Просмотр кода страницы Английская Википедия:Coastal flooding

{{Английская Википедия/Панель перехода}}
{{Short description|Type of natural disaster}}
[[File:Lili2002coastalflooding.jpg|thumb|301x301px|Coastal flooding during [[Hurricane Lili]] in 2002 on [[Louisiana Highway 1]]]]

'''Coastal flooding''' occurs when dry and low-lying land is submerged ([[flood]]ed) by [[seawater]].<ref name=ramsay /> The range of a coastal [[Flood|flooding]] is a result of the elevation of floodwater that penetrates the inland which is controlled by the [[topography]] of the coastal land exposed to flooding.<ref name=ramsay>{{harvnb|Ramsay|Bell|2008}}</ref>{{sfn|Doornkamp|1998}} The seawater can flood the land via several different paths: direct flooding, overtopping of a barrier,<ref name="NatureComms_20210618">{{cite journal |last1=Almar |first1=Rafael |last2=Ranasinghe |first2=Roshanka |last3=Bergsma |first3=Erwin W. J. |last4=Diaz |first4=Harold |last5=Melet |first5=Angelique |last6=Papa |first6=Fabrice |last7=Vousdoukas |first7=Michalis |last8=Athanasiou |first8=Panagiotis |last9=Dada |first9=Olusegun |last10=Almeida |first10=Luis Pedro |last11=Kestenare |first11=Elodie |display-authors=4 |date=18 June 2021 |title=A global analysis of extreme coastal water levels with implications for potential coastal overtopping |journal=Nature Communications |volume=12 |issue=1 |page=3775 |bibcode=2021NatCo..12.3775A |doi=10.1038/s41467-021-24008-9 |pmc=8213734 |pmid=34145274 |doi-access=free}}</ref> or breaching of a barrier. Coastal flooding is largely a natural event. Due to the [[effects of climate change]] (e.g. [[sea level rise]] and an increase in [[extreme weather]] events) and an increase in the population living in coastal areas, the damage caused by coastal flood events has intensified and more people are being affected.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Report: Flooded Future: Global vulnerability to sea level rise worse than previously understood |url=https://www.climatecentral.org/news/report-flooded-future-global-vulnerability-to-sea-level-rise-worse-than-previously-understood |access-date=2020-11-09 |website=www.climatecentral.org |language=en |archive-date=2020-03-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200330202024/https://www.climatecentral.org/news/report-flooded-future-global-vulnerability-to-sea-level-rise-worse-than-previously-understood |url-status=dead }}</ref>

[[Coastal plain|Coastal areas]] are sometimes flooded by unusually high tides, such as [[spring tide]]s, especially when compounded by high winds and [[storm surge]]s. This was the cause of the [[North Sea flood of 1953]] which flooded large swathes of the [[Netherlands]] and the East coast of [[England]].

Human influence on the coastal environment can exacerbate coastal flooding.<ref name="ramsay" /><ref name="nicholls">{{harvnb|Nicholls|2002}}</ref><ref name="griffis">{{harvnb|Griffis|2007}}</ref><ref name="dawson">{{harvnb|Dawson| Dickson| Nicholls| Hall|2009}}</ref> Extraction of water from groundwater reservoirs in the coastal zone can instigate [[subsidence]] of the land, thus increasing the risk of flooding.<ref name="nicholls" /> Engineered protection structures along the coast such as [[sea walls]] alter the natural processes of the beach, often leading to [[erosion]] on adjacent stretches of the coast which also increases the risk of flooding.<ref name="ramsay" /><ref name="dawson" /><ref name="pope">{{harvnb|Pope|1997}}</ref>

