Просмотр кода страницы Английская Википедия:Deer

{{Английская Википедия/Панель перехода}}
{{Short description|Family of mammals}}
{{About|the ruminant animal}}
{{redirect-multi|2|Fawn|Stag}}
{{pp-move-indef}}
{{pp-semi-indef}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2017}}
{{Automatic taxobox
| name = Deer<ref>[http://arrow.latrobe.edu.au/store/3/4/3/2/5/public/B11775361V2.pdf 'deer' singular and plural] among examples (swine OE swin, deer OE deor, sheep OE sceap, horse OE hors, year OE gear, pound OE pana) -Jespersen, A Modern English Grammar on Historical Principles, Part II SYNTAX (First Volume), Ch.III The Unchanged Plural (p. 49) ''arrow.latrobe.edu.au'' accessed 14 November 2020</ref>
| fossil_range = {{Fossil range|Early Miocene|Recent}}
| image = Family Cervidae five species.jpg
| image_upright = 1.2
| image_caption = Images of a few members of the family Cervidae (counterclockwise from top left): the [[red deer]] (''Cervus elaphus''), [[sika deer]] (''Cervus nippon''), [[barasingha]] (''Rucervus duvaucelii''), [[caribou]] (''Rangifer tarandus'') and [[white-tailed deer]] (''Odocoileus virginianus'')
| taxon = Cervidae
| authority = [[Georg August Goldfuss|Goldfuss]], 1820
| type_genus = ''[[Cervus]]''
| type_genus_authority = [[Carl Linnaeus|Linnaeus]], 1758
| range_map = 
| range_map_caption = Combined native range of all species of deer.
| subdivision_ranks = Subfamilies
| subdivision = *[[Capreolinae]]
*[[Cervinae]]
}}

A '''deer''' ({{plural form}}: deer) or '''true deer''' is a hoofed [[ruminant]] [[ungulate]] of the [[family (biology)|family]] '''Cervidae'''. It is divided into subfamilies [[Cervinae]] (which includes, among others, [[muntjac]], [[elk]] (wapiti), [[red deer]], and [[fallow deer]]) and [[Capreolinae]] (which includes, among others [[reindeer]] (caribou), [[white-tailed deer]], [[roe deer]], and [[moose]]). Male deer of almost all species (except the [[water deer]]), as well as female reindeer, grow and shed new [[antler]]s each year. These antlers are bony extensions of the skull and are often used for combat between males.

The [[musk deer]] ([[Moschidae]]) of Asia and [[chevrotain]]s ([[Chevrotain|Tragulidae]]) of tropical African and Asian forests are separate families that are also in the ruminant clade [[Ruminantia]]; they are not especially closely related to Cervidae.

Deer appear in art from [[Paleolithic]] cave paintings onwards, and they have [[deer in mythology|played a role in mythology]], religion, and literature throughout history, as well as in [[heraldry]], such as red deer that appear in the [[coat of arms of Åland]].<ref>Iltanen, Jussi: ''Suomen kuntavaakunat'' (2013), Karttakeskus, {{ISBN|951-593-915-1}}</ref> Their economic importance includes the use of their meat as [[venison]], their skins as soft, strong [[buckskin (leather)|buckskin]], and their antlers as handles for knives. [[Deer hunting]] has been a popular activity since  the Middle Ages and remains a resource for many families today.

==Etymology and terminology==

[[File:Lucas Cranach d.Ä. - Hirschjagd des Kurfürsten Friedrich des Weisen (Kunsthistorisches Museum).jpg|thumb|"The Stag Hunt of [[Frederick III, Elector of Saxony]]" by [[Lucas Cranach the Elder]], 1529]]
The word ''deer'' was originally broad in meaning, becoming more specific with time. [[Old English]] ''dēor'' and [[Middle English]] ''der'' meant a wild animal of any kind. <!--In Shakespeare's time, "small deer" meant any type of petty game, not worth pursuing,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.thefreedictionary.com/Small+deer |title=Small deer |access-date=12 April 2016}}</ref> in contrast to ''[[cattle]]'', which then meant any sort of domestic livestock that could be removed from the land, related to personal-property ownership, as with modern ''[[chattel]]'' (property) and [[financial capital| financial ''capital'']]. Wild animals in a forest were considered part of [[real estate]], and sold with the land.--> Cognates of Old English ''dēor'' in other dead [[Germanic languages]] have the general sense of ''animal'', such as [[Old High German]] ''tior'', [[Old Norse]] ''djur'' or ''dȳr'', [[Gothic language|Gothic]] ''dius'', [[Old Saxon]] ''dier'', and [[Old Frisian]] ''diar''.<ref name="Ref_">{{cite book |chapter-url=http://www.bartleby.com/61/75/D0087500.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040325232020/http://www.bartleby.com/61/75/D0087500.html |archive-date=25 March 2004 |chapter=deer|publisher=Houghton Mifflin Company |title=The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language |edition=4th |year=2000}}</ref> This general sense gave way to the modern English sense by the end of the Middle English period, around 1500. All modern Germanic languages save English and Scots retain the more general sense: for example, [[Dutch language|Dutch]]/[[West Frisian language|Frisian]] ''dier'', [[German language|German]] ''Tier'', and [[Norwegian language|Norwegian]] ''dyr'' mean ''animal''.<ref>{{cite web |last=Harper |first=Douglas |website=Online Etymology Dictionary |title=Deer |url=http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=deer |access-date=7 June 2012}}</ref>

For many types of deer in modern English usage, the male is a ''buck'' and the female a ''doe'', but the terms vary with dialect, and according to the size of the species. The male [[red deer]] is a ''stag'', while for other large species the male is a ''bull'', the female a ''cow'', as in cattle. In older usage, the male of any species is a ''[[Hart (deer)|hart]]'', especially if over five years old, and the female is a ''hind'', especially if three or more years old.<ref>[[OED]], s.v. ''hart'' and ''hind''</ref> The young of small species is a ''fawn'' and of large species a ''[[calf (animal)|calf]]''; a very small young may be a ''kid''. A castrated male is a ''havier''.<ref>{{cite dictionary|url=http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/havier?s=t |title=Havier|dictionary=Dictionary.com |access-date=4 August 2012}}</ref> A group of any species is a ''herd''. The [[adjective]] of relation is ''[[Wiktionary:cervine|cervine]]''; like the family name ''Cervidae'', this is from {{lang-la|cervus}}, meaning ''stag'' or ''deer''.

==Distribution==

{{anchor|doe}}
[[File:Chital (8458215435).jpg|thumb|left|[[Chital]] deer in [[Nagarhole National Park|Nagarahole]], India]]
Deer live in a variety of [[biome]]s, ranging from [[tundra]] to the [[tropical rainforest]]. While often associated with forests, many deer are [[ecotone]] species that live in transitional areas between forests and thickets (for cover) and prairie and savanna (open space). The majority of large deer species inhabit temperate mixed deciduous forest, mountain mixed coniferous forest, tropical seasonal/dry forest, and savanna habitats around the world. Clearing open areas within forests to some extent may actually benefit deer populations by exposing the [[understory]] and allowing the types of grasses, weeds, and herbs to grow that deer like to eat. Access to adjacent croplands may also benefit deer. Adequate forest or brush cover must still be provided for populations to grow and thrive.

Deer are widely distributed, with indigenous representatives in all continents except [[Antarctica]] and [[Australia]], though [[Africa]] has only one native deer, the [[Barbary stag]], a subspecies of [[red deer]] that is confined to the [[Atlas Mountains]] in the northwest of the continent. Another extinct species of deer, ''[[Megaceroides|Megaceroides algericus]],'' was present in [[North Africa]] until 6000 years ago. [[Fallow deer]] have been introduced to [[South Africa]]. Small species of [[brocket deer]] and [[pudú]]s of [[Central America|Central]] and [[South America]], and [[muntjac]]s of [[Asia]] generally occupy dense forests and are less often seen in open spaces, with the possible exception of the [[Indian muntjac]]. There are also several species of deer that are highly specialized and live almost exclusively in mountains, grasslands, swamps, and "wet" savannas, or [[riparian zone|riparian corridors]] surrounded by [[desert]]s. Some deer have a circumpolar distribution in both [[North America]] and [[Eurasia]]. Examples include the [[Reindeer|caribou]] that live in Arctic [[tundra]] and [[taiga]] (boreal forests) and [[moose]] that inhabit taiga and adjacent areas. Huemul deer ([[taruca]] and [[South Andean deer|Chilean huemul]]) of [[South America]]'s [[Andes]] fill the ecological niches of the [[ibex]] and [[wild goat]], with the fawns behaving more like [[goat]] kids.

