexive third"<ref name=":4" /> person. Jacobson (1995) uses the following contrast to illustrate:

{{interlinear|number=(3)
|Nere-llru-uq  ermig-pailg-an
|eat-PST-IND.3SG wash.face-before-3SG
|"She ate before she (another) washed her face."}}

{{interlinear|number=(4)
|Nere-llru-uq  ermig-paileg-mi
|eat-PST-IND.3SG wash.face-before-4SG
|"She ate before she (herself) washed her face."
|abbreviations=4SG:fouth person, singular}}

The intransitive agreement in the dependent clause ''ermig-pailg-an'' in (3) is ''-an'', indicating that the argument of the dependent clause is a different referent than the subject of the independent clause ''nerellruuq'', while in (4) the agreement ''-mi'' indicates that the arguments of each clause are co-referential. Some grammatical moods do not have associated agreement markers that contrast these two types of third person.<ref name=":4" />

Some researchers have argued that the contrast in (3-4) exemplifies a type of [[switch-reference]],<ref>{{Cite book|last=Stirling|first=Lesley|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RS1bT2UWI4YC&q=switch+reference+in+yup%252527ik&pg=PA128|title=Switch-Reference and Discourse Representation|date=1993-03-11|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=9780521402293}}</ref><ref>{{Citation|last=Woodbury|first=Anthony C.|title=Switch-reference, syntactic organization, and rhetorical structure in Central Yup'ik Eskimo|date=1983|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1075/tsl.2.16woo|series=Typological Studies in Language|volume=2|pages=291|place=Amsterdam|publisher=John Benjamins Publishing Company|doi=10.1075/tsl.2.16woo|isbn=978-90-272-2866-6|access-date=2020-09-13}}</ref> though McKenzie (2015) claims Yup'ik does not have the true characteristics of switch-reference, and that the Yup'ik system is better understood in terms of [[Obviative|obviation]] or long-distance [[Anaphora (linguistics)|anaphora]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=McKenzie, Andrew.|url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/915142700|title=A survey of switch-reference in North America.|oclc=915142700}}</ref>

=== Nouns ===
Yup'ik nouns inflect for [[Grammatical number|number]], [[Grammatical case|case]], and show agreement with the person and number of a [[Possession (linguistics)|possessor]] if present.<ref name=":4" />

==== Grammatical case ====
The [[morphosyntactic alignment]] of Yupʼik is [[Ergative–absolutive alignment|ergative-absolutive]],<ref name=":4" /> meaning that [[Subject (grammar)|subjects]] of intransitive verbs bear the same [[grammatical case]] (the [[Absolutive case|absolutive]]) as the [[Object (linguistics)|objects]] of transitive verbs, while the subjects of transitive verbs have a different case (the [[Ergative case|ergative]]). For example, the sentence ''Angyaq tak'uq'' ("The boat is long") features an intransitive verb, and the subject (''angyaq'', "the boat") is in the absolutive case. By comparison, in the sentence ''Angyaq kiputaa'' ("He buys the boat"), the verb is transitive, and it is now the object (''angyaq'', "the boat") that bears the absolutive.<ref>{{Harvnb|Reed|Miyaoka|Jacobson|Afcan|1977|p=64}}</ref> This contrasts with [[Accusative language|nominative-accusative languages]] like English, where the subjects of intransitives and transitives are identical in form ("'''He''' slept", "'''He''' ate the bread"), while the objects of transitives have a different case ("The moose saw '''him'''").

In addition to the absolutive and ergative [http://www.glottopedia.org/index.php/Structural_case structural cases] (the latter of which is [[Syncretism (linguistics)|syncretic]] with the [[Genitive case|genitive]]; collectively the ergative and genitive are usually called the ''relative case''<ref name=":52" /><ref name=":4" />), there are at least five other cases that are mostly-nonstructural: ablative-modalis (a historical syncretism of [[Ablative case|ablative]] and [[Instrumental case|instrumental]] cases), [[Allative case|allative]], [[Locative case|locative]], [[Perlative case|perlative]], and equalis.<ref name=":4" />
{| class="wikitable"
|+Yup'ik grammatical cases
! colspan="3" |
!Common function(s)
!English equivalents
|-
! rowspan="3" |Structural
! colspan="2" |Absolutive
|Identifies the sole [[Argument (linguistics)|argument]] of an intransitive verb
Identifies the [[Definiteness|definite]] object of a transitive verb
|(none)
|-
! rowspan="2" |Relative
!Ergative
|Identifies the subject of a transitive verb
|(none)
|-
!Genitive
|Identifies a [[Possession (linguistics)|possessor]]
|''<nowiki/>'s'' (as in ''John's book'')
|-
! rowspan="5" |Non-structural
! colspan="2" |Ablative-modalis
|Identifies a spatial or temporal starting point
Marks nominals demoted from absolutive case under [[Valency (linguistics)|valency]] reduction
|''from''
(none)
|-
! colspan="2" |Allative
|Identifies a spatial or temporal end point
Marks nominals demoted from relative case under valency reduction
|''to''
(none)
|-
! colspan="2" |Locative
|Identifies spatial or temporal locations
Indicates the standard of comparison in [[Comparative|comparatives]]
|''at, in, during''
''than''
|-
! colspan="2" |Perlative
|Identifies a spatial or temporal route through which movement occurs
|''along, via, by way of''
|-
! colspan="2" |Equalis
|Marks a nominal that is similar/equivalent to another; commonly
co-occurs with the verb ''ayuqe-'' "resemble"
|(none)
|}
The forms of these grammatical cases are variable, depending on the grammatical person and number of the head noun as well as the person and number of its possessor (if there is one).

==== Possession ====
Possessed nouns, like all other nouns, inflect for number and case, but also show person and number agreement with their possessor. For example, consider a few forms of ''saskaq'' "cup". The two leftmost nouns below are unpossessed, but the third is marked for a first person singular possessor ''-ka'' (pronounced in this case as ''-qa'' after [[Assimilation (phonology)|assimilating]] to a [[Uvular consonant|uvular]] place of articulation). The final example marks plural number for both the noun itself and its possessor.

{{interlinear|indent=2|italics2=yes|glossing3=yes
|'''Word:''' saskaq saskat saskaqa saskaa saskait
|{'''Component morphemes:'''} saskar-∅ saskar-t saskar-∅-ka saskar-nga-∅ saskar-ngi-t
|{'''Interlinear gloss:'''} cup-ABS.SG cup-ABS.PL cup-ABS.SG-1SG cup-ABS.SG-3SG cup-ABS.PL-3PL
|'''Translation:''' "cup" "cups" {"my cup"} {"his/her cup"} {"their cups"}|}}

Possessors are often optional, but when present are marked with relative case:<ref name=":4" />

{{interlinear|indent=3
|angute-'''m''' kuuvviar-a
|man-REL.SG coffee.ABS.SG-3SG
|"the man's coffee"}}

===Word order===
Yup'ik has considerably more freedom of word order than English does. In English, the word order of subjects and objects with respect to a verb reflects the [[Thematic relation|thematic roles]] of the subject and object. For example, the English sentence ''The dog bit the preacher'' means something different than ''The preacher bit the dog'' does; this is because in English, the noun that comes before the verb must be the [[Thematic relation#Agent|agent]] (the biter), while the noun following the verb must be the [[Thematic relation#Theme|theme]] (the individual or thing that is bitten).

In Yupʼik, word order is freer because the rich inflectional system often serves to unambiguously identify thematic relations without recourse to word order. The Yup'ik sentences ''Qimugtem keggellrua agayulirta'' (dog.<small>[[Ergative case|ERG]]</small> bit preacher.<small>[[Absolutive case|ABS]]</small>) and ''Agayulirta keggellrua qimugtem'' (preacher.<small>[[Absolutive case|ABS]]</small> bit dog.[[Ergative case|<small>ERG</small>]]) both mean "the dog bit the preacher", for instance: the word order varies between these sentences, but the fact that ''qimugtem'' ("dog") is marked with ergative case (''-m'') is sufficient to identify it as the thematic agent. Thus, to say "the preacher bit the dog" in Yup'ik, one would need change which noun gets ergative case and which gets absolutive: ''qimugta keggellrua agayulirtem'' (dog.<small>[[Absolutive case|ABS]]</small> bit preacher.<small>[[Ergative case|ERG]]</small>).<ref name="Central Yupʼik and the Schools2">{{Cite web|title=Central Yupʼik and the Schools|url=http://www.alaskool.org/LANGUAGE/central_yupik/yupik.html|access-date=2015-06-04|website=www.alaskool.org}}</ref>

Despite the greater freedom of word order, there seems to be a general preference for Subject-Object-Verb (SOV) order (though VSO is also common, and pragmatic factors also play a significant role).<ref name=":4" /> This can be observed in circumstances where the inflectional system will not unambiguously determine which noun is the agent and which is the theme. This obtains, for instance, when both arguments of an indicative transitive verb are third person plural and unpossessed: ''elitnauristet mikelnguut assikait'' can, in principle, mean either "the teachers like the children" or "the children like the teachers", since the case marking on ''elitnauristet'' "teachers" and ''mikelnguut'' "children" does not distinguish ergative from absolutive case (''-t'' marks unpossessed ergative plurals as well as unpossessed absolutive plurals). In cases like this, the SOV preference comes into play, and the sentence is most readily interpreted as "the teachers like the children".

=== Spatial deixis ===
Yup'ik has a rich system of [[Deixis#Spatial deixis|spatial deixis]]. That is, many of the spatial properties of things and events are linguistically encoded in great detail; this holds true for [[demonstrative pronouns]] (like English "this one", "that one") as well as spatial adverbs ("here", "there").

There are twelve categories that define the orientation of a thing or event with respect to the ''environment''. The environment in this sense includes topographical features (e.g., there is a contrast between upriver and downriver), the participants in the speech event (e.g., there is a contrast between proximity to the speaker and proximity to the hearer), and the linguistic context (one of these twelve categories is used for [[Anaphora (linguistics)|anaphora]]). This twelve-way contrast is cross-cut by a trinomial contrast in horizontal extension/motion: this determines whether the referent is ''extended'' (horizontally long or moving) or ''non-extended,'' and if non-extended, whether ''distal'' (typically far away, indistinct, and invisible) or ''proximal'' (typically nearby, distinct, and visible).

To illustrate, the spatial demonstrative roots of Yup'ik (which are then [[Inflection|inflected]] for case and number) are presented in the following table from Miyaoka (2012). 
{| class="wikitable"
! rowspan="2" |Class
! rowspan="2" |Translation of class
! rowspan="2" |Extended
! colspan="2" |Non-extended
|-
!Distal
!Proximal
|-
!I
|here (near speaker)
|''mat-''
|
|''u-''
|-
!II
|there (near hearer)
|''tamat-''
|
|''tau-''
|-
!III
|aforementioned / known
|
|''im-''
|
|-
!IV
|approaching (in space or time)
|
|''uk-''
|
|-
!V
|over there
|''au͡g-''
|''am-''
|''ing-''
|-
!VI
|across there, on the opposite bank
|''ag-''
|''akm-''
|''ik-''
|-
!VII
|back/up there, away from river
|''pau͡g-''
|''pam-''
|''ping-''
|-
!VIII
|up/above there (vertically)
|''pag-''
|''pakm-''
|''pik-''
|-
!IX
|down/below there, toward river (bank)
|''un-''
|''cam-''
|''kan-''
|-
!X
|out there, toward exit, downriver
|''un'g-''
|''cakm-''
|''ug-''
|-
!XI
|inside, upriver, inland
|''qau͡g-''
|''qam-''
|''kiug-/kiu͡g-''
|-
!XII
|outside, north
|''qag-''
|''qakm-''
|''kex-''
|}
Note that Classes I and II lack distal forms due to an inherently non-distal meaning (these forms only locate things that are near to the speaker/hearer). Class III is purely anaphoric, and thus only has a distal form.<ref name=":4" />

==Yupʼik language education==
Small changes have been made towards teaching Yupʼik to the native Alaskan Yupʼiks. In 1972, the [[Alaska State Legislature]] passed legislation mandating that if "a [school is attended] by at least 15 pupils whose primary language is other than English, [then the school] shall have at least one teacher who is fluent in the native language".<ref>Krauss, Michael E. 1974. Alaska Native language legislation. International Journal of American Linguistics 40(2).150-52.</ref> Then, during the mid-1970s, educational programs emerged in order to revive and sustain the Yupʼik language: MacLean notes that "In 1975, an Alaska State statute was enacted directing all school boards to '...provide a bilingual-bicultural education program for each school...which is attended by at least 8 pupils of limited English-speaking ability and whose primary language is other than English{{'"}}.<ref name="MacLean, Edna Ahgeak 2004. page 13">{{Harvnb|MacLean|2004|p=13}}</ref> However, "the statute addressed all languages other than English, and thus expanded bilingualism equally to immigrant languages," meaning that although the statute welcomed non-English languages into schools, its primary "aim" was to "promote English proficiency", not to keep Yupʼik alive.<ref name="MacLean, Edna Ahgeak 2004. page 13" />

Later, during the 1987-8 school year, three organizations, including members of the [[Alaska Native]] community, "initiated a process to establish an Alaska Native Language Policy for schools in Alaska," which "states that schools have a responsibility to teach and use as the medium of instruction the Alaska Native language of the local community to the extent desired by the parents of that community".<ref name="MacLean, Edna Ahgeak 2004. page 13" /> This proposal for the Alaska Native Language Policy comes three years after Steven A. Jacobson's "Central Yupʼik and the Schools: A Handbook for Teachers", a guide for teachers which exemplifies differences and similarities between English and Yupʼik so that Yupʼik or English-speaking teachers might successfully engage English-speaking Eskimo Yupʼik students in a "bilingual-bicultural education" that teaches their native language.<ref>{{Harvnb|Jacobson|1984|p=1}}</ref>

In 2018, Anchorage's first Yup'ik [[Language immersion|immersion program]] was launched at College Gate Elementary.<ref>{{cite web|date=27 April 2018|title=The latest language immersion program for Anchorage students: Yup'ik|url=https://www.adn.com/alaska-news/education/2018/04/22/the-latest-language-immersion-program-for-anchorage-students-yupik/|website=adn.com}}</ref> Yup'ik language courses are offered at the [[University of Alaska Anchorage]] and the [[University of Alaska Fairbanks]]. The latter also offers [[Bachelor's degree|Bachelor's degrees]] in Yupʼik Language and Culture, as well as associate degrees in Native Language Education with a concentration in Yupʼik, and certificates in Yupʼik Language Proficiency.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.uaf.edu/catalog|title=2014–2015 Catalog|access-date=3 July 2015}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Yup'ik Language and Culture Bachelor's Degree Program|url=https://uaf.edu/academics/programs/bachelors/yupik-language-culture.php|website=uaf.edu}}</ref>

==See also==
*[[Chevak Cupʼik language]]
*[[Nunivak Cupʼig language]]
*[[Alaska Native Language Center]]
*[[Lower Yukon School District]] (Yupʼik)
*[[Lower Kuskokwim School District]] (Yupʼik & Cupʼig)
*[[Yupiit School District]] (Yupʼik)
*[[Kashunamiut School District]] (Cupʼik)

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

==Bibliography==
*{{citation
|last= Jacobson
|first= Steven A.
|title= Central Yupʼik and the Schools: A Handbook for Teachers
|year= 1984
}}
*{{citation
|last= Jacobson
|first= Steven A.
|year= 1995
|title= A Practical Grammar of the Central Alaskan Yupik Eskimo Language
|location= Fairbanks
|publisher= Alaska Native Language Center
|isbn= 978-1-55500-050-9
|url=https://archive.org/details/practicalgrammar0000jaco
}}
*{{citation
|last= Jacobson
|first= Steven A.
|year= 1990
|title= Comparison of Central Alaskan Yupik Eskimo and Central Siberian Yupik Eskimo
|journal= International Journal of American Linguistics
|volume= 56
|issue= 2
|pages= 264–286
|location= International Journal of American Linguistics
|publisher= The University of Chicago Press
|doi= 10.1086/466153
|jstor= 1265132
|s2cid= 144786120
}}
*{{citation
|last= Jewelgreen
|first= Lydia
|year= 2008
|title= Central Alaskan Yupik
|url = http://www.lydiajewlgreen.com/yupik/language.html
}}
*{{Citation
|last= MacLean
|first= Edna Ahgeak
|author-link= Edna Ahgeak MacLean
|title= Culture and Change for Iñupiat and Yupiks of Alaska
|year= 2004
|url= http://www.arcticlanguages.com/papers/Maclean%20Culture%20and%20Change%20for%20Inupiat%20and%20Yupiks.pdf
|access-date= 2010-06-04
|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20120307224604/http://www.arcticlanguages.com/papers/Maclean%20Culture%20and%20Change%20for%20Inupiat%20and%20Yupiks.pdf
|archive-date= 2012-03-07
|url-status= dead
}}
*{{citation
|last1= Mithun |first1= Marianne
|last2= Ali |first2= Elizabeth
|title= The Elaboration of Aspectual Categories: Central Alaskan Yupik
|year= 1996
|location= Folia Linguistica
}}
*{{citation
|last= Mithun
|first= Marianne
|title= The languages of Native North America
|year= 1999
|location= Cambridge University Press
}}
*{{citation
|last1= Reed |first1= Irene
|last2= Miyaoka |first2= Osahito
|last3= Jacobson |first3= Steven A.
|last4= Afcan |first4= Paschal
|last5= Krauss |first5= Michael
|title= Yupʼik Eskimo Grammar
|year= 1977
|publisher= University of Alaska
}}
*{{citation
|last= Woodbury
|first= Anthony C.
|title= Switch-Reference, syntactic organization, and rhetorical structure in Central Yupʼik Eskimo
|year= 1983
|location= In J. Haiman & P. Munro (Eds.), Switch reference and universal grammar proceedings of a symposium on switch reference and universal grammar
|publisher= John Benjamins Pub.
|url= http://site.ebrary.com/lib/wwu/reader.action?docID=10509411
}}

==External links==
{{Incubator|code= esu/Main Page}}
{{wiktionary|Category:Yup'ik language}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070206132807/http://www.uaf.edu/anlc/langs/cy.html Alaska Native Language Center: Central Alaskan Yupik]

{{Eskimo-Aleut languages}}
{{Languages of Alaska}}

[[Category:Agglutinative languages]]
[[Category:Indigenous languages of Alaska]]
[[Category:Yupik languages]]
[[Category:Official languages of Alaska]]
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[[Категория:Википедия]]
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[[Категория:Статья из Английской Википедии]]