== Types ==
[[File:1950-_High_tide_flooding,_by_year_-_NOAA_tide_gauges_(U.S.).svg|thumb|High tide flooding, also called [[tidal flooding]], is one of the causes for coastal flooding. It has become much more common in the past seven decades.<ref name="N0AA_HighTideFlooding_201802">{{cite web |last1=Sweet |first1=William V. |last2=Dusek |first2=Greg |last3=Obeysekera |first3=Jayantha |last4=Marra |first4=John J. |date=February 2018 |title=Patterns and Projections of High Tide Flooding Along the U.S. Coastline Using a Common Impact Threshold |url=https://tidesandcurrents.noaa.gov/publications/techrpt86_PaP_of_HTFlooding.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221015221519/https://tidesandcurrents.noaa.gov/publications/techrpt86_PaP_of_HTFlooding.pdf |archive-date=15 October 2022 |website=tidesandcurrents.NOAA.gov |publisher=National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) |page=4 |quote=Fig. 2b}}</ref>]]
The [[seawater]] can flood the land via several different paths:
*Direct flooding — where the sea height exceeds the elevation of the land, often where waves have not built up a natural barrier such as a dune
*Overtopping of a barrier — the barrier may be natural or human-engineered and overtopping occurs due to swelling conditions during storms or high tides often on open stretches of the coast.<ref name="NatureComms_20210618" /> The height of the waves exceeds the height of the barrier and [[Water Flows (album)|water flows]] over the top of the barrier to flood the land behind it. Overtopping can result in high [[velocity]] flows that can erode significant amounts of the land surface which can undermine defense structures.<ref name="gallien">{{harvnb|Gallien|Schubert|Sanders|2011}}</ref>
*Breaching of a barrier — again the barrier may be natural (sand dune) or human-engineered (sea wall), and breaching occurs on open coasts exposed to large waves. Breaching occurs when the barrier is broken down or destroyed by waves allowing the seawater to extend inland and flood the areas

== Causes ==

Coastal flooding can result from a variety of different causes including [[storm surge]]s created by storms like [[hurricane]]s and [[tropical cyclone]]s, rising sea levels due to climate change and [[tsunami]]s.[[File:Hurricane Carol Storm Surge in color 1954.jpg|thumb|345x345px|Storm surge from [[Hurricane Carol]] in 1954]]

=== Storms and storm surges ===
[[Storms]], including [[hurricanes]] and [[tropical cyclones]], can cause flooding through [[storm surges]] which are waves significantly larger than normal.<ref name=ramsay /><ref name=kurian>{{harvnb|Kurian |Nirupama| Baba| Thomas|2009}}</ref> If a storm event coincides with the [[high astronomical tide]], extensive flooding can occur.<ref name=benavente>{{harvnb|Benavente |Del Río |Gracia |Martínez-del-Pozo|2006}}</ref> Storm surges involve three processes:

# wind setup
# barometric setup
# [[wave setup]]

Wind blowing in an onshore direction (from the sea towards the land) can cause the water to 'pile-up' against the coast; this is known as wind setup. Low [[atmospheric pressure]] is associated with storm systems and this tends to increase the surface sea level; this is a barometric setup. Finally increased [[wave breaking]] height results in a higher water level in the [[surf zone]], which is [[wave setup]]. These three processes interact to create waves that can overtop natural and engineered coastal protection structures thus penetrating seawater further inland than normal.<ref name=benavente /><ref name=link>{{harvnb|Link|2010}}</ref>

=== Sea level rise ===
{{excerpt|Sea level rise|paragraphs=1-2}}

=== Tidal flooding ===
[[File:October_17_2016_sunny_day_tidal_flooding_at_Brickell_Bay_Drive_and_12_Street_downtown_Miami,_4.34_MLLW_high_tide_am.jpg|right|thumb|250x250px|Tidal flooding on a sunny day, during the "king tides" in [[Brickell]], [[Miami]] in 2016]]
[[File:Holland_Island_house.jpg|thumb|The last remaining house on [[Holland Island]] that collapsed and was torn down in the 2010s as [[Coastal erosion|erosion]] and tides reached the foundation.]]
{{Excerpt|Tidal_flooding|file=no}}

=== Tsunami Waves ===
Coastal areas can be significantly flooded as the result of [[tsunami]] waves<ref name=cochard>{{harvnb|Cochard |Ranamukhaarachchi | Shivakoti| Shipin|2008}}</ref> which propagate through the [[ocean]] as the result of the displacement of a significant body of water through [[earthquakes]], [[landslides]], [[volcanic eruptions]], and [[glacier]] calvings. There is also evidence to suggest that significant tsunami have been caused in the past by [[meteor]] impact into the ocean.<ref name=goff>{{harvnb|Goff| Dominey-Howes| Chagué-Goff| Courtney|2010}}</ref> Tsunami waves are so destructive due to the [[velocity]] of the approaching waves, the height of the waves when they reach land, and the [[debris]] the water entrains as it flows over land can cause further damage.<ref name=cochard /><ref name=alongi>{{harvnb|Alongi|2008}}</ref>

Depending on the magnitude of the tsunami waves and floods, it could cause severe injuries which call for precautionary interventions that prevent overwhelming aftermaths. It was reported that more than 200,000 people were killed in the earthquake and subsequent tsunami that hit the Indian Ocean, on December 26, 2004.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last=Llewellyn |first=CAPT Mark |date=2006 |title=Floods and Tsunamis |url=http://www.runels.com/Floods%20and%20Tsunamis.pdf |journal=The Surgical Clinics of North America |volume=86 |issue=3 |pages=557–578 |doi=10.1016/j.suc.2006.02.006 |pmid=16781270}}</ref> Not to mention, several diseases are a result of floods ranging from hypertension to chronic obstructive pulmonary diseases.<ref name=":0" />

== Mitigation and adaptation ==
{{Further|Climate change adaptation#Flooding}}{{excerpt|Flood control}}

=== Non-structural mechanism ===
If human systems are affected by flooding, an adaption to how that system operates on the coast through behavioral and institutional changes is required, these changes are the so-called ''non-structural'' mechanisms of coastal flooding response.<ref name="dawson2011">{{harvnb|Dawson|Ball|Werritty|Werritty|2011}}</ref>

[[Building code|Building regulations]], coastal [[hazard]] zoning, urban development planning, spreading the risk through [[insurance]], and enhancing public awareness are some ways of achieving this.<ref name="nicholls" /><ref name="dawson2011" /><ref name="snoussi">{{harvnb|Snoussi|Ouchani|Niazi|2008}}</ref> [[Climate change adaptation|Adapting]] to the risk of flood occurrence can be the best option if the cost of building defense structures outweighs any benefits or if the natural processes in that stretch of coastline add to its natural character and attractiveness.<ref name="pope" />

A more extreme and often difficult to accept the response to coastal flooding is abandoning the area (also known as [[managed retreat]]) prone to flooding.<ref name="gallien" /> This however raises issues for where the people and [[infrastructure]] affected would go and what sort of [[Damages|compensation]] should/could be paid.

=== Engineered defenses ===
[[File:53sitges.jpg|thumb|right|[[Groynes]] are engineered structures that aim to prevent [[erosion]] of the beach front]]

There are a variety of ways in which humans are trying to prevent the flooding of coastal environments, typically through so-called hard engineering structures such as [[flood barrier]]s, [[seawalls]] and [[levees]].<ref name=pope /><ref name=short>{{harvnb|Short| Masselink|1999}}</ref> That armouring of the coast is typical to protect towns and cities which have developed right up to the beachfront.<ref name=pope /> Enhancing depositional processes along the [[coast]] can also help prevent coastal flooding. Structures such as [[groynes]], [[breakwaters]], and artificial headlands promote the deposition of sediment on the beach thus helping to buffer against storm waves and surges as the wave energy is spent on moving the sediments in the beach than on moving water inland.<ref name=short />

=== Natural defenses ===
[[Image:Mangroves.jpg|thumb|[[Mangroves]] are one of the coasts natural defense systems against [[storm surges]] and flooding. Their high [[biomass]] both above and below the water can help dissipate wave energy.|left]]

The coast does provide natural protective structures to guard against coastal flooding. These include physical features like [[gravel bars]] and [[sand dune]] systems, but also [[ecosystems]] such as [[salt marshes]] and [[mangrove]] forests have a buffering function. [[Mangrove]]s and [[wetlands]] are often considered to provide significant protection against storm waves, tsunamis, and shoreline [[erosion]] through their ability to attenuate wave energy.<ref name=griffis /><ref name=alongi /> To protect the coastal zone from flooding, the natural defenses should, therefore, be protected and maintained.

=== Longer term aspects and research ===
Reducing global sea-level rise is said to be one way to prevent significant flooding of coastal areas at present times and in the future. This could be minimised by further reducing [[greenhouse gas emissions]]. However, even if significant emission decreases are achieved, there is already a substantial commitment to sea-level rise into the future.<ref name="nicholls" /> International [[climate change policies]] like the [[Kyoto Protocol]] are seeking to mitigate the future [[effects of climate change]], including sea-level rise. In addition, more immediate measures of engineered and natural defenses are put in place to prevent coastal flooding.

There is a need for future research into:{{citation needed|date=December 2020}}

*Management strategies for dealing with the forced abandonment of coastal settlements
*Quantifying the effectiveness of natural buffering systems, such as mangroves, against coastal flooding
*Better engineering design and practices or alternative mitigation strategies to engineering

== Impacts ==

=== Social and economic impacts ===
The [[coastal zone]] (the area both within 100 kilometres distance of the coast and 100 metres elevation of sea level) is home to a large and growing proportion of the global population.<ref name=nicholls /><ref name=dawson /> Over 50 percent of the global population and 65 percent of cities with populations over five million people are in the coastal zone.<ref name=hunt>{{harvnb|Hunt| Watkiss|2011}}</ref> In addition to the significant number of people at risk of coastal flooding, these coastal urban centres are producing a considerable amount of the global [[Gross Domestic Product]] (GDP).<ref name=dawson />

People's lives, homes, businesses, and city infrastructure like roads, railways, and industrial plants are all at risk of coastal flooding with massive potential social and economic costs.<ref name=suarez>{{harvnb|Suarez| Anderson| Mahal| Lakshmanan|2005}}</ref><ref name="tomita">{{harvnb|Tomita| Imamura| Arikawa| Yasuda|2006}}</ref><ref name="nadal">{{harvnb|Nadal | Zapata| Pagán| López|2010}}</ref> The recent [[earthquakes]] and [[tsunami]] in [[Indonesia]] in 2004 and in [[Japan]] in March 2011 clearly illustrate the devastation coastal flooding can produce. Indirect economic costs can be incurred if economically important sandy [[beaches]] are eroded resulting in a loss of [[tourism]] in areas dependent on the attractiveness of those beaches.<ref name="snoussi" />

=== Environmental impacts ===
Coastal flooding can result in a wide variety of environmental impacts on different spatial and temporal scales. Flooding can destroy coastal habitats such as coastal [[wetlands]] and [[estuaries]] and can erode dune systems.<ref name=gallien /><ref name=nicholls /><ref name=snoussi /><ref name=hunt /> These places are characterized by their high [[biological diversity]] therefore coastal flooding can cause significant [[biodiversity loss]] and potentially species [[extinctions]].<ref name=cochard /> In addition to this, these coastal features are the coasts natural buffering system against storm waves; consistent coastal flooding and sea-level rise can cause this natural protection to be reduced allowing waves to penetrate greater distances inland exacerbating erosion and furthering coastal flooding.<ref name=nicholls /> "By 2050, “moderate” (typically damaging) flooding is expected to occur, on average, more than 10 times as often as it does today, and can be intensified by local factors."<ref>{{Cite web|title=2022 Sea Level Rise Technical Report|url=https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/hazards/sealevelrise/sealevelrise-tech-report.html|access-date=2022-02-16|website=oceanservice.noaa.gov|language=EN-US}}</ref>

Prolonged [[inundation]] of [[seawater]] after flooding can also cause [[salination]] of agriculturally productive soils thus resulting in a loss of productivity for long periods of time.<ref name="ramsay" /><ref name="snoussi" /> Food [[crops]] and [[forests]] can be completely killed off by salination of soils or wiped out by the movement of floodwaters.<ref name="nicholls" /> Coastal freshwater bodies including [[lake]]s, [[lagoons]], and coastal freshwater [[aquifers]] can also be affected by [[saltwater intrusion]].<ref name="gallien" /><ref name="nicholls" /><ref name="hunt" /> This can destroy these water bodies as habitats for freshwater organisms and sources of drinking water for towns and cities.<ref name="nicholls" /><ref name="hunt" />

== Examples ==
[[Image:thames.barrier.5.london.arp.jpg|thumb|right|The [[Thames Barrier]] provides flood control for London, U.K.]]
[[File:KatrinaNewOrleansFlooded edit2.jpg|thumb|right|Significant flooding in New Orleans as a result of [[Hurricane Katrina]] and the failure of the city's flood protection systems]]

Examples of countries with existing coastal flooding problems include:

* The Netherlands: [[Flood control in the Netherlands]]
* [[Bangladesh]]: [[Floods in Bangladesh]]
* [[Great Britain]]: The [[Thames Barrier]] is one of the world's largest flood barriers and serves to protect [[London]] from flooding during exceptionally high tides and storm surges.<ref name="hunt" /><ref name="horner">{{harvnb|Horner|1986}}</ref> The Barrier can be lifted at high tide to prevent sea waters flooding London and can be lowered to release [[stormwater runoff]] from the Thames catchment.
* [[New Zealand]]: Flooding of the low-lying coastal zone [[South Canterbury]] Plains in New Zealand can result in prolonged inundation, which can affect the productivity of the affected [[pastoral]] agriculture for several years.<ref name=ramsay />

=== Hurricane Katrina in New Orleans ===
[[Hurricane Katrina]] made landfall as a category 3 [[cyclone]] on the [[Saffir–Simpson hurricane wind scale]], indicating that it had become an only moderate level storm.<ref name=link /> However, the catastrophic damage caused by the extensive flooding  was the result of the highest recorded storm surges in [[North America]].<ref name=link /> For several days prior to the landfall of Katrina, wave setup was generated by the persistent winds of the [[cyclonic rotation]] of the system. This prolonged wave set up coupled with the very low central pressure level meant massive storm surges were generated.<ref name=ebersole>{{harvnb|Ebersole| Westerink| Bunya| Dietrich|2010}}</ref> Storm surges overtopped and breached the [[levees]] and floodwalls intended to protect the city from inundation.<ref name=griffis /><ref name=link /><ref name=ebersole /> Unfortunately, [[New Orleans]] is inherently prone to coastal flooding for a number of factors. Firstly, much of New Orleans is below sea level and is bordered by the [[Mississippi River]] therefore protection against flooding from both the sea and the river has become dependent on engineered structures. [[Land-use change]] and modification to natural systems in the Mississippi River have rendered the natural defenses for the city less effective. [[Wetland]] loss has been calculated to be around {{convert|1900|sqmi|abbr=off|-1}} since 1930. This is a significant amount as four miles of wetland are estimated to reduce the height of a [[storm surge]] by one foot (30 centimeters).<ref name=griffis />

[[Image: US Navy 050102-N-9593M-040 A village near the coast of Sumatra lays in ruin after the Tsunami that struck South East Asia.jpg|thumb|right|A village near the coast of [[Sumatra]] lies in ruin on 2 January 2005 after the devastating [[tsunami]] that struck on Boxing Day 2004]]

=== Indonesia and Japan earthquake-related tsunamis ===
{{Further|List of tsunamis}}
[[2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami]]: An [[earthquake]] of approximately magnitude 9.0 struck off the coast of [[Sumatra]], [[Indonesia]] causing the propagation of a massive [[tsunami]] throughout the [[Indian Ocean]].<ref name=alongi /> This tsunami caused significant loss of human life, an estimate of 280,000 – 300,000 people has been reported <ref name=cochard /> and caused extensive damage to villages, towns, and cities and to the physical environment. The natural structures and habitats destroyed or damaged include [[coral reefs]], mangroves, beaches, and seagrass beds.<ref name=alongi /> The more recent earthquake and tsunami in [[Japan]] in March 2011 ([[2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami]]) also clearly illustrates the destructive power of tsunamis and the turmoil of coastal flooding.

== See also ==

* [[Coastal flood advisory]], [[Coastal flood watch|watch]], [[Coastal flood warning|warning]] (U.S.)
* [[Coastal management]]
* [[Flash flood]]
* [[Saltwater intrusion]]

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{{refend}}

== External links ==
{{portalbar|water}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20190502225348/http://globalfloodmap.org/ Global floodmap]
* [https://riskmap.mit.edu/ Riskmap]

{{SevWea nav|state=collapsed}}
{{Natural disasters}}

[[Category:Flood]]
[[Category:Coasts|Flooding]]
[[Category:Coastal geography]]
[[Category:Climate change]]
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