The highest concentration of large deer species in temperate North America lies in the [[Canadian Rocky Mountains|Canadian Rocky Mountain]] and [[Columbia Mountains|Columbia Mountain]] regions between Alberta and British Columbia where all five North American deer species ([[white-tailed deer]], [[mule deer]], [[caribou]], [[elk]], and [[moose]]) can be found. This region has several clusters of national parks including [[Mount Revelstoke National Park]], [[Glacier National Park (Canada)]], [[Yoho National Park]], and [[Kootenay National Park]] on the British Columbia side, and [[Banff National Park]], [[Jasper National Park]], and [[Glacier National Park (U.S.)]] on the Alberta and Montana sides. Mountain slope habitats vary from moist coniferous/mixed forested habitats to dry subalpine/pine forests with alpine meadows higher up. The foothills and river valleys between the mountain ranges provide a mosaic of cropland and deciduous parklands. The rare woodland caribou have the most restricted range living at higher altitudes in the subalpine meadows and [[alpine tundra]] areas of some of the mountain ranges. Elk and mule deer both migrate between the alpine meadows and lower coniferous forests and tend to be most common in this region. Elk also inhabit river valley bottomlands, which they share with White-tailed deer. The White-tailed deer have recently expanded their range within the foothills and river valley bottoms of the Canadian Rockies owing to conversion of land to cropland and the clearing of coniferous forests allowing more deciduous vegetation to grow up the mountain slopes. They also live in the aspen parklands north of Calgary and Edmonton, where they share habitat with the moose. The adjacent [[Great Plains]] grassland habitats are left to herds of elk, [[American bison]], and [[pronghorn]].

[[File:Reindeer-on-the-rocks.jpg|thumb|[[Reindeer]] herds standing on snow to avoid flies]]
The [[Eurasia]]n Continent (including the Indian Subcontinent) boasts the most species of deer in the world, with most species being found in Asia. Europe, in comparison, has lower diversity in plant and animal species. Many national parks and protected reserves in Europe have populations of red deer, [[roe deer]], and fallow deer. These species have long been associated with the continent of Europe, but also inhabit [[Anatolia|Asia Minor]], the [[Caucasus Mountains]], and Northwestern [[Iran]]. "European" fallow deer historically lived over much of Europe during the Ice Ages, but afterwards became restricted primarily to the Anatolian Peninsula, in present-day Turkey.

Present-day fallow deer populations in Europe are a result of historic man-made introductions of this species, first to the Mediterranean regions of Europe, then eventually to the rest of Europe. They were initially park animals that later escaped and reestablished themselves in the wild. Historically, Europe's deer species shared their deciduous forest habitat with other herbivores, such as the extinct [[tarpan]] (forest horse), extinct [[aurochs]] (forest ox), and the endangered [[wisent]] (European bison). Good places to see deer in Europe include the [[Scottish Highlands]], the [[Austria]]n [[Alps]], the [[wetlands]] between [[Austria]], [[Hungary]], and the [[Czech Republic]], and some National Parks, including [[Doñana National Park]] in [[Spain]], the [[Veluwe]] in the [[Netherlands]], the [[Ardennes]] in [[Belgium]], and [[Białowieża Forest|Białowieża National Park]] in [[Poland]]. [[Spain]], [[Eastern Europe]], and the [[Caucasus Mountains]] have forest areas that are not only home to sizable deer populations but also other animals that were once abundant such as the wisent, [[Eurasian lynx]], [[Iberian lynx]], [[Gray wolf|wolves]], and [[brown bear]]s.

[[File:Cervus nippon and Macaca fuscata.jpg|left|thumb|Some [[sika deer]] (''Cervus nippon'') and [[Japanese macaque|Japanese macaques]] (''Macaca fuscata'') along a waterside]]
The highest concentration of large deer species in temperate Asia occurs in the mixed deciduous forests, mountain coniferous forests, and taiga bordering North Korea, Manchuria (Northeastern China), and the Ussuri Region (Russia). These are among some of the richest deciduous and coniferous forests in the world where one can find [[Siberian roe deer]], [[sika deer]], elk, and moose. Asian caribou occupy the northern fringes of this region along the Sino-Russian border.

Deer such as the sika deer, [[Thorold's deer]], [[Central Asian red deer]], and elk have historically been farmed for their antlers by [[Han Chinese]], [[Turkic peoples]], [[Tungusic peoples]], [[Mongolia]]ns, and [[Koreans]]. Like the [[Sami people]] of Finland and Scandinavia, the Tungusic peoples, Mongolians, and Turkic peoples of Southern Siberia, Northern Mongolia, and the Ussuri Region have also taken to raising semi-domesticated herds of Asian caribou.

The highest concentration of large deer species in the tropics occurs in Southern Asia in India's Indo-Gangetic Plain Region and [[Nepal]]'s Terai Region. These fertile plains consist of tropical seasonal moist deciduous, dry deciduous forests, and both dry and wet savannas that are home to [[chital]], [[hog deer]], [[barasingha]], Indian [[Sambar deer|sambar]], and [[Indian muntjac]]. Grazing species such as the endangered barasingha and very common chital are gregarious and live in large herds. Indian sambar can be gregarious but are usually solitary or live in smaller herds. Hog deer are solitary and have lower densities than Indian muntjac. Deer can be seen in several national parks in India, Nepal, and Sri Lanka of which [[Kanha National Park]], [[Dudhwa National Park]], and [[Chitwan National Park]] are most famous. Sri Lanka's [[Wilpattu National Park]] and [[Yala National Park]] have large herds of Indian sambar and chital. The Indian sambar are more gregarious in Sri Lanka than other parts of their range and tend to form larger herds than elsewhere.

[[File:Sambar deer and spotted deer - lvm 2016.jpg|thumb|A couple [[Sambar deer|Sambar]] does and a [[Chital]] buck roaming the [[Sigur Plateau]] in southern India]]
The Chao Praya River Valley of Thailand was once primarily tropical seasonal moist deciduous forest and wet savanna that hosted populations of hog deer, the now-extinct [[Schomburgk's deer]], [[Eld's deer]], Indian sambar, and Indian muntjac. Both the hog deer and Eld's deer are rare, whereas Indian sambar and Indian muntjac thrive in protected national parks, such as [[Khao Yai National Park|Khao Yai]]. Many of these South Asian and Southeast Asian deer species also share their habitat with other [[herbivory|herbivores]], such as [[Asian elephant]]s, the various Asian rhinoceros species, various antelope species (such as [[nilgai]], [[four-horned antelope]], [[blackbuck]], and [[Chinkara|Indian gazelle]] in India), and wild oxen (such as [[wild Asian water buffalo]], [[gaur]], [[banteng]], and [[kouprey]]). One way that different herbivores can survive together in a given area is for each species to have different food preferences, although there may be some overlap.

As a result of [[acclimatisation society]] releases in the 19th century, Australia has six [[introduced species]] of deer that have established sustainable wild populations. They are fallow deer, red deer, sambar, hog deer, [[Javan rusa|rusa]], and chital. Red deer were introduced into New Zealand in 1851 from English and Scottish stock. Many have been domesticated in [[deer farm]]s since the late 1960s and are common farm animals there now. Seven other species of deer were introduced into New Zealand but none are as widespread as red deer.<ref name="DeerInNewZealand">{{cite web|url=http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/1966/mammals-introduced/page-10|title=Deer|website=Te Ara: An Encyclopaedia of New Zealand|year=1966|editor-first=A. H.|editor-last=McLintock}}</ref>

==Description==

[[File:Life Histories of Northern Mammals (1909) Cervidae tails.png|thumb|left|Deer tails: {{ordered list|type=upper-roman | [[White-tailed deer]] | [[Mule deer]] | [[Black-tailed deer]] | [[Elk]] | [[Red deer]]}}]]
Deer constitute the second most diverse family of artiodactyla after bovids.<ref name=Groves2007/> Though of a similar build, deer are strongly distinguished from [[antelope]]s by their [[antler]]s, which are temporary and regularly regrown unlike the permanent [[Horn (anatomy)|horn]]s of bovids.<ref name="Kingdon2015">{{cite book|last1=Kingdon|first1=J.|author1-link=Jonathan Kingdon|title=The Kingdon Field Guide to African Mammals|date=2015|publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing|location=London, UK|isbn=978-1-4729-2531-2|page=499|edition=2nd}}</ref> Characteristics typical of deer include long, powerful legs, a diminutive tail and long ears.<ref name="Jameson">{{cite book|last1=Jameson|first1=E. W.|last2=Peeters| first2=H. J. Jr. |title=Mammals of California|date=2004|publisher=University of California Press|location=Berkeley, US|isbn=978-0-520-23582-3|page=241|edition=Revised}}</ref> Deer exhibit a broad variation in physical proportions. The [[Largest cervids|largest]] extant deer is the [[moose]], which is nearly {{convert|2.6|m|ftin}} tall and weighs up to {{convert|800|kg|lb}}.<ref name="Long">{{cite book|last1=Long|first1=C. A.|title=The Wild Mammals of Wisconsin|url=https://archive.org/details/wildmammalswisco00long|url-access=limited|date=2008|publisher=Pensoft|location=Sofia, Bulgaria|isbn=9789546423139|page=[https://archive.org/details/wildmammalswisco00long/page/n439 439]}}</ref><ref name="Prothero2002">{{cite book|last1=Prothero|first1=D. R.|author1-link=Donald Prothero|last2=Schoch|first2=R. M.|title=Horns, Tusks, and Flippers: The Evolution of Hoofed Mammals|date=2002|publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press|location=Baltimore, US|isbn=978-0-8018-7135-1|pages=61–84}}</ref> The elk stands {{convert|1.4|–|2|m|ftin}} at the shoulder and weighs {{convert|240|–|450|kg|lb}}.<ref name="Kurta">{{cite book|last1=Kurta|first1=A.|title=Mammals of the Great Lakes Region|date=1995|publisher=University of Michigan Press|location=Michigan, US|isbn=978-0-472-06497-7|pages=[https://archive.org/details/mammalsofgreatla00kurt_0/page/260 260–1]|edition=1st|url=https://archive.org/details/mammalsofgreatla00kurt_0/page/260}}</ref> The northern pudu is the smallest deer in the world; it reaches merely {{convert|32|–|35|cm|in|frac=2}} at the shoulder and weighs {{convert|3.3|–|6|kg|lb|frac=4}}. The southern pudu is only slightly taller and heavier.<ref name=Geist/> [[Sexual dimorphism]] is quite pronounced – in most species males tend to be larger than females,<ref name="Armstrong">{{cite book|last1=Armstrong|first1=D. M.|last2=Fitzgerald|first2=J. P.|last3=Meaney|first3=C. A.|title=Mammals of Colorado|date=2011|publisher=University Press of Colorado|location=Colorado, US|isbn=978-1-60732-048-7|page=445|edition=2nd}}</ref> and, except for the reindeer, only males have antlers.<ref name="Kingdon2013">{{cite book|last1=Kingdon|first1=J.|author1-link=Jonathan Kingdon|last2=Happold|first2=D.|last3=Butynski|first3=T.|last4=Hoffmann|first4=M.|last5=Happold|first5=M.|last6=Kalina|first6=J.|title=Mammals of Africa|volume=VI|date=2013|publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing|location=London, UK|isbn=978-1-4081-8996-2|page=116}}</ref>

Coat colour generally varies between red and brown,<ref name="mcshea">{{cite book|last1=Feldhamer|first1=G. A.|last2=McShea|first2=W. J.|title=Deer: The Animal Answer Guide|date=2012|publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press|location=Baltimore, US|isbn=978-1-4214-0387-8|pages=1–142}}</ref> though it can be as dark as chocolate brown in the tufted deer<ref>{{cite book|last1=Francis|first1=C. M.|title=A Field Guide to the Mammals of South-East Asia|date=2008|publisher=New Holland|location=London, UK|isbn=978-1-84537-735-9|page=130}}</ref> or have a grayish tinge as in elk.<ref name=Kurta/> Different species of brocket deer vary from gray to reddish brown in coat colour.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Trolle|first1=M.|last2=Emmons|first2=L. H.|title=A record of a dwarf brocket from Lowland Madre De Dios, Peru|journal=Deer Specialist Group News|date=2004|issue=19|pages=2–5|url=https://repository.si.edu/bitstream/handle/10088/4762/VZ_lhe3.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y}}</ref> Several species such as the chital,<ref name="texas">{{cite book|last1=Schmidly|first1=D. J.|title=The Mammals of Texas|date=2004|publisher=University of Texas Press|location=Austin, Texas (US)|isbn=978-1-4773-0886-8|pages=263–4|edition=Revised|url=http://www.nsrl.ttu.edu/tmot1/cervaxis.htm}}</ref> the fallow deer<ref>{{cite book|last1=Hames|first1=D. S.|last2=Koshowski|first2=Denise|title=Hoofed Mammals of British Columbia|date=1999|publisher=UBC Press|location=Vancouver, Canada|isbn=978-0-7748-0728-9|page=113}}</ref> and the sika deer<ref>{{cite book|last1=Booy|first1=O.|last2=Wade|first2=M.|last3=Roy|first3=H.|title=Field Guide to Invasive Plants and Animals in Britain|date=2015|publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing|location=London, UK|isbn=978-1-4729-1153-7|page=170}}</ref> feature white spots on a brown coat. Coat of reindeer shows notable geographical variation.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Bowers|first1=N.|last2=Bowers|first2=R.|last3=Kaufmann|first3=K.|title=Mammals of North America|date=2004|publisher=Houghton Mifflin|location=New York, US|isbn=978-0-618-15313-8|pages=[https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780618153138/page/158 158–9]|url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780618153138/page/158}}</ref> Deer undergo two [[Moulting|moult]]s in a year;<ref name=mcshea/><ref>{{cite book|last1=Hooey|first1=T.|title=Strategic Whitetail Hunting|date=2004|publisher=Krause Publications|isbn=978-1-4402-2702-8|page=39}}</ref> for instance, in red deer the red, thin-haired summer coat is gradually replaced by the dense, greyish brown winter coat in autumn, which in turn gives way to the summer coat in the following spring.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Ryder|first1=M. L.|last2=Kay|first2=R. N. B.|title=Structure of and seasonal change in the coat of Red deer (''Cervus elaphus'')|journal=[[Journal of Zoology]]|date=1973|volume=170|issue=1|pages=69–77|doi=10.1111/j.1469-7998.1973.tb05044.x}}</ref> Moulting is affected by the [[photoperiod]].<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Lincoln|first1=G. A.|last2=Guinness|first2=F. E.|title=Effect of altered photoperiod on delayed implantation and moulting in roe deer|journal=[[Reproduction (journal)|Reproduction]]|date=1972|volume=31|issue=3|pages=455–7|doi=10.1530/jrf.0.0310455|pmid=4648129|url=http://www.reproduction-online.org/content/31/3/455.full.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.reproduction-online.org/content/31/3/455.full.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live|doi-access=free}}</ref>

Deer are also excellent jumpers and swimmers. Deer are [[ruminant]]s, or cud-chewers, and have a four-chambered stomach. Some deer, such as those on the island of [[Rùm]],<ref name="Owen2003">{{cite news|url=http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2003/08/0825_030825_carnivorousdeer.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030829000347/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2003/08/0825_030825_carnivorousdeer.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=29 August 2003|title=Scottish Deer Are Culprits in Bird Killings|last=Owen|first=James|date=25 August 2003|publisher=National Geographic News|access-date=16 June 2009}}</ref> do consume meat when it is available.<ref name="carniDeer">{{cite journal|first=Michael|last=Dale| title=Carnivorous Deer| journal=Omni Magazine|year=1988|page=31}}</ref>

Nearly all deer have a facial gland in front of each eye. The gland contains a strongly scented [[pheromone]], used to [[territorial marking|mark]] its home range. Bucks of a wide range of species open these glands wide when angry or excited. All deer have a [[liver]] without a [[gallbladder]]. Deer also have a [[tapetum lucidum]], which gives them sufficiently good [[night vision]].

===Antlers===

{{main|Antler}}
[[File:White-tailed deer.jpg|thumb|left|[[White-tailed deer]]]]
All male deer have [[antler]]s, with the exception of the [[water deer]], in which males have long tusk-like canines that reach below the lower jaw.<ref name="BurtonChinese">{{cite book|last1=Burton|first1=M.|last2=Burton|first2=R.|title=International Wildlife Encyclopedia|date=2002|publisher=Marshall Cavendish|location=New York, US|isbn=978-0-7614-7270-4|pages=[https://archive.org/details/internationalwil04burt0/page/446 446–7]|edition=3rd|url=https://archive.org/details/internationalwil04burt0/page/446}}</ref> Females generally lack antlers, though female reindeer bear antlers smaller and less branched than those of the males.<ref name="Hall2005">{{cite book|last1=Hall|first1=B. K.|title=Bones and Cartilage: Developmental and Evolutionary Skeletal Biology|date=2005|publisher=Elsevier Academic Press|location=Amsterdam, Netherlands|isbn=978-0-08-045415-3|pages=103–15|url={{Google Books|id=y-RWPGDONlIC|page=103|plainurl=yes}}}}</ref> Occasionally females in other species may develop antlers, especially in telemetacarpal deer such as European roe deer, red deer, white-tailed deer and mule deer and less often in plesiometacarpal deer. A study of antlered female white-tailed deer noted that antlers tend to be small and malformed, and are shed frequently around the time of parturition.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Wislocki|first1=G. B.|title=Antlers in female deer, with a report of three cases in ''Odocoileus''|journal=Journal of Mammalogy|date=1954|volume=35|issue=4|pages=486–95|jstor=1375571|doi=10.2307/1375571}}</ref>

[[File:Antler phylogenetics - Samejima et al 2020.png|thumb|Antler phylogenetics]]
The fallow deer and the various subspecies of the reindeer have the largest as well as the heaviest antlers, both in absolute terms as well as in proportion to body mass (an average of eight grams per kilogram of body mass);<ref name="Hall2005" /><ref>{{cite book|last1=Smith|first1=T.|title=The Real Rudolph: A Natural History of the Reindeer|date=2013|publisher=The History Press|location=New York, US|isbn=978-0-7524-9592-7|url={{Google Books|id=MDA9AwAAQBAJ|page=PT18|plainurl=yes}}}}</ref> the tufted deer, on the other hand, has the smallest antlers of all deer, while the pudú has the lightest antlers with respect to body mass (0.6&nbsp;g per kilogram of body mass).<ref name="Hall2005" /> The structure of antlers show considerable variation; while fallow deer and elk antlers are palmate (with a broad central portion), white-tailed deer antlers include a series of tines sprouting upward from a forward-curving main beam, and those of the pudú are mere spikes.<ref name="Geist" /> Antler development begins from the pedicel, a bony structure that appears on the top of the skull by the time the animal is a year old. The pedicel gives rise to a spiky antler the following year, that is replaced by a branched antler in the third year. This process of losing a set of antlers to develop a larger and more branched set continues for the rest of the life.<ref name="Hall2005" /> The antlers emerge as soft tissues (known as [[velvet antler]]s) and progressively harden into bony structures (known as hard antlers), following [[Mineralization (biology)|mineralisation]] and blockage of [[blood vessel]]s in the tissue, from the tip to the base.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Fletcher|first1=T. J.|editor1-last=Alexander|editor1-first=T. L.|editor2-last=Buxton|editor2-first=D.|title=Management and Diseases of Deer: A Handbook for the Veterinary Surgeon|date=1986|publisher=Veterinary Deer Society|location=London, UK|isbn=978-0-9510826-0-7|pages=17–8|edition=2nd|chapter=Reproduction: seasonality}}</ref>

[[File:Sambar deers Fighting Silvassa.jpg|right|thumb|Two [[Sambar deer]] fighting, [[Silvassa]], India]]
Antlers might be one of the most exaggerated male [[secondary sexual characteristic]]s,<ref name="Malo">{{cite journal |doi=10.1098/rspb.2004.2933 |pmid=15695205 |pmc=1634960 |title=Antlers honestly advertise sperm production and quality |journal=Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences |volume=272 |issue=1559 |pages=149–57 |year=2005 |last1=Malo |first1=A. F. |last2=Roldan |first2=E. R. S. |last3=Garde |first3=J. |last4=Soler |first4=A. J. |last5=Gomendio |first5=M. }}</ref> and are intended primarily for reproductive success through [[sexual selection]] and for combat. The tines (forks) on the antlers create grooves that allow another male's antlers to lock into place. This allows the males to wrestle without risking injury to the face.<ref>{{cite journal | last1=Emlen | first1=D. J. | year=2008 | title=The evolution of animal weapons | journal=Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics | volume=39 | pages=387–413 | doi=10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.39.110707.173502}}</ref> Antlers are correlated to an individual's position in the social hierarchy and its behaviour. For instance, the heavier the antlers, the higher the individual's status in the social hierarchy, and the greater the delay in shedding the antlers;<ref name=Hall2005/> males with larger antlers tend to be more aggressive and dominant over others.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Bowyer|first1=R. T.|title=Antler characteristics as related to social status of male southern mule deer|journal=The Southwestern Naturalist|date=1986|volume=31|issue=3|pages=289–98|jstor=3671833|doi=10.2307/3671833}}</ref> Antlers can be an [[honest signal]] of genetic quality; males with larger antlers relative to body size tend to have increased resistance to [[pathogen]]s<ref>{{cite journal | last1=Ditchkoff | first1=S. S. | last2=Lochmiller | first2=R. L. | last3=Masters | first3=R. E. | last4=Hoofer | first4=S. R. | last5=Den Bussche | first5=R. A. Van | year=2001 | title=Major-histocompatibility-complex-associated variation in secondary sexual traits of white-tailed deer (''Odocoileus virginianus'') evidence for good-genes advertisement | journal=Evolution | volume=55 | issue=3| pages=616–625 | doi=10.1111/j.0014-3820.2001.tb00794.x | pmid=11327168| s2cid=10418779 | doi-access=free }}</ref> and higher reproductive capacity.<ref>{{cite journal | last1=Malo | first1=A. F. | last2=Roldan | first2=E. R. S. | last3=Garde | first3=J. | last4=Soler | first4=A. J. | last5=Gomendio | first5=M. | year=2005 | title=Antlers honestly advertise sperm production and quality | journal=Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences | volume=272 | issue=1559 | pages=149–157 | doi=10.1098/rspb.2004.2933 | pmid=15695205 | pmc=1634960}}</ref>

In elk in [[Yellowstone National Park]], antlers also provide protection against predation by [[wolf|wolves]].<ref name=wolves>{{cite journal |title=Predation shapes the evolutionary traits of cervid weapons |journal=Nature Ecology & Evolution |date=2018-09-03 |last1=Metz |first1=Matthew C. |last2=Emlen |first2=Douglas J. |last3=Stahler |first3=Daniel R. |last4=MacNulty |first4=Daniel R. |last5=Smith |first5=Douglas W. |volume=2 |issue=10 |pages=1619–1625 |doi=10.1038/s41559-018-0657-5 |pmid=30177803 |bibcode=2018NatEE...2.1619M |s2cid=52147419 }}</ref>

Homology of tines, that is, the branching structure of antlers among species, have been discussed before the 1900s.<ref>Garrod, A. Notes on the visceral anatomy and osteology of the ruminants, with a suggestion regarding a method of expressing the relations of species by means of formulae. Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London, 2–18 (1877).</ref><ref>Brooke, V. On the classification of the Cervidæ, with a synopsis of the existing Species. Journal of Zoology 46, 883–928 (1878).</ref><ref>Pocock, R. The Homologies between the Branches of the Antlers of the Cervidae based on the Theory of Dichotomous Growth. Journal of Zoology 103, 377–406 (1933).</ref> Recently, a new method to describe the branching structure of antlers and determining homology of tines was developed.<ref>Samejima, Y., Matsuoka, H. A new viewpoint on antlers reveals the evolutionary history of deer (Cervidae, Mammalia). Sci Rep 10, 8910 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-64555-7</ref>

===Teeth===

[[File:Deer jaw.jpg|thumb|An example of a deer's mandible and teeth]]
Most deer bear 32 teeth; the corresponding [[dental formula]] is: {{DentalFormula|upper=0.0.3.3|lower=3.1.3.3}}. The elk and the reindeer may be exceptions, as they may retain their upper canines and thus have 34 teeth (dental formula: {{DentalFormula|upper=0.1.3.3|lower=3.1.3.3}}).<ref name="Reid">{{cite book|last1=Reid|first1=F. A.|title=A Field Guide to Mammals of North America, North of Mexico|date=2006|publisher=Houghton Mifflin Co.|location=Boston, US|isbn=978-0-395-93596-5|pages=153–4|edition=4th}}</ref> The Chinese water deer, tufted deer, and [[muntjac]] have enlarged upper [[canine tooth|canine teeth]] forming sharp tusks, while other species often lack upper canines altogether. The cheek teeth of deer have crescent ridges of enamel, which enable them to grind a wide variety of vegetation.<ref name=EoM>{{cite book|editor-last= Macdonald|editor-first= D.|last= Cockerill|first= R.|year= 1984|title= The Encyclopedia of Mammals|publisher= Facts on File|location= New York, US|pages= [https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofma00mals_0/page/520 520–9]|isbn= 978-0-87196-871-5|url= https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofma00mals_0/page/520}}</ref> The teeth of deer are adapted to feeding on vegetation, and like other ruminants, they lack upper [[incisor]]s, instead having a tough pad at the front of their upper jaw.

==Biology==

[[File:Roe deer eating leaves in Tuntorp 2.jpg|thumb|A [[Roe deer]] browsing tree leaves in [[Brastad|Brastad, Sweden]]]]

===Diet===

Deer are [[herbivory|browsers]], and feed primarily on foliage of [[Poaceae|grasses]], [[sedges]], [[forbs]], [[shrubs]] and [[trees]], secondarily on [[lichens]] in northern latitudes during winter.<ref>Uresk, Daniel W., and Donald R. Dietz. "Fecal vs. Rumen Contents to Determine White-tailed Deer Diets." Intermountain Journal of Sciences 24, no. 3-4 (2018): 118–122.</ref> They have small, unspecialized stomachs by [[ruminant]] standards, and high nutrition requirements. Rather than eating and digesting vast quantities of low-grade fibrous food as, for example, [[domestic sheep|sheep]] and [[cattle]] do, deer select easily digestible shoots, young leaves, fresh grasses, soft twigs, fruit, [[fungus|fungi]], and [[lichen]]s. The low-fibered food, after minimal fermentation and shredding, passes rapidly through the alimentary canal. The deer require a large amount of minerals such as [[calcium]] and phosphate in order to support antler growth, and this further necessitates a nutrient-rich diet. There are some reports of deer engaging in carnivorous activity, such as eating dead [[alewife (fish)|alewives]] along lakeshores<ref name=Case1987>{{cite journal |last1= Case |first1= D.J. |last2= McCullough |first2= D.R.  |date= February 1987 |title= White-tailed deer forage on alewives |journal= Journal of Mammalogy |volume= 68 |issue= 1 |pages= 195–198 |doi= 10.2307/1381075|jstor= 1381075 }}</ref> or depredating the nests of [[northern bobwhite]]s.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Ellis-Felege | first1 = S. N. | last2 = Burnam | first2 = J. S. | last3 = Palmer | first3 = W. E. | last4 = Sisson | first4 = D. C. | last5 = Wellendorf | first5 = S. D. | last6 = Thornton | first6 = R. P. | last7 = Stribling | first7 = H. L. | last8 = Carroll | first8 = J. P. | year = 2008 | title = Cameras identify White-tailed deer depredating Northern bobwhite nests| journal = Southeastern Naturalist | volume = 7 | issue = 3| pages = 562–564 | doi=10.1656/1528-7092-7.3.562| s2cid = 84790827 }}</ref>

===Reproduction===

{{main|Rut (mammalian reproduction)#Cervidae}}
[[File:Wapiti (01) 2006-09-19.JPG|left|thumb|Female [[elk]] nursing young]]
Nearly all cervids are so-called [[wikt:uniparental|uniparental]] species: the young, known in most species as fawns, are only cared for by the mother, most often called a doe. A doe generally has one or two fawns at a time (triplets, while not unknown, are uncommon). Mating season typically begins in later August and lasts until December. Some species mate until early March. The [[gestation period]] is anywhere up to ten months for the European roe deer. Most fawns are born with their fur covered with white spots, though in many species they lose these spots by the end of their first winter. In the first twenty minutes of a fawn's life, the fawn begins to take its first steps. Its mother licks it clean until it is almost free of scent, so [[predator]]s will not find it. Its mother leaves often to graze, and the fawn does not like to be left behind. Sometimes its mother must gently push it down with her foot.<ref name="Ref_a">[http://www.sheppardsoftware.com/content/animals/animals/mammals/deer.htm Deer – info and games] Sheppard Software.</ref>{{better source needed|date=December 2020}} The fawn stays hidden in the grass for one week until it is strong enough to walk with its mother. The fawn and its mother stay together for about one year. A male usually leaves and never sees his mother again, but females sometimes come back with their own fawns and form small herds.

===Disease===

In some areas of the UK, deer (especially [[fallow deer]] due to their [[gregarious behaviour]]) have been implicated as a possible reservoir for transmission of [[bovine tuberculosis]],<ref name="Delahay et al., 2007">{{cite journal|last1=Delahay |first1=R. J. |last2=Smith |first2=G. C. |last3=Barlow |first3=A. M. |last4=Walker |first4=N. |last5=Harris |first5=A. |last6=Clifton-Hadley |first6=R. S. |last7=Cheeseman |first7=C. L. |year=2007 |title=Bovine tuberculosis infection in wild mammals in the South-West region of England: A survey of prevalence and a semi-quantitative assessment of the relative risks to cattle |journal=The Veterinary Journal |volume=173 |pages= 287–301 |pmid=16434219 |doi=10.1016/j.tvjl.2005.11.011 |issue=2}}</ref><ref name="Ward et al., 2009">{{cite journal |last1=Ward |first1=A. I. |last2=Smith |first2=G. C. |last3=Etherington |first3=T. R. |last4=Delahay |first4=R. J. |year=2009 |title=Estimating the risk of cattle exposure to tuberculosis posed by wild deer relative to badgers in England and Wales|pmid=19901384 |journal=Journal of Wildlife Diseases |volume= 45 |pages=1104–1120 |issue=4 |doi=10.7589/0090-3558-45.4.1104|s2cid=7102058 |doi-access=free }}</ref> a disease which in the UK in 2005 cost £90&nbsp;million in attempts to eradicate.<ref name="The Vet Record, 2008">{{cite journal|author=Anonymous |year=2008|title=Bovine TB: EFRACom calls for a multifaceted approach using all available methods |journal=The Veterinary Record |volume=162 |pages=258–259 |pmid=18350673 |doi=10.1136/vr.162.9.258 |issue=9|s2cid=2429198}}</ref> In New Zealand, deer are thought to be important as vectors picking up ''M. bovis'' in areas where brushtail possums ''[[Trichosurus vulpecula]]'' are infected, and transferring it to previously uninfected possums when their carcasses are scavenged elsewhere.<ref name="Delehay et al, 2002">{{cite journal |last1=Delahay |first1=R. J. |last2=De Leeuw |first2=A. N. S. |last3=Barlow |first3=A. M. |last4=Clifton-Hadley |first4=R. S. |last5=Cheeseman |first5=C. L. |year=2002 |title=The status of Mycobacterium bovis infection in UK wild mammals: A review |journal=The Veterinary Journal |volume=164 |pages=90–105 |pmid=12359464 |doi=10.1053/tvjl.2001.0667 |issue=2}}</ref> The white-tailed deer ''[[Odocoileus virginianus]]'' has been confirmed as the sole maintenance host in the Michigan outbreak of bovine tuberculosis which remains a significant barrier to the US nationwide eradication of the disease in livestock.<ref name="O'Brien et al., 2011">{{cite journal |last1=O'Brien |first1=D. J. |last2=Schmitt |first2=S. M. |last3=Fitzgerald |first3=S. D. |last4=Berry |first4=D. E. |year=2011 |title=Management of bovine tuberculosis in Michigan wildlife: Current status and near term prospects |pmid=21414734 |journal=Veterinary Microbiology |volume=151 |pages=179–187 |doi=10.1016/j.vetmic.2011.02.042 |issue=1–2|url=https://zenodo.org/record/1000720 }}</ref> Moose and deer can carry [[rabies]].<ref name="mtt">{{cite news|publisher=Moncton Times&Transcript|title=Don't fraternize with wild animals: biologist|author=Alan Cochrane|date=January 2019}}</ref>

Docile moose may suffer from [[brain worm]], a [[parasitic worm|helminth]] which drills holes through the brain in its search for a suitable place to lay its eggs. A government biologist states that "They move around looking for the right spot and never really find it." Deer appear to be immune to this parasite; it passes through the digestive system and is excreted in the feces. The parasite is not screened by the moose intestine, and passes into the brain where damage is done that is externally apparent, both in behaviour and in gait.<ref name=mtt/>

Deer, elk and moose in North America may suffer from [[chronic wasting disease]], which was identified at a [[Colorado]] laboratory in the 1960s and is believed to be a prion disease. Out of an abundance of caution hunters are advised to avoid contact with [[specified risk material]] (SRM) such as the brain, spinal column or lymph nodes. Deboning the meat when butchering and sanitizing the knives and other tools used to butcher are amongst other government recommendations.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dnr.state.md.us/wildlife/Hunt_Trap/deer/disease/cwdinformation.asp|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130514234545/http://www.dnr.state.md.us/wildlife/Hunt_Trap/deer/disease/cwdinformation.asp|url-status=dead|archive-date=2013-05-14|title=Wildlife and Heritage Service : Chronic Wasting Disease (CWD)|publisher=Maryland Department of Natural Resources}}</ref>

==Evolution==

Deer are believed to have evolved from antlerless, [[tusk]]ed ancestors that resembled modern [[duiker]]s and diminutive deer in the early [[Eocene]], and gradually developed into the first antlered cervoids (the [[Superfamily (taxonomy)|superfamily]] of cervids and related extinct families) in the [[Miocene]]. Eventually, with the development of antlers, the tusks as well as the upper [[incisor]]s disappeared. Thus, evolution of deer took nearly 30 million years. Biologist [[Valerius Geist]] suggests evolution to have occurred in stages. There are not many prominent fossils to trace this evolution, but only fragments of skeletons and antlers that might be easily confused with false antlers of non-cervid species.<ref name="Geist">{{cite book | last1=Geist | first1=V. | author-link=Valerius Geist | title=Deer of the World: Their Evolution, Behaviour and Ecology | date=1998 | publisher=Stackpole Books | location=Mechanicsburg, US | isbn=978-0-8117-0496-0 | pages=1–54 | edition=1st |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bcWZX-IMEVkC}}</ref><ref name=Goss1983/>

===Eocene===

The [[ruminant]]s, ancestors of the Cervidae,<!--not sure how much we should say on this in this article--> are believed to have evolved from ''[[Diacodexis]]'', the earliest known artiodactyl (even-toed ungulate), 50–55 Mya in the Eocene.<ref name=Janis1998/> ''Diacodexis'', nearly the size of a [[rabbit]], featured the [[talus bone]] characteristic of all modern [[even-toed ungulate]]s. This ancestor and its relatives occurred throughout North America and Eurasia, but were on the decline by at least 46 Mya.<ref name="Janis1998">{{cite book | last1=Janis | first1=C. M. | last2=Effinger | first2=J. A. | last3=Harrison | first3=J. A. | last4=Honey | first4=J. G. | last5=Kron | first5=D. G. | last6=Lander | first6=B. | last7=Manning | first7=E. | last8=Prothero | first8=D. | author8-link=Donald Prothero | last9=Stevens | first9=M. S. | last10=Stucky | first10=R. K. | last11=Webb | first11=S. D. | last12=Wright | first12=D. B. | editor1-last=Janis | editor1-first=C. M. | editor2-last=Scott | editor2-first=K. M. | editor3-last=Jacobs | editor3-first=L. L. | title=Evolution of Tertiary Mammals of North America | url=https://archive.org/details/evolutiontertiar00jani_419 | url-access=limited | date=1998 | publisher=Cambridge University Press | location=Cambridge, UK | isbn=978-0-521-35519-3 | pages=[https://archive.org/details/evolutiontertiar00jani_419/page/n175 337]–74 | edition=1st | chapter=Artiodactyla}}</ref><ref name="Heffelfinger">{{cite book | last1=Heffelfinger | first1=J. | title=Deer of the Southwest : A Complete Guide to the Natural History, Biology, and Management of Southwestern Mule Deer and White-tailed Deer | date=2006 | publisher=Texas A & M University Press | location=Texas, US | isbn=978-1-58544-515-8 | pages=1–57 | edition=1st |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AJnpJWzamN4C}}</ref> Analysis of a nearly complete skeleton of ''Diacodexis'' discovered in 1982 gave rise to speculation that this ancestor could be closer to the non-ruminants than the ruminants.<ref>{{cite journal | last1=Rose | first1=K. D. | title=Skeleton of ''Diacodexis'', oldest known artiodactyl | journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]] | date=1982 | volume=216 | issue=4546 | pages=621–3 | doi=10.1126/science.216.4546.621 | pmid=17783306 | jstor=1687682| bibcode=1982Sci...216..621R | s2cid=13157519 }}</ref> ''[[Andromeryx]]'' is another prominent prehistoric ruminant, but appears to be closer to the [[Chevrotain|tragulids]].<ref>{{cite book | editor1-last=Eldredge | editor1-first=N. | editor2-last=Stanley | editor2-first=S. M. | title=Living Fossils | date=1984 | publisher=Springer | location=New York, US | isbn=978-1-4613-8271-3}}</ref>

===Oligocene===

[[File:Leptomeryx 1.JPG|thumb|''[[Leptomeryx]]'']]
The formation of the [[Himalayas]] and the [[Alps]] brought about significant geographic changes. This was the chief reason behind the extensive diversification of deer-like forms and the emergence of cervids from the [[Oligocene]] to the early [[Pliocene]].<ref name=Ludt>{{cite journal | last1=Ludt | first1=C. J. | last2=Schroeder | first2=W. | last3=Rottmann | first3=O. | last4=Kuehn | first4=R. | title=Mitochondrial DNA phylogeography of red deer (''Cervus elaphus'') | journal=Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution | date=2004 | volume=31 | issue=3 | pages=1064–83 | doi=10.1016/j.ympev.2003.10.003 | url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/8585775 | pmid=15120401}}</ref> The latter half of the Oligocene (28–34 Mya) saw the appearance of the European ''[[Eumeryx]]'' and the North American ''[[Leptomeryx]]''. The latter resembled modern-day bovids and cervids in dental morphology (for instance, it had [[brachyodont]] molars), while the former was more [[Primitive (phylogenetics)|advanced]].<ref>{{cite journal | last1=Vislobokova | first1=I. | last2=Daxner-Höck | first2=G. | title=Oligocene–early Miocene ruminants from the Valley of Lakes (central Mongolia) | journal=Annalen des Naturhistorischen Museums in Wien | date=2001 | volume=103 | pages=213–35 | jstor=41702231 | url=http://verlag.nhm-wien.ac.at/pdfs/103A_213235_Vislobokova.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160423034214/http://verlag.nhm-wien.ac.at/pdfs/103A_213235_Vislobokova.pdf |archive-date=2016-04-23 |url-status=live }}</ref> Other deer-like forms included the North American ''[[Blastomeryx]]'' and the European ''[[Dremotherium]]''; these sabre-toothed animals are believed to have been the direct ancestors of all modern antlered deer, though they themselves lacked antlers.<ref name="Stirton">{{cite journal | last1=Stirton | first1=R. A. | title=Comments on the relationships of the cervoid family Palaeomerycidae | journal=American Journal of Science | date=1944 | volume=242 | issue=12 | pages=633–55 | doi=10.2475/ajs.242.12.633| bibcode=1944AmJS..242..633S | doi-access=free }}</ref> Another contemporaneous form was the four-horned [[Protoceratidae|protoceratid]] ''[[Protoceras]]'', that was replaced by ''[[Syndyoceras]]'' in the Miocene; these animals were unique in having a horn on the nose.<ref name=Goss1983/> Late Eocene fossils dated approximately 35 million years ago, which were found in North America, show that ''Syndyoceras'' had bony skull outgrowths that resembled non-deciduous antlers.<ref name=agate>{{cite book | publisher=Interior Department, National Park Service, Division of Publications | title=Agate Fossil Beds: Agate Fossil Beds National Monument, Nebraska | date= February 1989| isbn=978-0-912627-04-5 | page=31}}</ref>

===Miocene===

Fossil evidence suggests that the earliest members of the superfamily Cervoidea appeared in Eurasia in the Miocene. ''[[Dicrocerus]]'', ''[[Euprox]]'' and ''[[Heteroprox]]'' were probably the first antlered cervids.<ref name="Gentry1994">{{cite journal | last1=Gentry | first1=A. W. | last2=Rössner | first2 = G. | title=The Miocene differentiation of Old World Pecora (Mammalia) | journal=Historical Biology | date=1994 | volume=7 | issue=2 | pages=115–58 | doi=10.1080/10292389409380449| bibcode=1994HBio....7..115G }}</ref> ''Dicrocerus'' featured single-forked antlers that were shed regularly.<ref name=Azanza>{{cite journal | last1=Azanza | first1=B. | last2=DeMiguel | first2=D. | last3=Andrés | first3=M. | title=The antler-like appendages of the primitive deer ''Dicrocerus elegans'': morphology, growth cycle, ontogeny, and sexual dimorphism | journal=Estudios Geológicos | date=2011 | volume=67 | issue=2 | pages=579–602 | doi=10.3989/egeol.40559.207| doi-access=free }}</ref> ''[[Stephanocemas]]'' had more developed and diffuse ("crowned") antlers.<ref>{{cite journal | last1=Wang | first1=X. | last2=Xie | first2=G. | last3=Dong | first3=W. | title=A new species of crown-antlered deer ''Stephanocemas'' (Artiodactyla, Cervidae) from the middle Miocene of Qaidam Basin, northern Tibetan Plateau, China, and a preliminary evaluation of its phylogeny | journal=Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society | date=2009 | volume=156 | issue=3 | pages=680–95 | doi=10.1111/j.1096-3642.2008.00491.x | url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/230071825| doi-access=free }}</ref> ''[[Procervulus]]'' ([[Palaeomerycidae]]) also had antlers that were not shed.<ref>{{cite journal | last1=Ginsburg | first1=L. | title=La faune des mammifères des sables Miocènes du synclinal d'Esvres (Val de Loire) | journal=Comptes Rendus de l'Académie des Sciences | date=1988 | pages=319–22 | series=II | trans-title=The mammalian fauna of the Miocene sands of the syncline Esvres (Loire Valley) | language=fr}}</ref> Contemporary forms such as the [[Merycodontinae|merycodontine]]s eventually gave rise to the modern pronghorn.<ref>{{cite journal | last1=Walker | first1=D. N. | title=Pleistocene and Holocene records of ''Antilocapra americana'': a review of the FAUNMAP data | journal=Plains Anthropologist | date=2000 | volume=45 | issue=174 | pages=13–28 | jstor=25669684 | url=http://www.uwyo.edu/anthropology/_files/docs/walker/48%20walker%202000%20pleistocene%20records%20antilocapra%202.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.uwyo.edu/anthropology/_files/docs/walker/48%20walker%202000%20pleistocene%20records%20antilocapra%202.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live| doi=10.1080/2052546.2000.11932020 | s2cid=163903264 }}</ref>

The Cervinae emerged as the first group of extant cervids around 7–9 Mya, during the late Miocene in central Asia. The tribe Muntiacini made its appearance as [[extinction|†]] ''[[Muntiacus leilaoensis]]'' around 7–8 Mya;<ref>{{cite journal | last1=Dong | first1=W. | last2=Pan | first2=Y. | last3=Liu | first3=J. | title=The earliest ''Muntiacus'' (Artiodactyla, Mammalia) from the Late Miocene of Yuanmou, southwestern China | journal=Comptes Rendus Palevol | date=September 2004 | volume=3 | issue=5 | pages=379–86 | doi=10.1016/j.crpv.2004.06.002 | bibcode=2004CRPal...3..379D | url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/232743453}}</ref> The early muntjacs varied in size–as small as hares or as large as fallow deer. They had tusks for fighting and antlers for defence.<ref name=Geist/> Capreolinae followed soon after; Alceini appeared 6.4–8.4 Mya.<ref name=Gilbert2006/> Around this period, the [[Tethys Ocean]] disappeared to give way to vast stretches of grassland; these provided the deer with abundant protein-rich vegetation that led to the development of ornamental antlers and allowed populations to flourish and colonise areas.<ref name=Geist/><ref name=Ludt/> As antlers had become pronounced, the canines were either lost or became poorly represented (as in elk), probably because diet was no longer [[Browsing (herbivory)|browse]]-dominated and antlers were better display organs. In muntjac and tufted deer, the antlers as well as the canines are small. The tragulids have long canines to this day.<ref name=Heffelfinger/>

===Pliocene===

[[File:Cervoceros novorossiae.jpg|thumb|''[[Cervocerus novorossiae]]'']]
With the onset of the [[Pliocene]], the global climate became cooler. A fall in the sea-level led to massive glaciation; consequently, grasslands abounded in nutritious forage. Thus a new spurt in deer populations ensued.<ref name=Geist/><ref name=Ludt/> The oldest member of Cervini, [[extinction|†]] ''[[Cervocerus novorossiae]]'', appeared around the transition from Miocene to Pliocene (4.2–6 Mya) in Eurasia;<ref>{{cite journal | last1=Di Stefano | first1=G. | last2=Petronio | first2=C. | title=Systematics and evolution of the Eurasian Plio-Pleistocene tribe Cervini (Artiodactyla, Mammalia) | journal=Geologica Romana | date=2002 | volume=36 | pages=311–34 | url=http://tetide.geo.uniroma1.it/dst/grafica_nuova/pubblicazioni_DST/geologica_romana/Volumi/VOL%2036/GR_36_311_334_DI%20Stefano%20et%20al.pdf | access-date=11 April 2016 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160310214846/http://tetide.geo.uniroma1.it/dst/grafica_nuova/pubblicazioni_DST/geologica_romana/Volumi/VOL%2036/GR_36_311_334_DI%20Stefano%20et%20al.pdf | archive-date=10 March 2016 | url-status=dead }}</ref> cervine fossils from early Pliocene to as late as the [[Pleistocene]] have been excavated in China<ref>{{cite journal | last1=Petronio | first1=C. | last2=Krakhmalnaya | first2=T. | last3=Bellucci | first3=L. | last4=Di Stefano | first4=G. | title=Remarks on some Eurasian pliocervines: Characteristics, evolution, and relationships with the tribe Cervini | journal=Geobios | date=2007 | volume=40 | issue=1 | pages=113–30 | doi=10.1016/j.geobios.2006.01.002| doi-access=free | bibcode=2007Geobi..40..113P }}</ref> and the Himalayas.<ref>{{cite journal | last1=Ghaffar | first1=A. | last2=Akhtar | first2=M. | last3=Nayyer | first3=A. Q. | title=Evidences of Early Pliocene fossil remains of tribe Cervini (Mammalia, Artiodactyla, Cervidae) from the Siwaliks of Pakistan | journal=Journal of Animal and Plant Sciences | date=2011 | volume=21 | issue=4 | pages=830–5 | url=http://www.thejaps.org.pk/docs/21-4/34.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.thejaps.org.pk/docs/21-4/34.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live}}</ref> While ''Cervus'' and ''Dama'' appeared nearly 3 Mya, ''Axis'' emerged during the late Pliocene–Pleistocene. The tribes Capreolini and Rangiferini appeared around 4–7 Mya.<ref name=Gilbert2006/>

Around 5 Mya, the rangiferina [[extinction|†]] ''[[Bretzia]]'' and [[extinction|†]] ''[[Eocoileus]]'' were the first cervids to reach North America.<ref name=Gilbert2006/> This implies the Bering Strait could be crossed during the late Miocene–Pliocene; this appears highly probable as the [[camelid]]s migrated into Asia from North America around the same time.<ref>{{cite journal | last1=van der Made | first1=J. | last2=Morales | first2=J. | last3=Sen | first3=S. | last4=Aslan | first4=F. | title=The first camel from the Upper Miocene of Turkey and the dispersal of the camels into the Old World | journal=Comptes Rendus Palevol | date=2002 | volume=1 | issue=2 | pages=117–22 | doi=10.1016/S1631-0683(02)00012-X| bibcode=2002CRPal...1..117V }}</ref> Deer invaded South America in the late Pliocene (2.5–3 Mya) as part of the [[Great American Interchange]], thanks to the recently formed [[Isthmus of Panama]], and emerged successful due to the small number of competing ruminants in the continent.<ref>{{cite book | last1=Webb | first1=S. D. | editor1-last=Vrba | editor1-first=E. S. | editor1-link=Elisabeth Vrba | editor2-last=Schaller | editor2-first=G. B. | editor2-link=George Schaller | title=Antelopes, Deer, and Relatives: Fossil Record, Behavioral Ecology, Systematics, and Conservation | date=2000 | publisher=Yale University Press | location=New Haven, US | isbn=978-0-300-08142-8 | pages=38–64 | chapter=Evolutionary history of New World Cervidae |chapter-url= https://books.google.com/books?id=f34SmXP27ywC&pg=PA38}}</ref>

===Pleistocene===

Large deer with impressive antlers evolved during the early Pleistocene, probably as a result of abundant resources to drive evolution.<ref name=Geist/> The early Pleistocene cervid [[extinction|†]] ''[[Eucladoceros]]'' was comparable in size to the modern elk.<ref>{{cite journal | last1=De Vos | first1=J. | last2=Mol | first2=D. | last3=Reumer | first3=J. W. F. | title=Early Pleistocene Cervidae (Mammalia, Artiodactyla) from the Oosterschelde (the Netherlands), with a revision of the cervid genus ''Eucladoceros'' Falconer, 1868 | journal=Deinsea | date=1995 | issue=2 | pages=95–121 | url=http://www.hetnatuurhistorisch.nl/fileadmin/user_upload/documents-nmr/Publicaties/Deinsea/Deinsea_02/Deinsea_2_p95-121_de_Vos.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.hetnatuurhistorisch.nl/fileadmin/user_upload/documents-nmr/Publicaties/Deinsea/Deinsea_02/Deinsea_2_p95-121_de_Vos.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live}}</ref> [[extinction|†]] ''[[Megaloceros]]'' (Pliocene–Pleistocene) featured the [[Irish elk]] (''M. giganteus''), one of the [[Largest cervids|largest known cervids]]. The Irish elk reached {{convert |2|m|ft|frac=2}} at the shoulder and had heavy antlers that spanned {{convert|3.6|m|ftin}} from tip to tip.<ref>{{cite journal | last1=Lister | first1=A. M. | last2=Gonzalez | first2=S. | last3=Kitchener | first3=A. C. | title=Survival of the Irish elk into the Holocene | journal=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]] | date=2000 | volume=405 | issue=6788 | pages=753–4 | doi=10.1038/35015668 | pmid=10866185| bibcode=2000Natur.405..753G | s2cid=4417046 }}</ref> These large animals were traditionally thought to have faced extinction due to conflict between [[sexual selection]] for large antlers and body and [[natural selection]] for a smaller form,<ref>{{cite journal | last1=Moen | first1=R. A. | last2=Pastor | first2=J. | last3=Yosef | first3=C. | title=Antler growth and extinction of Irish elk | journal=Evolutionary Ecology Research | date=1999 | issue=1 | pages=235–49 | url=http://www.duluth.umn.edu/~rmoen/Dld/Moen_1999.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131029193608/http://www.duluth.umn.edu/~rmoen/Dld/Moen_1999.pdf |archive-date=2013-10-29 |url-status=live}}</ref> but a combination of anthropogenic and climatic pressures is now thought to be the most likely culprit.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Lister |first1=Adrian M. |last2=Stuart |first2=Anthony J. |date=2019-01-01 |title=The extinction of the giant deer Megaloceros giganteus (Blumenbach): New radiocarbon evidence |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1040618219300333 |journal=Quaternary International |series=SI: Quaternary International 500 |volume=500 |pages=185–203 |doi=10.1016/j.quaint.2019.03.025 |bibcode=2019QuInt.500..185L |issn=1040-6182}}</ref> Meanwhile, the moose and reindeer radiated into North America from Siberia.<ref>{{cite journal | last1=Breda | first1=M. | last2=Marchetti | first2=M. | title=Systematical and biochronological review of Plio-Pleistocene Alceini (Cervidae; Mammalia) from Eurasia | journal=Quaternary Science Reviews | date=2005 | volume=24 | issue=5–6 | pages=775–805 | doi=10.1016/j.quascirev.2004.05.005| bibcode=2005QSRv...24..775B | url=http://doc.rero.ch/record/209798/files/PAL_E4211.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://doc.rero.ch/record/209798/files/PAL_E4211.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live }}</ref>

==Taxonomy and classification==

{{Further|List of cervids}}
[[File:Cervid skull-FMVZ USP-21.jpeg|thumb|upright=0.75|Cervid skull]]
Deer constitute the [[artiodactyl]] [[family (biology)|family]] Cervidae. This family was first [[scientific description|described]] by German zoologist [[Georg August Goldfuss]] in ''Handbuch der Zoologie'' (1820). Three [[subfamily|subfamilies]] were recognised: Capreolinae (first described by the English zoologist [[Joshua Brookes]] in 1828), Cervinae (described by Goldfuss) and Hydropotinae (first described by French zoologist [[Édouard Louis Trouessart]] in 1898).<ref name=Groves2007>{{cite book | last1=Groves | first1=C. | author-link1=Colin Groves | chapter=Family Cervidae | chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qO8H_alEofAC&pg=PA249 | editor1-last=Prothero | editor1-first=D. R. | editor1-link=Donald Prothero | editor2-last=Foss | editor2-first=S. E. | title=The Evolution of Artiodactyls | date=2007 | publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press | location=Baltimore, US | isbn=978-0-801-88735-2 | pages=249–56 | edition=Illustrated}}</ref><ref name=MSW3>{{MSW3 | id=14200205 | page=652–70}}</ref>

Other attempts at the classification of deer have been based on morphological and [[Genetics|genetic]] differences.<ref name="Goss1983">{{cite book | first1=R. J. | last1=Goss | title=Deer Antlers Regeneration, Function and Evolution | date=1983 | publisher=Elsevier | location=Oxford, UK | isbn=9780323140430 | pages=43–51}}</ref> The Anglo-Irish naturalist [[Victor Brooke]] suggested in 1878 that deer could be bifurcated into two classes on the according to the features of the second and fifth [[metacarpal bone]]s of their forelimbs: Plesiometacarpalia (most Old World deer) and Telemetacarpalia (most New World deer). He treated the [[musk deer]] as a cervid, placing it under Telemetacarpalia. While the telemetacarpal deer showed only those elements located far from the joint, the plesiometacarpal deer retained the elements closer to the joint as well.<ref name="Brooke1878">{{cite journal | last1=Brooke | first1=V. | title=On the classification of the Cervidœ, with a synopsis of the existing species | journal=[[Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London]] | date=1878 | volume=46 | issue=1 | pages=883–928 | doi=10.1111/j.1469-7998.1878.tb08033.x| url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/part/73538 }}</ref> Differentiation on the basis of [[diploidy|diploid]] number of [[chromosome]]s in the late 20th century has been flawed by several inconsistencies.<ref name=Goss1983/>

In 1987, the zoologists [[Colin Groves]] and [[Peter Grubb (zoologist)|Peter Grubb]] identified three subfamilies: Cervinae, Hydropotinae and Odocoileinae; they noted that the hydropotines lack antlers, and the other two subfamilies differ in their skeletal morphology.<ref name="Groves1987">{{cite book | last1=Groves | first1=C. | author1-link=Colin Groves | last2=Grubb | first2=P. | author2-link=Peter Grubb (zoologist) | editor1-last=Wemmer | editor1-first=C. | title=Biology and Management of the Cervidae : A Conference held at the Conservation and Research Center, National Zoological Park, Smithsonian Institution, Front Royal, Virginia, August 1–5, 1982 | date=1987 | publisher=Smithsonian Institution Press | location=Washington, US | isbn=978-0-87474-981-6 | pages=21–59 | chapter=Relationships of living deer}}</ref> They reverted from this classification in 2000.<ref name="Grubb2000">{{cite journal | last1=Grubb | first1=P. | author-link1=Peter Grubb (zoologist) | title=Valid and invalid nomenclature of living and fossil deer, Cervidae | journal=Acta Theriologica | date=2000 | volume=45 | issue=3 | pages=289–307 | url=http://rcin.org.pl/Content/13017/BI002_2613_Cz-40-2_Acta-T44-nr29-289-307_o.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://rcin.org.pl/Content/13017/BI002_2613_Cz-40-2_Acta-T44-nr29-289-307_o.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live | doi=10.4098/at.arch.00-30| doi-access=free }}</ref><!--is this not merely a minor footnote?-->

Molecular phylogenetic analyses since the latter half of the 2000s all show that ''[[hydropotes]]'' is a sister taxon of ''[[Capreolus]]'', and “Hydropotinae” became outdated subfamily.<ref name=Pitra>{{cite journal |author1=Christian Pitra |author2=Joerns Fickel |author3=Eric Meijaard|author4=Colin grooves |title=Evolution and phylogeny of old world deer |journal=Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution |date=2004 |volume=33 |issue=3 |pages=880–895 |doi=10.1016/j.ympev.2004.07.013|pmid=15522810|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1055790304002374}}</ref><ref name=Gilbert>{{cite journal |author1=Gilbert, C. |author2=Ropiquet, A. |author3=Hassanin, A. |title=Mitochondrial and nuclear phylogenies of Cervidae (Mammalia, Ruminantia): Systematics, morphology, and biogeography | journal=Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution |date=2006 |volume=40 |issue=1 |pages=101–117 |doi=10.1016/j.ympev.2006.02.017 |pmid=16584894 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/7194962}}</ref><ref name = A>Hassanin, A., Delsuc, F., Ropiquet, A., Hammer, C., van Vuuren, B. J., Matthee, C., Ruiz-Garcia, M., Catzeflis, F., Areskoug, V., Nguyen, T. T., & Couloux, A. (2012). [https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1631069111002800 Pattern and timing of diversification of Cetartiodactyla (Mammalia, