Просмотр кода страницы Английская Википедия:Construction 3D printing

{{Английская Википедия/Панель перехода}}
{{Short description|Using 3D printing to construct buildings}}
'''Construction 3D Printing''' ('''c3Dp''') or '''3D construction Printing''' ('''3DCP''') refers to various technologies that use [[3D printing]] as a core method to fabricate buildings or construction components. Alternative terms for this process include "additive construction."<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Labonnote |first1=Nathalie |last2=Rønnquist |first2=Anders |last3=Manum |first3=Bendik |last4=Rüther |first4=Petra |title=Additive construction: State-of-the-art, challenges and opportunities |journal=Automation in Construction |date=December 2016 |volume=72 |pages=347–366 |doi=10.1016/j.autcon.2016.08.026}}</ref><ref name="Kreiger">{{cite journal |last1=Kreiger |first1=Eric L. |last2=Kreiger |first2=Megan A. |last3=Case |first3=Michael P. |title=Development of the construction processes for reinforced additively constructed concrete |journal=Additive Manufacturing |date=August 2019 |volume=28 |pages=39–49 |doi=10.1016/j.addma.2019.02.015|s2cid=155452051 }}</ref> "3D Concrete" refers to concrete extrusion technologies whereas Autonomous Robotic Construction System (ARCS), large-scale additive manufacturing (LSAM), or [[Point-to-point construction|freeform construction]] (FC) refer to other sub-groups.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Sisson |first1=Patrick |title=Can this startup 3D-print a home in 30 hours? |url=https://www.curbed.com/2019/1/8/18174405/long-island-3d-printing-construction-startup-s-squared |website=Curbed |language=en |date=8 January 2019}}</ref>

At construction scale, the main 3D-printing methods are [[extrusion]] ([[concrete]]/[[cement]], [[wax]], [[foam]], [[polymer]]s), powder bonding (polymer bond, reactive bond, [[sintering]]), and additive welding.

A number of different approaches have been demonstrated to date, which include on-site and [[off-site construction|off-site]] fabrication of buildings and construction components, using [[industrial robots]], [[gantry crane|gantry]] systems, and tethered [[autonomous vehicles]]. Demonstrations of construction 3D printing technologies have included fabrication of housing, construction components (cladding and structural panels and columns), bridges and civil infrastructure, [[artificial reef]]s, follies, and sculptures.<ref>{{cite web |title=World's First 3D Printed Bridge Opens in Spain |url=https://www.archdaily.com/804596/worlds-first-3d-printed-bridge-opens-in-spain |publisher=[[ArchDaily]] |date=7 February 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |agency=Agence France-Presse |title=World's first 3D-printed bridge opens to cyclists in Netherlands |url=https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2017/oct/18/world-first-3d-printed-bridge-cyclists-netherlands |website=The Guardian |date=18 October 2017}}</ref>

3D Concrete Printing is indeed a promising technology that has the potential to revolutionize the construction of buildings and structures into new and complex forms, saving time, materials, labor, and costs, while also enhancing the sustainability and environmental impact of construction. However, this technology faces various obstacles and challenges, such as the selection and design of material mixes, process quality and control, structural integrity, and the durability of 3D-printed structures, as well as industry regulation and standardization.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Ahmed |first=Ghafur H. |date=2023-05-01 |title=A review of "3D concrete printing": Materials and process characterization, economic considerations and environmental sustainability |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2352710223000426 |journal=Journal of Building Engineering |volume=66 |pages=105863 |doi=10.1016/j.jobe.2023.105863 |s2cid=255660086 |issn=2352-7102}}</ref>

==History==

===Seeding technologies 1950–1995===

Robotic bricklaying was conceptualized at explored in the 1950s and related technology development around automated construction began in the 1960s, with pumped concrete and isocyanate foams.<ref>{{Cite book
  |title=Design for the Real World
  |last=Papanek
  |author-link=Victor Papanek
  |date=1971
  |publisher=Academy Chicago
 |isbn=978-0897331531
}}</ref> Development of automated fabrication of entire buildings using slip forming techniques and robotic assembly of components, akin to 3D printing, were pioneered in [[Japan]] to address the dangers of building high rise buildings by [[Shimizu Corporation|Shimizu]] and [[Hitachi]] in the 1980s and 1990s.<ref>{{Cite book
  |title=Versatility and Vicissitude
  |last=Architectural Design
  |author-link= Menges, A. & Hensel, M.
  |date=2008
  |publisher=Wiley
 |isbn=9780470516874}}
</ref> Many of these early approaches to on-site automation foundered because of the construction 'bubble', their inability to respond to novel architectures and the problems of feeding and preparing materials to the site in built up areas.

===Early developments 1995–2000===

Early construction 3D printing development and research have been under way since 1995. Two methods were invented, one by Joseph Pegna<ref>J.B.Gardiner 
[https://researchbank.rmit.edu.au/view/rmit:160277/Gardiner.pdf] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190311211227/https://researchbank.rmit.edu.au/view/rmit:160277/Gardiner.pdf|date=2019-03-11}} PhD Thesis - Exploring the Emerging Design Territory of
Construction 3D Printing (p80), 2011</ref> which was focused on a [[sand]]/cement forming technique which utilized steam to selectively bond the material in layers or solid parts, though this technique was never demonstrated.

The second technique, [[Contour Crafting]] by Behrohk Khoshnevis, initially began as a novel ceramic extrusion and shaping method, as an alternative to the emerging polymer and metal 3D printing techniques, and was patented in 1995.<ref>Khoshnevis, [https://patents.google.com/patent/US5529471 Original Contour Crafting Patent US5529471 A]</ref> Khoshnevis realized that this technique could exceed these techniques where "current methods are limited to fabrication of part dimensions that are generally less than one meter in each dimension". Around 2000, Khoshnevis's team at USC Vertibi began to focus on construction scale 3D printing of cementitious and ceramic pastes, encompassing and exploring automated integration of modular reinforcement, built-in plumbing and electrical services, within one continuous build process. This technology has only been tested at lab scale to date and controversially and allegedly formed the basis for recent efforts in China.{{Citation needed|date=May 2022}}

===First generation 2000–2010===

In 2003, Rupert Soar secured funding and formed the freeform construction group at Loughborough University, UK, to explore the potential for up-scaling existing 3D printing techniques for construction applications.{{Citation needed|date=May 2022}} In 2005, the group secured funding to build a large-scale construction 3D printing machine using 'off the shelf' components (concrete pumping, spray concrete, gantry system) to explore how complex such components could be and realistically meet the demands for construction. {{Citation needed|date=August 2020}}

In 2005, Enrico Dini, Italy, patented the  [[D-Shape]] technology, employing a massively scaled powder jetting/bonding technique over an area approximately 6m x 6m x 3m.<ref>Patent by Dini et al., [http://patents.google.com/patent/WO2006100556A2 "Method and Device for Building Automatically Conglomerate Structures. Patent number US20080148683 A1"] web cited 2016-07-18</ref> This technique although originally developed with epoxy resin bonding system was later adapted to use inorganic bonding agents.<ref>J.B.Gardiner PhD thesis [https://researchbank.rmit.edu.au/view/rmit:160277/Gardiner.pdf] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190311211227/https://researchbank.rmit.edu.au/view/rmit:160277/Gardiner.pdf|date=2019-03-11}} "Exploring the Emerging Design Territory of
Construction 3D Printing, 2011 (p89) web cited 2016-07-18</ref> This technology has been used commercially for a range of projects in construction and other sectors including for [artificial reefs].<ref>J.B.Gardiner PhD thesis [https://researchbank.rmit.edu.au/view/rmit:160277/Gardiner.pdf] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190311211227/https://researchbank.rmit.edu.au/view/rmit:160277/Gardiner.pdf|date=2019-03-11}} "Exploring the Emerging Design Territory of
Construction 3D Printing, 2011" (p337) web cited 2016-07-18</ref>

In 2008 3D Concrete Printing began at [[Loughborough University]], UK, headed by Richard Buswell and colleagues to extend the groups prior research and look to commercial applications moving from a gantry based technology to an industrial robot.<ref>J.B.Gardiner PhD thesis [https://researchbank.rmit.edu.au/view/rmit:160277/Gardiner.pdf] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190311211227/https://researchbank.rmit.edu.au/view/rmit:160277/Gardiner.pdf|date=2019-03-11}} "Exploring the Emerging Design Territory of Construction 3D Printing, 2011 (p81) web cited 2016-07-18</ref>

===Second generation 2010–present===
{{Very long section|date=November 2022}}
Buswell's group succeeded in licensing that robotic technology to Skanska in 2014.{{Citation needed|date=May 2022}} On January 18, 2015, the company drew press coverage with its unveiling of two buildings that integrated 3D-printed components: a mansion-style villa and a five-story tower.<ref>"https://3dprint.com/38144/3d-printed-apartment-building/" web cited 2016-09-14</ref>  In May 2016, a new office building opened in Dubai, a 250-square-meter space (2,700-square-foot), touted by Dubai's Museum of the Future as the world's first 3D-printed office building.<ref>"https://3dprint.com/126426/3d-printed-museum-office/" web cited 2016-09-14</ref>

In 2017, a project to build a 3D-printed skyscraper in the [[United Arab Emirates]] was announced.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.constructionweekonline.com/article-43436-cazza-to-build-worlds-first-3d-printed-skyscraper/|title=Cazza to build world's first 3D printed skyscraper}} Jochebed Menon, Construction Week Online, March 12, 2017. Retrieved July 17, 2017</ref> [[Cazza]] construction would help to build the structure. At present there are no specific details, such as the buildings height or exact location.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://3dprint.com/167667/3d-printed-skyscraper-dubai/|title=Dubai and Cazza Construction Technologies Announce Plans to Build World's First 3D Printed Skyscrape|date=13 March 2017}} Claire Scott, 3D Print. March 13, 2017. Retrieved July 17, 2017</ref>

FreeFAB Wax, invented by James B Gardiner and Steven Janssen at [[Laing O'Rourke]], has been in development since March 2013.<ref>{{cite web |title=FreeFAB Website |url=http://www.freefab.com |access-date=21 February 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | chapter-url=https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-319-04663-1_9 | doi=10.1007/978-3-319-04663-1_9 | title=Robotic Fabrication in Architecture, Art and Design 2014 | year=2014 | last1=Gardiner | first1=James B. | last2=Janssen | first2=Steven R. | chapter=FreeFab: Development of a Construction-Scale Robotic Formwork 3D Printer | pages=131–146 | isbn=978-3-319-04662-4 }}</ref> The technique uses construction scale 3D-printing to produce high volumes of engineered wax (up to 400L/hr) to fabricate a 'fast and dirty' 3D-printed mould for [[precast concrete]], [[glass fibre-reinforced concrete]] (GRC), and other sprayable/cast-able materials. The casting surface is then five-axis milled, removing approximately 5mm of wax, to create a high-quality mold (with approximately 20-micron surface roughness).<ref>{{cite web|url=https://vimeo.com/98665479|title="Freefab: Development of a construction-scale robotic formwork 3D printer", Vimeo 2014|date=19 June 2014}}</ref> After curing, the mold is then either crushed or melted, with the wax filtered and reused, significantly reducing waste, as compared with conventional mold technologies. The benefits of the technology are its fast mold fabrication, increased production efficiencies, reduced labor, and virtual elimination of waste through material reuse for bespoke molds.<ref>"http://www.iaarc.org/publications/fulltext/ISARC2016-Paper095.pdf, ISARC 2016"</ref> The system was originally demonstrated in 2014, using an industrial robot.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=alAHME_A8VY|title=Laing O'Rourke's FreeFAB Technology|last=Laing O'Rourke|date=9 October 2014|via=YouTube}}</ref> The system was later adapted to integrate with a five-axis, high-speed gantry to achieve the rapid surface-milling tolerances, required for the system.

The US Army Corps of Engineers, Engineer Research Development Center, led by the Construction Engineering Research Laboratory (ERDC-CERL), in [[Champaign, Illinois|Champaign]], IL USA, began research in deployable construction 3D-printer technology starting in September 2015.  The pilot project, Automated Construction for Expeditionary Structures (ACES), focused on concrete 3D printing and covered a broad range of research areas, including printing systems, printable concrete materials, structural design and testing, and construction methods. The ACES project resulted in three demonstrations: An Entry Control Point, the first Reinforced Additively Constructed Concrete Barracks, and the printing of civil and military infrastructure (Jersey barriers, T-walls, culverts, bunkers, and fighting position) at the US Army Maneuver Support, Sustainment, and protection Experiments (MSSPIX).<ref>USACE ERDC, Entry Control Point (ECP), 2016, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BodasNDLYzU
</ref><ref>ERDC, First 3D printed Concrete Barracks, 2017, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-qmqN1G5x4w</ref><ref>News Leader, Army shows off next-level tech at Fort Leonard Wood, 2018, https://amp.news-leader.com/amp/503766002</ref>

In 2017 ERDC CERL began working with the US Marine Corps, resulting in the first demonstration of concrete 3D printing by military personnel, a structurally enhanced reinforced 3D printed concrete Barracks Hut,<ref>Engineer News Record, Army Researchers Refine 3D-Printed Concrete Barracks, https://www.enr.com/articles/45002-army-researchers-refine-3d-printed-concrete-barracks</ref>{{full citation needed|date=March 2022}}<ref>Fox News, Marine Corps 3D print 500-square-foot concrete barrack, 2018, https://video.foxnews.com/v/5828338937001</ref>{{full citation needed|date=March 2022}} the first 3D printed bridge in the Americas, and the first demonstration of printing with a three-inch nozzle.<ref>3D printing Media Network, US Marines 3D print concrete structure using a three-inch nozzle, 2019, https://www.3dprintingmedia.network/us-marines-3d-print/</ref><ref>Marine Corps System Command, Tactical Tuesday: 3D Printed Concrete Bridge, 2019, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vEN1x5Hc4qA</ref> Through this work, ERDC and the Marines were able to test structural performance of reinforced 3D printed concrete wall assemblies and bridge beams, print system resilience and maintenance cycles, extended printing operations, the publicized 24 hour building claim, and develop viable reinforcement and construction methods using conventionally accepted practices.<ref name="Kreiger" /><ref>Diggs-McGee et al, Print time vs. elapsed time: A temporal analysis of a continuous printing operation for additive constructed concrete, Additive Manufacturing, 2019 [https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addma.2019.02.015]</ref>{{full citation needed|date=March 2022}}

MX3D Metal founded by Loris Jaarman and team has developed two 6 axis robotic 3D printing systems, the first uses a thermoplastic which is extruded, notably this system allows the fabrication of freeform non-planar beads. The second is a system that relies on additive welding (essentially spot welding on previous spot welds) the additive welding technology has been developed by various groups in the past.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://3dprintingindustry.com/news/construction-of-worlds-1st-3d-printed-bridge-begins-in-amsterdam-60110/|title=Construction of World's 1st 3D Printed Bridge Begins in Amsterdam |last=Molitch|first=Michael |date=16 October 2015 |access-date=17 July 2021}}</ref> MX3D worked on the fabrication and installation of the metal bridge in Amsterdam for six years. The completed pedestrian and bicycle bridge was opened in July 2021. The bridge has a span of {{cvt|12|m}} and a final mass of {{cvt|4500|kg}} of [[stainless steel]].<ref name="bbc20210716">{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/newsround/57864409 |title=World's first 3D-printed steel bridge opens in Amsterdam |work=[[BBC]] |date=16 July 2021 |access-date=17 July 2021}}</ref>

BetAbram is a simple gantry based concrete extrusion 3D printer developed in Slovenia. This system is available commercially, offering 3 models (P3, P2 and P1) to consumers since 2013. The largest P1 can print objects up to 16m x 9m x 2.5m.<ref>"https://3dprintingindustry.com/news/emerges-first-manufacturer-3d-house-printers-38801/" 3D Industry article</ref>
Total Custom concrete 3D printer developed by Rudenko is a concrete deposition technology mounted in a gantry configuration, the system has a similar output to Winsun and other concrete 3D printing technologies, however it uses a lightweight truss type gantry.<ref>{{cite web|title=Total Custom Website|url=http://www.totalkustom.com/|access-date=21 February 2017}}</ref> The technology has been used to fabricate a backyard scale version of a castle and a hotel room in the Philippines.<ref>{{cite web|title=World's First 3D Printed Castle is Complete|url=https://3dprint.com/12933/3d-printed-castle-complete/|website=3DPrint.com|date=26 August 2014|access-date=21 February 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=EXCLUSIVE: Lewis Grand Hotel Erects World's First 3D Printed Hotel|date=8 September 2015|url=https://3dprint.com/94558/3d-printed-hotel-lewis-grand/|access-date=21 February 2017}}</ref>{{full citation needed|date=March 2022}}

Serial production of construction printers was launched by SPECAVIA company, based in Yaroslavl (Russia). In May 2015, the company introduced the first model of a construction 3d printer and announced the start of sales.{{citation needed|date=July 2021}}

XtreeE, initiated and backed by Founding CEO Philippe Morel,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Interviewing XtreeE: 3D Printing Concrete to Push the limits of Construction |url=https://www.sculpteo.com/blog/2016/12/07/interviewing-xtreee-3d-printing-concrete-to-push-the-limits-of-construction/ |access-date=2023-08-18 |website=Sculpteo Blog |language=en}}</ref> has developed a multi-component printing system, mounted on top of a 6-axis robotic arm. The project has started in July 2015, and includes collaboration and investments from the construction industry, such as [[Saint-Gobain|Saint Gobain]], [[Vinci SA|Vinci]], and [[LafargeHolcim]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.vinci-construction.com/en/news/25935/vinci-construction-signs-a-partnership-agreement-with-xtreee-and-acquires-a-stake-in-the-company-a-leader-in-3d-concrete-printing|title=VINCI Construction signs a partnership agreement with XtreeE and acquires a stake in the company, a leader in 3D concrete printing|website=www.vinci-construction.com|access-date=2017-12-05}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.lafargeholcim.com/lafargeholcim-innovates-with-3D-concrete-printing|title=LafargeHolcim innovates with 3D concrete printing|date=2016-08-05|work=LafargeHolcim.com|access-date=2017-12-05|language=en}}</ref>
3DPrinthuset, a Danish 3DPrinting startup, has also branched into construction with its sister company COBOD International, which made its own gantry-based printer in October 2017.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://3dprinthuset.dk/europes-first-3d-printed-building/|title=The construction of Europe's first 3D printed building has begun. - 3D Printhuset|work=3D Printhuset|access-date=2017-12-05|language=da-DK}}</ref>

S-Squared 3D Printers Inc is a [[3D printer]] manufacturing and retail company based in [[Long Island]], New York. The company was co-founded by Robert Smith and Mario Szczepanski in 2014 and has 13 employees and makes 3D printers for [[hobbyists]], libraries and [[Science, technology, engineering, and mathematics|STEM programs]].<ref>{{cite news |last1=Sisson |first1=Patrick |date=January 8, 2019 |title=Can this startup 3D-print a home in 30 hours? |publisher=[[Curbed]] |agency=Vox Media |url=https://www.curbed.com/2019/1/8/18174405/long-island-3d-printing-construction-startup-s-squared |access-date=January 8, 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Fuentes |first1=Nicole |date=February 9, 2018 |title=3D printing concrete to build homes |publisher=The Long Island Advance |url=https://www.longislandadvance.net/5182/3D-printing-concrete-to-build-homes |access-date=February 9, 2018}}</ref> In 2017, the company launched a new division, S-Squared 4D Commercial, to construct homes and commercial buildings with their 3D printing rig called ''Autonomous Robotic Construction System (ARCS)''.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Ocasio |first1=Victor |title=LI firm testing huge 3D printer that could make a house in 48 hours |url=https://www.newsday.com/business/3d-printer-concrete-house-1.25817179 |access-date=January 13, 2019 |publisher=[[Newsday]] |date=January 13, 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.aniwaa.com/house-3d-printer-construction/|title = Ultimate guide to construction 3D printers in 2022 (Concrete 3D printing)}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Fuentes |first1=Nicole |title=S-Squared gets printing |url=https://www.longislandadvance.net/6244/S-Squared-gets-printing |access-date=December 27, 2018 |publisher=The Long Island Advance |date=December 27, 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Goldberg |first1=Jodi |title=Machine could build home in 2 days |url=http://www.fox5ny.com/news/machine-could-build-home-in-2-days |access-date=January 17, 2019 |agency=[[WNYW|Fox 5]] |publisher=Fox 5 NY |date=January 17, 2019}}</ref> The system can build homes, commercial buildings, roads and bridges.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Vialva |first1=Tia |title=S-SQUARED 3D PRINTERS DEBUTS LARGE AUTONOMOUS ROBOTIC CONSTRUCTION SYSTEM |url=https://3dprintingindustry.com/news/s-squared-3d-printers-debuts-large-autonomous-robotic-construction-system-145078/ |website=3D Printing Industry |date=7 December 2018 |access-date=December 7, 2018}}</ref> ARCS can complete projects from 500 square feet to more than one million square feet.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Cruz |first1=Veronica |title=S-Squared presents ARCS – the world's largest 3D printer |url=https://marketbusinessnews.com/s-squared-arcs-3d-printer/194201/ |access-date=January 13, 2019 |agency=MBN |publisher=Market Business News |date=January 13, 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=S. |first1=Michelle |title=S-Squared 3D printers creates 3D XXL printer for construction |url=https://www.3dnatives.com/en/s-squared-3d-printer-3d-xxl-printer-construction-080120194/ |website=3D Natives |date=8 January 2019 |access-date=January 8, 2019}}</ref>{{full citation needed|date=March 2022}}

In 2021, Mario Cucinella Architects and 3D printing specialists [[World's Advanced Saving Project|WASP]] demonstrated the first 3D printing of a house made out of a clay-mixture, ''Tecla'' {{see below|[[#Clay printing|below]]}}.<ref name="printedclayhouse"/><ref name="housing1"/>

In 2022, engineers reported the development of swarms of autonomous 3D-printing [[List of unmanned aerial vehicle applications#Construction|drones]] for additive manufacturing and repair.<ref>{{cite news |title=Drone swarm that 3D prints cement structures could construct buildings |url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/2339096-drone-swarm-that-3d-prints-cement-structures-could-construct-buildings/ |access-date=20 October 2022 |work=New Scientist}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Zhang |first1=Ketao |last2=Chermprayong |first2=Pisak |last3=Xiao |first3=Feng |last4=Tzoumanikas |first4=Dimos |last5=Dams |first5=Barrie |last6=Kay |first6=Sebastian |last7=Kocer |first7=Basaran Bahadir |last8=Burns |first8=Alec |last9=Orr |first9=Lachlan |last10=Choi |first10=Christopher |last11=Darekar |first11=Durgesh Dattatray |last12=Li |first12=Wenbin |last13=Hirschmann |first13=Steven |last14=Soana |first14=Valentina |last15=Ngah |first15=Shamsiah Awang |last16=Sareh |first16=Sina |last17=Choubey |first17=Ashutosh |last18=Margheri |first18=Laura |last19=Pawar |first19=Vijay M. |last20=Ball |first20=Richard J. |last21=Williams |first21=Chris |last22=Shepherd |first22=Paul |last23=Leutenegger |first23=Stefan |last24=Stuart-Smith |first24=Robert |last25=Kovac |first25=Mirko |title=Aerial additive manufacturing with multiple autonomous robots |journal=Nature |date=September 2022 |volume=609 |issue=7928 |pages=709–717 |doi=10.1038/s41586-022-04988-4 |pmid=36131037 |bibcode=2022Natur.609..709Z |s2cid=252409485 |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-022-04988-4 |language=en |issn=1476-4687|url-access=subscription|hdl=10044/1/99674 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>

In November 2022, researchers at the University of Maine Advanced Structures and Composites Center completed a {{convert|600|sqft}} home composed of modular sections printed from wood byproducts.<ref>[https://www.bostonglobe.com/2022/12/11/lifestyle/bio-based-3d-printed-tiny-house-offers-solutions-maines-housing-crisis Bio-based, 3D-printed tiny house offers solutions to Maine’s housing crisis]</ref>

==Design==
Architect James Bruce Gardiner designed two projects, Freefab Tower in 2004 and the Villa Roccia in 2009–2010. FreeFAB Tower was based on the original concept to combine a hybrid form of construction 3D printing with modular construction.<ref>{{cite web|title=Linkedin Profile|url=https://www.linkedin.com/in/james-bruce-gardiner-a6ab011b/|website=Linkedin}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last1=Gardiner|first1=James Bruce|title=Exploring the Emerging Design Territory of Construction 3D Printing|url=https://researchbank.rmit.edu.au/view/rmit:160277/Gardiner.pdf|website=RMIT Research bank|access-date=21 February 2017|archive-date=11 March 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190311211227/https://researchbank.rmit.edu.au/view/rmit:160277/Gardiner.pdf|url-status=dead}} (pp. 176–202), 2011</ref> Influences can be seen in various designs used by Winsun, including articles on the Winsun's original press release and office of the future.<ref>{{cite web|title=How a Chinese Company 3D-Printed Ten Houses In a Single Day|url=https://gizmodo.com/how-a-chinese-company-3d-printed-ten-houses-in-a-single-1557613229|website=Gizmodo|date=3 April 2014 |access-date=2017-02-21}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Office of the Future is 3D printed in Dubai|url=http://www.treehugger.com/green-architecture/office-future-3d-printed-dubai.html|website=Treehugger|access-date=2017-02-21}}</ref> The FreeFAB Tower project also depicts the first speculative use of multi-axis robotic arms in construction 3D printing, the use of such machines within construction has grown steadily in recent years with projects by MX3D and Branch Technology.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Kira|title=Construction of world's first 3D printed metal bridge begins today in Red Light District of Amsterdam|url=http://www.3ders.org/articles/20151016-worlds-first-3d-printed-metal-bridge-begins-red-light-district-of-amsterdam.html|website=3ders|access-date=21 February 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last1=Clark|first1=Corey|title=Branch Technology unveils SHoP Architects' 3D printed pavilion at Design Miami|url=https://3dprintingindustry.com/news/branch-technology-unveils-shop-architects-3d-printed-pavilion-design-miami-103486/|website=3D Printing Industry|date=17 January 2017|access-date=21 February 2017}}</ref>

The Villa Roccia 2009–2010 took this work a step further with the a design for a Villa at Porto Rotondo, Sardinia, Italy in collaboration with D-Shape.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Gardiner|first1=James Bruce|title=Exploring the Emerging Design Territory of Construction 3D Printing|url=https://researchbank.rmit.edu.au/view/rmit:160277/Gardiner.pdf|website=RMIT Research bank|access-date=21 February 2017|archive-date=11 March 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190311211227/https://researchbank.rmit.edu.au/view/rmit:160277/Gardiner.pdf|url-status=dead}} (p203-279), 2011</ref> The design for the Villa focused on the development of a site specific architectural language influenced by the rock formations on the site and along the coast of Sardinia, while also taking into account the use of a panellised prefabricated 3D printing process. The project went through prototyping and didn't proceed to full construction.

Francios Roche (R&Sie) developed the exhibition project and monograph 'I heard about' in 2005 which explored the use of a highly speculative self propelling snake like autonomous 3D printing apparatus and generative design system to create high rise residential towers.<ref>{{cite web|title=R&Sie (n) I've Heard About|url=http://www.new-territories.com/download/ive%20heard%20about/Cat_Ive_090805%20(1).pdf|access-date=21 February 2017}}</ref>

Dutch architect Janjaap Ruijssenaars's [[performative architecture]] 3D-printed building was planned to be built by a partnership of Dutch companies.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.eestairs.com/en/743_eestairs_founding_father_of_the_landscape_house.htm|title=EeStairs Founding Father of the Landscape House|website=www.eestairs.com}}</ref>{{update after|2015|9|01}} <ref name="tc20120120">{{cite news|title=The World's First 3D-Printed Building Will Arrive In 2014|url=https://techcrunch.com/2013/01/20/the-worlds-first-3d-printed-building-will-arrive-in-2014-and-it-looks-awesome/|access-date=2013-02-08|newspaper=TechCrunch|date=2012-01-20}}</ref> The house was planned to be built in the end of 2014, but this deadline wasn't met. The companies have said that they are still committed to the project.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5zdu1gwbD0E|title=Landscape House Forum & Workshop Sept 3rd 2014_NRC Cafe_Amsterdam|last=UniverseArchitecture|date=15 September 2014|via=YouTube}}</ref>

== Structures ==
3D concrete printing technology is used in the construction of thin-walled wall structures that do not require thermal insulation conditions. 
[[File:Craft Fence.jpg|thumb|Craft Fence by ConcreteFlow]]

[[File:Double Extruder.gif|thumb|Double Extruder by ConcreteFlow]]

=== 3D printed buildings===
[[File:Europe’s first residential 3D printed building.jpg|thumb|Europe's first 3D-printed residential house]]

The [[3D Print Canal House]] was a construction project.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://rhinecapital.com/investmentinsights/3d-print-canal-house/ |title=3D Print Canal House &#124; Investment insights |access-date=2015-05-27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150527184530/http://rhinecapital.com/investmentinsights/3d-print-canal-house/ |archive-date=2015-05-27 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

The first residential building in Europe and the [[Commonwealth of Independent States|CIS]], constructed using the 3D printing construction technology, was the home in [[Yaroslavl]] (Russia) with the area of 298.5 sq. meters. The walls of the building were printed by the company SPECAVIA in December 2015. 600 elements of the walls were printed in the shop and assembled at the construction site. After completing the roof structure and interior decoration, the company presented a fully finished 3D building in October 2017.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Benedict|title=AMT-SPECAVIA builds Europe's first habitable 3D printed building|url= http://www.3ders.org/articles/20171024-amt-specavia-builds-europes-first-habitable-3d-printed-building.html|website=3ders.org|access-date=24 October 2017}}</ref>

Dutch and Chinese demonstration projects are slowly constructing 3D-printed buildings in China, Dubai and the Netherlands,<ref>{{cite web|title=Shanghai-based WinSun 3D Prints 6-Story Apartment Building and an Incredible Home|url= https://3dprint.com/38144/3d-printed-apartment-building/ |website=3DPrint.com|date= 18 January 2015 |access-date=21 February 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Dubai debuts world's first fully 3D-printed building|url= http://inhabitat.com/dubai-debuts-worlds-first-fully-3d-printed-building/ |website=Inhabitat|date= 24 May 2016 |access-date=21 February 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=U.S. President Obama viewed world's first 3D Print Canal House|url= http://www.3ders.org/articles/20140324-us-president-obama-viewed-3d-print-canal-house.html |website=3Ders|access-date=21 February 2017}}</ref> using the effort to educate the public to the possibilities of the new plant-based building technology and to spur greater innovation in 3D printing of residential buildings.<ref name="bbc20140503">{{cite news |title=How Dutch team is 3D-printing a full-sized house |url= https://www.bbc.com/news/technology-27221199 |access-date=2014-06-10 |publisher=BBC |date=2014-05-03 }}</ref><ref>[http://pando.com/2014/06/25/the-plan-to-print-actual-houses-shows-off-the-best-and-worst-of-3d-printing/ The plan to print actual houses shows off the best and worst of 3D printing] (2014-06-26),  James Robinson, ''[[PandoDaily]]''</ref> A small concrete house was 3D-printed in 2017.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.engadget.com/2017/03/07/apis-cor-3d-printed-house/|title=A San Francisco startup 3D printed a whole house in 24 hours|website=Engadget|date=7 March 2017 }}</ref>

The Building on Demand (BOD), the first 3D printed house in Europe, is a project led by COBOD International for a small 3D printed office hotel in Copenhagen, Nordhavn area.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://3dprinthuset.dk/europes-first-3d-printed-building/|title=The construction of Europe's first 3D printed building has begun - 3D Printhuset|work=3D Printhuset|access-date=2018-02-11|language=da-DK}}</ref> As of 2018, the building stands fully completed and furbished.<ref>{{Citation|last=COBOD|title=Europe's first 3D printed building, The BOD|date=2018-09-26|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SJikUuWOT0M|access-date=2018-10-09}}</ref>

=== 3D printed bridges ===

In Spain, the first pedestrian bridge printed in 3D in the world (3DBRIDGE) was inaugurated 14 December 2016 in the urban park of Castilla-La Mancha in Alcobendas, Madrid.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.3ders.org/articles/20161214-spain-unveils-worlds-first-3d-printed-pedestrian-bridge-made-of-concrete.html|title=Spain unveils world's first 3D printed pedestrian bridge made of concrete|work=3ders.org|access-date=2017-06-16|language=en-US}}</ref> The 3DBUILD technology used was developed by [[Acciona|ACCIONA]], who was in charge of the structural design, material development and manufacturing of 3D printed elements.<ref>{{Citation|last=IN(3D)USTRY|title=Acciona {{!}} José Daniel García {{!}} Architecture & Habitat Panel {{!}} IN(3D)USTRY|date=2016-08-09|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2SZDOQUaqXk|access-date=2017-06-16}}</ref>  The bridge has a total length of 12 meters and a width of 1.75 meters and is printed in micro-reinforced concrete. Architectural design was done by Institute of Advanced Architecture of Catalonia (IAAC).

The 3D printer used to build the footbridge was manufactured by [[D-Shape]]. The 3D printed bridge reflects the complexities of nature's forms and was developed through parametric design and computational design, which allows to optimize the distribution of materials and allows to maximize the structural performance, being able to dispose the material only where it is needed, with total freedom of forms. The 3D printed footbridge of Alcobendas represented a milestone for the construction sector at international level, as large scale 3D printing technology has been applied in this project for the first time in the field of civil engineering in a public space.

=== 3D printed architectural forms ===

In August 2018 in town of [[Palekh]] (in Russia) was the world's first application of additive technology for 3D-printing new forms for a fountain.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Davide Sher|title=Ancient water fountain in Russia fully restored using 3D printing by AMT SPETSAVIA|url=https://www.3dprintingmedia.network/ancient-water-fountain-in-russia-restored-using-3d-printing-by-amt-spetsavia/|website=3dprintingmedia.network|date=8 October 2018|access-date=2018-10-08}}</ref>

The "Snop" (Sheaf) fountain was originally created in the middle of the 20th century by famous sculptor Nikolai Dydykin. Nowadays, during restoration of the fountain, its shape was changed from a rectangular shape to a round one; with corresponding upgrades to the fountain's backlight system. The renovated fountain now is 26 meters in diameter, 2.2 meters deep. The parapet of the 3D fountain with internal communication channels was printed by the ''AMT'' construction printer produced by ''AMT-SPETSAVIA'' group.

===Extraterrestrial printed structures===
{{See also|Moonbase#European Space Agency|Self-replicating spacecraft}}
The printing of buildings has been proposed as a particularly useful technology for constructing off-Earth habitats, such as [[Colonization of the Moon|habitats on the Moon]] or [[Colonization of Mars|Mars]]. {{as of|2013}}, the [[European Space Agency]] was working with [[London]]-based [[Foster and Partners|Foster + Partners]] to examine the potential of printing lunar bases using regular 3D printing technology.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.esa.int/Our_Activities/Technology/Building_a_lunar_base_with_3D_printing|title=Building a lunar base with 3D printing / Technology / Our Activities / ESA|date=2013-01-31|publisher=Esa.int|access-date=2014-03-13}}</ref> The architectural firm proposed a building-construction 3D-printer technology in January 2013 that would use lunar regolith raw materials to produce lunar building structures while using [[inflatable space habitat|enclosed inflatable habitats]] for housing the human occupants inside the hardshell printed lunar structures. Overall, these habitats would require only ten percent of the structure mass to be [[space transport|transported]] from Earth, while using local lunar materials for the other 90 percent of the structure mass.<ref name="gizmodo20130131">{{cite news|url=https://gizmodo.com/5980534/this-is-what-the-first-lunar-base-could-really-look-like|title=This Is What the First Lunar Base Could Really Look Like|last=Diaz|first=Jesus|date=2013-01-31|access-date=2013-02-01|newspaper=Gizmodo}}</ref>
The dome-shaped structures would be a weight-bearing [[catenary]] form, with structural support provided by a closed-cell structure, reminiscent of [[Bone#In birds|bird bones]].<ref name="nbf20130919">{{cite news|url=http://nextbigfuture.com/2013/09/3d-printing-of-lunar-base-using-lunar.html|title=3D Printing of a lunar base using lunar soil will print buildings 3.5 meters per hour|date=2013-09-19|access-date=2013-09-23|newspaper=Newt Big Future|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130923091428/http://nextbigfuture.com/2013/09/3d-printing-of-lunar-base-using-lunar.html|archive-date=2013-09-23|url-status=dead}}</ref> In this conception, "printed" lunar soil will provide both "[[Space radiation|radiation]] and [[Spacecraft thermal control|temperature]] insulation" for the Lunar occupants.<ref name="gizmodo20130131" />
The building technology mixes lunar material with [[magnesium oxide]] which will turn the "[[Lunar regolith|moonstuff]] into a pulp that can be sprayed to form the block" when a [[salt|binding salt]] is applied that "converts [this] material into a stone-like solid."<ref name="gizmodo20130131" /> A type of [[sulfur]] [[concrete]] is also envisioned.<ref name="nbf20130919" />

Tests of 3D printing of an architectural structure with [[Lunar regolith simulant|simulated lunar material]] have been completed, using a large [[vacuum chamber]] in a terrestrial lab.<ref name="bbc20130201">{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/technology-21293258|title=3D printed moon building designs revealed|date=2013-02-01|access-date=2013-02-08|newspaper=BBC News}}</ref> The technique involves injecting the binding liquid under the surface of the [[regolith]] with a 3D printer nozzle, which in tests trapped {{convert|2|mm}}-scale droplets under the surface via [[Capillary action|capillary forces]].<ref name=nbf20130919/> The printer used was the [[D-Shape]].{{citation needed|date=March 2014}}

A variety of lunar infrastructure elements have been conceived for 3D structural printing, including landing pads, blast protection walls, roads, [[hangar]]s and [[rocket propellant|fuel storage]].<ref name=nbf20130919/> In early 2014, [[NASA]] funded a small study at the [[University of Southern California]] to further develop 
the ''[[Contour Crafting]]'' 3D printing technique. Potential applications of this technology include constructing lunar structures of a material that could consist of up to 90-percent [[Lunar regolith|lunar material]] with only ten percent of the material requiring [[space transport|transport]] from Earth.<ref name="tf20140115">{{cite news|url=http://techflesh.com/nasas-plan-to-build-homes-on-the-moon-space-agency-backs-3d-print-technology-which-could-build-base/|title=NASA's plan to build homes on the Moon: Space agency backs 3D print technology which could build base|date=2014-01-15|newspaper=TechFlesh|access-date=2014-01-16|archive-date=2014-01-16|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140116195122/http://techflesh.com/nasas-plan-to-build-homes-on-the-moon-space-agency-backs-3d-print-technology-which-could-build-base/|url-status=dead}}</ref>

NASA is also looking at a different technique that would involve the [[sintering]] of [[Lunar regolith|lunar dust]] using low-power (1500 watt) microwave energy. The lunar material would be bound by heating to {{convert|1200|to|1500|C}}, somewhat below the melting point, in order to fuse the [[nanoparticle]] dust into a solid block that is [[ceramic]]-like, and would not require the transport of a binder material from Earth as required by the Foster+Partners, Contour Crafting, and D-shape approaches to extraterrestrial building printing. One specific proposed plan for building a lunar base using this technique would be called [[SinterHab]], and would utilize the [[Jet Propulsion Laboratory|JPL]] six-legged [[ATHLETE (robot)|ATHLETE]] robot to [[Autonomous robot|autonomously]] or [[Telerobotics|telerobotically]] build lunar structures.<ref name="wired20140313">{{cite magazine|url=https://www.wired.co.uk/news/archive/2013-03/01/giant-nasa-spider-moon-base-sinterhab|title=Giant Nasa spider robots could 3D print lunar base using microwaves |last=Steadman|first=Ian|magazine=Wired UK|access-date=2014-03-13}}</ref>

As of December 2022, NASA awarded the Texas based company ICON with a $57.2 million contract to build 3D printed habitats, landing pads, and roads on the lunar surface and to support its [[Artemis program|ARTEMIS]] program.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Bardan |first=Roxana |date=2022-11-29 |title=NASA, ICON Advance Lunar Construction Technology for Moon Missions |url=http://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-icon-advance-lunar-construction-technology-for-moon-missions |access-date=2022-12-23 |website=NASA}}</ref> The contract runs through 2028. The company participated in the NASA's 3D Printed Habitat Challenge in collaboration with the [[Colorado School of Mines]] and was awarded a prize for its printed structural system prototype.

== Clay printing ==
[[File:Eco-sustainable 3D printed house "Tecla".jpg|thumb|The ''Tecla'' as of 2021.]]
[[File:Sustainable 3D-printed house - Tecla.webm|thumb|Video showing the eco-house and its construction]]
In April 2021, the first [[prototype]] 3D printed house made out of [[clay]], [[Tecla house|''Tecla'']], was completed. The [[Zero carbon housing|low-carbon housing]] was printed by two large synchronized arms from a mixture of locally sourced soil and water as well as fibers from [[Rice hulls|rice husks]] and a binder.<ref name="printedclayhouse">{{cite news |last1=Palumbo |first1=Jacqui |title=Is this 3D-printed home made of clay the future of housing? |url=https://edition.cnn.com/style/article/tecla-3d-printed-house-clay/index.html |access-date=9 May 2021 |work=CNN |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=First 3D printed clay house completed |url=https://www.wlns.com/dont-miss/first-3d-printed-clay-house-completed/ |access-date=9 May 2021 |work=WLNS 6 News |date=14 April 2021}}</ref><ref name="housing1">{{cite web |title=Mario Cucinella Architects and WASP creates 3D-printed sustainable housing prototype |url=https://www.dezeen.com/2021/04/23/mario-cucinella-architects-wasp-3d-printed-housing/ |website=Dezeen |access-date=9 May 2021 |language=en |date=23 April 2021}}</ref> Such buildings could be highly cheap, well-[[Thermal insulation|insulated]], stable and weatherproof, climate-adaptable, customizable, get produced rapidly, [[Automation in construction|require only very little easily learnable manual labor]], [[Environmental impact of concrete|mitigate carbon emissions from concrete]], require less energy, reduce [[homelessness]], help enable [[Intentional community|intentional communities]] such as [[autonomy|autonomous]], [[Autarky|autark]] [[Ecovillage|eco-communities]], and enable the provision of housing for victims of natural disasters as well as – via [[knowledge transfer|knowledge-]] and [[Technology transfer|technology-transfer]] to local people – for [[European migrant crisis|migrants to Europe]] near their homes, including as an increasingly relevant political option. It was built in Italy by the architecture studio Mario Cucinella Architects and 3D printing specialists WASP. The building's name is a [[portmanteau]] of "technology" and "clay".<ref name="printedclayhouse"/><ref name="housing1"/>

Data and projections indicate an increasing relevance of buildings that are both low-cost and [[Green building|sustainable]], notably that, according to a 2020 UN report, [[Greenhouse gas emissions#Buildings and construction|building and construction]] are responsible for ~38% of all energy-related carbon dioxide emissions,<ref>{{cite news |title=Buildings-related carbon dioxide emissions hit record high: UN |url=https://phys.org/news/2020-12-buildings-related-carbon-dioxide-emissions-high.html |access-date=22 May 2021 |work=phys.org |language=en}}</ref> that, partly [[Effects of climate change#Migration|due to global warming]],<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-52543589|title=Climate change: More than 3bn could live in extreme heat by 2070|date=5 May 2020|access-date=6 May 2020|work=BBC News}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Xu |first1=Chi |last2=Kohler |first2=Timothy A. |last3=Lenton |first3=Timothy M. |last4=Svenning |first4=Jens-Christian |last5=Scheffer |first5=Marten |title=Future of the human climate niche – Supplementary Materials |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |date=26 May 2020 |volume=117 |issue=21 |pages=11350–11355 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1910114117|issn=0027-8424 |pmid=32366654 |pmc=7260949|bibcode=2020PNAS..11711350X |doi-access=free }}</ref> [[Migrant crisis|migration crises]] are expected to intensify in the future and that the UN estimates that by 2030, ~3 billion people or ~40% of the world's population will require access to [[Accessible housing|accessible, affordable housing]].<ref name="printedclayhouse"/> Disadvantages of printing with clay-mixtures include height-limitations or horizontal space requirements, initial costs and size of the non-mass-produced printer, latencies due to having to let the mixture dry with current processes, and other problems related to the novelty of the product such as their connection to [[plumbing|plumbing systems]].<ref name="printedclayhouse"/><ref name="housing1"/>

== Concrete printing ==
{{See also|3D concrete printing}}
Large-scale, [[cement]]-based 3D printing disposes the need for conventional [[Molding (process)|molding]] by precisely placing, or solidifying, specific volumes of material in sequential layers by a computer controlled positioning process.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Buswell|first1=R.A.|last2=Leal de Silva|first2=W.R.|last3=Jones|first3=S.Z.|last4=Dirrenberger|first4=J.|date=October 2018|title=3D printing using concrete extrusion: A roadmap for research|journal=Cement and Concrete Research|volume=112|pages=37–49|doi=10.1016/j.cemconres.2018.05.006|issn=0008-8846|doi-access=free|hdl=10985/13838|hdl-access=free}}</ref> This 3D printing approach consist of three general stages: data preparation, concrete preparation and component printing.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last1=Lim|first1=S.|last2=Buswell|first2=R.A.|last3=Le|first3=T.T.|last4=Austin|first4=S.A.|last5=Gibb|first5=A.G.F.|last6=Thorpe|first6=T.|date=January 2012|title=Developments in construction-scale additive manufacturing processes|journal=Automation in Construction|volume=21|pages=262–268|doi=10.1016/j.autcon.2011.06.010|s2cid=56183627 |issn=0926-5805|url=https://dspace.lboro.ac.uk/2134/9176}}</ref>

For path and data generation, a variety of methods are implemented for the generation of robotic building paths. A general approach is to slice a 3D shape into flat thin layers with a constant thickness which can be stacked up onto each other. In this method, each layer consists of a [[contour line]] and a filling pattern which can be implemented as [[honeycomb structures]] or [[space-filling curve]]s. Another method is the tangential continuity method which produces 3-dimensional building paths with locally varying thicknesses. This method results in creating constant contact surfaces between two layers, therefore, the geometrical gaps between two layers which often limits the 3D printing process will be avoided.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last1=Gosselin|first1=C.|last2=Duballet|first2=R.|last3=Roux|first3=Ph.|last4=Gaudillière|first4=N.|last5=Dirrenberger|first5=J.|last6=Morel|first6=Ph.|date=2016-06-15|title=Large-scale 3D printing of ultra-high performance concrete – a new processing route for architects and builders|journal=Materials & Design|volume=100|pages=102–109|doi=10.1016/j.matdes.2016.03.097|s2cid=73722295 |issn=0264-1275|url=https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01383481/file/Pimm_MatDesign_Gosselin_2016.pdf}}</ref>

The material preparation stage includes mixing and placing the concrete into the container. Once the fresh concrete has been placed into the container, it can be conveyed through the pump–pipe– [[nozzle]] system to print out [[Self-consolidating concrete|self-compacting concrete]] filaments, which can build layer-by-layer structural components.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Le|first1=T. T.|last2=Austin|first2=S. A.|last3=Lim|first3=S.|last4=Buswell|first4=R. A.|last5=Gibb|first5=A. G. F.|last6=Thorpe|first6=T.|date=2012-01-19|title=Mix design and fresh properties for high-performance printing concrete|journal=Materials and Structures|language=en|volume=45|issue=8|pages=1221–1232|doi=10.1617/s11527-012-9828-z|s2cid=54185257|issn=1359-5997|url=https://dspace.lboro.ac.uk/2134/10930}}</ref> In the additive processes, pumpability and the stability of the extrusion is important for the applications of [[Mortar (masonry)|mortars]]. These properties will all vary depending on the concrete mix design, the delivery system, and the deposition device. General specifications of wet concrete 3D printing are categorized into four main characteristics:<ref name=":0" />

* '''Pumpability:''' The ease and reliability with which material is moved through the delivery system
* '''Printability:'''  The ease and reliability of depositing material through a deposition device 
* '''Buildability:''' The resistance of a deposited wet material to deformation under load
* '''Open time:''' The period where the above properties are consistent within acceptable tolerances.

To execute the printing process, a control system is required. These systems can be generally split into two categories: [[Gantry crane|gantry]] systems and [[robotic arm]] systems. The gantry system drives a [[Manipulator (device)|manipulator]] mounted onto an overhead to locate the print nozzle in XYZ [[Cartesian coordinate system|cartesian coordinates]] while robotic arms offer additional degrees of freedom to the nozzle, allowing more accurate printing workflows such as printing with tangential continuity method.<ref name=":1" /> Regardless of the system used for printing (gantry crane or robotic arm), the coordination between the nozzle travel speed and the material flow rate is crucial to the outcome of the printed filament.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Tay |first1=Yi Wei Daniel |last2=Li |first2=Mingyang |last3=Tan |first3=Ming Jen |title=Effect of printing parameters in 3D concrete printing: Printing region and support structures |journal=Journal of Materials Processing Technology |date=2019 |volume=271 |pages=261–270 |doi=10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2019.04.007|hdl=10356/136856 |s2cid=140865693 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> In some cases, multiple 3D printing robotic arms can be programmed to run simultaneously resulting in decreased construction time.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Zhang|first1=Xu|last2=Li|first2=Mingyang|last3=Lim|first3=Jian Hui|last4=Weng|first4=Yiwei|last5=Tay|first5=Yi Wei Daniel|last6=Pham|first6=Hung|last7=Pham|first7=Quang-Cuong|date=November 2018|title=Large-scale 3D printing by a team of mobile robots|journal=Automation in Construction|volume=95|pages=98–106|doi=10.1016/j.autcon.2018.08.004|hdl=10356/84188|s2cid=116142978|issn=0926-5805|hdl-access=free}}</ref> Finally, automated post-processing procedures can also be applied in scenarios which require the removal of support structures or any surface finishing.<ref name=":0" />

The researchers at Purdue University<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.purdue.edu/newsroom/releases/2018/Q4/new-3d-printed-cement-paste-gets-stronger-when-it-cracks--just-like-structures-in-nature-.html|title = New 3D-printed cement paste gets stronger when it cracks — just like structures in nature}}</ref> have pioneered a 3D printing process known as Direct-ink-Writing<ref>{{Cite book|doi = 10.1007/978-3-319-99519-9_16|chapter = Additive Manufacturing and Characterization of Architectured Cement-Based Materials via X-ray Micro-computed Tomography|title = First RILEM International Conference on Concrete and Digital Fabrication – Digital Concrete 2018|series = RILEM Bookseries|year = 2019|last1 = Moini|first1 = Mohamadreza|last2 = Olek|first2 = Jan|last3 = Magee|first3 = Bryan|last4 = Zavattieri|first4 = Pablo|last5 = Youngblood|first5 = Jeffrey|volume = 19|pages = 176–189|arxiv = 1808.00396|isbn = 978-3-319-99518-2|s2cid = 52213174}}</ref> for fabrication of architectured cement-based materials for the first time.<ref>{{Cite journal|doi = 10.1002/adma.201802123|title = Additive Manufacturing and Performance of Architectured Cement-Based Materials|year = 2018|last1 = Moini|first1 = Mohamadreza|last2 = Olek|first2 = Jan|last3 = Youngblood|first3 = Jeffrey P.|last4 = Magee|first4 = Bryan|last5 = Zavattieri|first5 = Pablo D.|journal = Advanced Materials|volume = 30|issue = 43|pages = e1802123|pmid = 30159935| bibcode=2018AdM....3002123M |doi-access = free}}</ref> They demonstrated using 3D-printing, bio-inspired designs of cement-based materials is feasible and novel performance characteristics such as flaw-tolerance and compliance can be achieved.

==Construction speed==
[[File:Timelapse of 3D-printer construction of the clay house "Tecla" v1.0 (cropped).gif|thumb|300px|As of 2021, the [[#Clay printing|clay-mixture house]] ''Tecla'' can be printed in 200 hours, while the mixture may take weeks to dry.<ref name="printedclayhouse"/><ref name="housing1"/>]]
Claims have been made by [[Behrokh Khoshnevis]] since 2006 for 3D printing a house in a day,<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ehnzfGP6sq4 |title=Contour Crafting| publisher=YouTube | date=2006-04-27 |access-date=2016-07-18}}</ref> with further claims to notionally complete the building in approximately 20 hours of "printer" time.<ref name="tedxojai">{{cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ehnzfGP6sq4 |title=3D printer can build a house in 20 hours |publisher=YouTube |date=2012-08-13 |access-date=2014-03-13}}</ref> By January 2013, working versions of 3D-printing building technology were printing {{convert|2|m}} of building material per hour, with a follow-on generation of printers proposed to be capable of {{convert|3.5|m}} per hour, sufficient to complete a building in a week.<ref name="gizmodo20130131" />

The Chinese company WinSun has built several houses using large 3D printers using a mixture of quick drying cement and recycled raw materials. Ten demonstration houses were said by Winsun to have been built in 24 hours, each costing US$5000 (structure not including, footings, services, doors/windows and fitout).<ref name="bbc201404">{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/blogs-news-from-elsewhere-27156775|title=China: Firm 3D prints 10 full-sized houses in a day|work=BBC News|date=25 April 2014|access-date=2014-04-28}}</ref> However, construction 3D printing pioneer Dr. [[Behrokh Khoshnevis]] claims this was faked and that WinSun stole his [[intellectual property]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://3dprint.com/57764/winsun-3d-print-fake/|title=Exclusive: How Winsun Stole IP from Contour Crafting and Is "Faking" Their 3D Printed Homes & Apartments - 3DPrint.com - The Voice of 3D Printing / Additive Manufacturing|website=3dprint.com|date=16 April 2015}}</ref>

== Research and public knowledge ==
There are several research projects dealing with 3D Construction printing, such as the  3D concrete printing (3DCP) project at the [[Eindhoven University of Technology]],<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.tue.nl/en/university/departments/built-environment/research/research-programs/structural-design/research/research-areas/concrete-research-areas/3d-concrete-printing/ |title=3D Concrete Printing |access-date=2017-12-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171212031616/https://www.tue.nl/en/university/departments/built-environment/research/research-programs/structural-design/research/research-areas/concrete-research-areas/3d-concrete-printing/ |archive-date=2017-12-12 |url-status=dead }}</ref> or the various projects at the [[Institute for Advanced Architecture of Catalonia]] (Pylos, Mataerial, and Minibuilders). The list of research projects is expanding even more in the last couple of years, thanks to a growing interest in the field.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Tay |first1=Yi Wei Daniel |last2=Bianchi |first2=Pand |last3=Paul |first3=Suvash Chandra |last4=Mohamed |first4=Nisar |last5=Tan |first5=Ming Jen |last6=Leong |first6=Kah Fai |title=3D printing Trends in building and construction industry: A review |journal=Virtual and Physical Prototyping |date=2017 |volume=12 |issue=3 |pages=261–276 |doi=10.1080/17452759.2017.1326724 |hdl=10356/88028 |s2cid=54826675 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>

=== State-of-the-art research ===
The majority of the projects have been focused on researching the physical aspects behind the technology, such as the printing technology, material technology, and the various issues related to them. COBOD International (formerly known as 3DPrinthuset, now its sister company) has recently led a research oriented towards exploring the current state of the technology worldwide, by visiting more than 35 different 3D Construction printing related projects. For each project, a research report has been issued, and the gathered data has been used to unify all the various technologies into a first attempt at a common standardized categorization and terminology.{{citation needed|date=May 2021}}

=== First 3D construction printing conference ===
Along with the research, 3DPrinthuset (now known as COBOD International) has organized two international conferences on 3D Construction printing (February<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://3dprint.com/163670/3d-printed-construction-conference/|title=European Institutions to Gather in Copenhagen for a Look at How 3D Printing is Disrupting Construction {{!}} 3DPrint.com {{!}} The Voice of 3D Printing / Additive Manufacturing|website=3dprint.com|date=2 February 2017|language=en-US|access-date=2017-12-11}}</ref> and November<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.tctmagazine.com/3d-printing-news/3d-printhuset-second-3d-construction-printing-conference/|title=3D Printhuset organises second 3D Construction Printing Conference|date=2017-11-06|work=TCT Magazine|access-date=2017-12-11|language=en-gb}}</ref> 2017 respectively), aimed at bringing together the strongest names in this emerging industry to discuss the potentials and challenges that lie ahead. The conferences were the first of this kind, and have brought together names such as [[D-Shape]], [[Contour crafting|Contour Crafting]], Cybe Construction, Eindhoven's 3DCP research, Winsun, and many more. Along the 3D Construction printing specialists, there has also been a strong presence from the traditional construction industry key players for the first time, with names such as [[Sika AG]], [[Vinci SA|Vinci]], [[Royal BAM Group]], [[NCC (company)|NCC]], [[MYK LATICRETE (company)|MYK LATICRETE]], among others. A general idea emerged that the 3D Construction printing field needs a more unified platform where ideas, applications, issues and challenges can be shared and discussed.

=== Media interest ===
{{See also|Science fiction}}
Although the first steps have been made nearly three decades ago, 3D construction printing has struggled to reach out for years. The first technologies to achieve some media attention were [[Contour crafting|Contour Crafting]] and [[D-Shape]], with a few sporadic articles in 2008–2012<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://phys.org/news/2008-08-usc-print-a-house-technology.html|title=USC's 'print-a-house' construction technology|access-date=2018-02-11}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.fastcompany.com/1579263/3-d-printing-whole-buildings-stonein-space-printer-rocks|title=3-D Printing Whole Buildings in Stone…in Space: This Printer Rocks|date=2010-03-11|work=Fast Company|access-date=2018-02-11|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://3dprinting.com/products/architecture/d-shape-3d-printer-printing-houses/|title=D-Shape: a 3D printer printing houses - 3D Printing|date=2012-04-12|work=3D Printing|access-date=2018-02-11|language=en-US}}</ref> and a 2012 TV report.<ref>{{Citation|last=DShape3DPrinting|title=Discovery Channel Covers DShape 3D Printing|date=2012-09-25|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RYaRUVTwIVc&t=16s|access-date=2018-02-11}}</ref> D-Shape has also been featured in an independent documentary dedicated to its creator Enrico Dini, called "The man who prints houses".<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.3ders.org/articles/20120216-the-man-who-prints-houses-documentary-about-enrico-dini-and-his-heart-and-soul-in-3d-printing-buildings.html|title=The Man Who Prints Houses - Documentary about Enrico Dini and his heart and soul in 3D printing buildings|work=3ders.org|access-date=2018-02-11|language=en-US}}</ref>

One important break-through{{when|date=March 2018}} has been seen with the announcement of the first 3D printed building, using a prefabricated 3D printed components made by Winsun, which claimed to be able to print 10 houses in a day with its technology.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://gizmodo.com/how-a-chinese-company-3d-printed-ten-houses-in-a-single-1557613229|title=How a Chinese Company 3D-Printed Ten Houses In a Single Day|last=Campbell-Dollaghan|first=Kelsey|work=Gizmodo|access-date=2018-02-11|language=en-US}}</ref> Although the claims were still to be confirmed, the story has created a wide traction and a growing interest in the field. In a matter of months, many new companies began to emerge. This led to many new endeavors that reached the media, such as, in 2017, the first pedestrian 3d printed bridge<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://wonderfulengineering.com/worlds-first-3d-printed-pedestrian-bridge-pops-up-in-madrid/|title=The World's First 3D-Printed Pedestrian Bridge Inaugurated In Madrid|date=2017-01-31|work=Wonderful Engineering|access-date=2018-02-11|language=en-US}}</ref> and the first cyclist 3d printed bridge,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2017/oct/18/world-first-3d-printed-bridge-cyclists-netherlands|title=World's first 3D-printed bridge opens to cyclists in Netherlands|agency=Agence France-Presse|date=2017-10-18|website=the Guardian|language=en|access-date=2018-02-11}}</ref> plus an early structural element made with 3d printing in 2016,<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.3ders.org/articles/20160921-lafargeholcim-and-xtreee-successfully-3d-print-europes-first-concrete-structural-element.html|title=LafargeHolcim and XtreeE successfully 3D print Europe's first concrete structural element|work=3ders.org|access-date=2018-02-11|language=en-US}}</ref> among many others.

Recently, COBOD International, formerly known as 3DPrinthuset (its sister company) has gained wide media attention with their first permanent 3D printed building, the first of its kind in Europe.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://3dprint.com/186860/3d-printed-building-copenhagen/|title=3D Printhuset Breaks Ground on 3D Printed Building in Copenhagen {{!}} 3DPrint.com {{!}} The Voice of 3D Printing / Additive Manufacturing|website=3dprint.com|date=7 September 2017|language=en-US|access-date=2018-02-11}}</ref><ref name="auto">{{Cite web|url=http://cphpost.dk/news/europes-first-3d-printed-building-erected-in-copenhagen.html|title=The Copenhagen Post - Danish News in English|website=cphpost.dk|language=da|access-date=2018-02-11}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.constructionnews.co.uk/best-practice/technology/europes-first-3d-printed-building-arrives-in-copenhagen/10023479.article|title='Europe's first 3D-printed building' arrives in Copenhagen|work=Construction News|access-date=2018-02-11|language=en}}</ref> The project set an important precedent for being the first 3D printed building with a building permit and documentation in place, and a full approval from the city authorities, a crucial milestone for a wider acceptance in the construction field. The story gained extensive coverage, both on national and international media, appearing on TV in Denmark, Russia, Poland, Lithuania, among many others.{{citation needed|date=March 2018}}

=== 3D printing for remote housing ===
An analysis of 3D printing construction in remote areas<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Bazli |first1=Milad |last2=Ashrafi |first2=Hamed |last3=Rajabipour |first3=Ali |last4=Kutay |first4=Cat |date=2023-04-01 |title=3D printing for remote housing: Benefits and challenges |journal=Automation in Construction |volume=148 |pages=104772 |doi=10.1016/j.autcon.2023.104772 |issn=0926-5805|doi-access=free }}</ref> as an alternative to conventional construction reveals significant potential. 3D printing in construction offers innovative solutions to the unique challenges of these locations. The ability to use local materials, reduce waste, and adapt to complex and customized designs are just a few of the advantages that make 3D printing particularly suitable for construction in hard-to-reach areas. Additionally, 3D printing can contribute to environmental sustainability and community involvement by enabling active participation in the construction process and maintenance of structures. This construction method has the potential to transform the landscape of remote housing, providing more affordable, efficient, and culturally aligned dwellings for local communities.

However, despite its benefits, there are still various uncertainties and issues to be addressed before 3D printing can be widely adopted. These uncertainties are related to technical, regulatory, economic, and social issues. Despite significant advances in 3D printing technology, its application in housing in remote areas is still in an early stage of feasibility. Research in this field is ongoing and should be further explored, particularly regarding robotics and the materials to be used. 

== Sustainability ==
In order to 3d print houses, the costs and environmental impacts, when compared to traditional ways of building, need to be assessed. 

The conventional construction method had higher impacts when compared to the 3D printing method with global warming potential of 1154.20 and 608.55 kg CO2 eq, non-carcinogenic toxicity 675.10 and 11.9 kg 1,4-DCB, and water consumption 233.35 and 183.95 m3, respectively. The 3D printed house was also found to be an economically viable option, with 78% reduction in the overall capital costs when compared to conventional construction methods. The overall environment impact can be decreased by the use of this technology.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Abdalla |first1=Hadeer |last2=Fattah |first2=Kazi Parvez |last3=Abdallah |first3=Mohamed |last4=Tamimi |first4=Adil K. |date=2021-10-29 |title=Environmental Footprint and Economics of a Full-Scale 3D-Printed House |journal=Sustainability |language=en |volume=13 |issue=21 |pages=11978 |doi=10.3390/su132111978 |issn=2071-1050 |doi-access=free }}{{Creative Commons text attribution notice|cc=by4|from this source=yes}}</ref>

== Speed and efficiency ==
Carstensen <ref>{{Cite journal |last=Carstensen |first=Josephine V. |date=2020-06-03 |title=Topology optimization with nozzle size restrictions for material extrusion-type additive manufacturing |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00158-020-02620-5 |journal=Structural and Multidisciplinary Optimization |volume=62 |issue=5 |pages=2481–2497 |doi=10.1007/s00158-020-02620-5 |hdl=1721.1/129539 |s2cid=253683767 |issn=1615-147X|hdl-access=free }}</ref> investigated the influence of 3D printing nozzle size on printing efficiency, focusing on the length of the material print path and the overlap between the paths. The results showed that using a large nozzle size is favorable for continuous short-distance printing when the structure size is large, which can improve both printing efficiency and the structure's performance.

In addition, the study highlights the importance of optimizing the printing speed according to the dynamically monitored structures to ensure the geometric stability of the printed element and the mechanical properties of the 3D printed concrete. This underscores the need to consider the efficiency of concrete 3D printing in relation to the safety and stability of structures, highlighting the complexity and importance of simultaneously optimizing multiple parameters in the concrete 3D printing process.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Liu |first1=Dawei |last2=Zhang |first2=Zhigang |last3=Zhang |first3=Xiaoyue |last4=Chen |first4=Zhaohui |date=November 2023 |title=3D printing concrete structures: State of the art, challenges, and opportunities |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0950061823030817 |journal=Construction and Building Materials |language=en |volume=405 |pages=133364 |doi=10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2023.133364|s2cid=262027754 }}</ref>

== See also ==
* [[Residential construction|Building construction]]
* [[Space habitat]]
* [[3D printing]]
* [[3D printing processes]]
* [[3D concrete printing]]
* [[Applications of 3D printing]]
* [[Made in Space (company)|Made in Space]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{3d printing}}
{{emerging technologies|topics=yes|architect=yes}}

[[Category:3D printing]]
[[Category:Building technology]]
[[Category:Affordable housing]]
[[Category:Construction|3D printing]]
[[Category:1995 introductions]]
{{Навигационная таблица/Портал/Английская Википедия}}
[[Категория:Английская Википедия]]
[[Категория:Википедия]]
[[Категория:Статья из Википедии]]
[[Категория:Статья из Английской Википедии]]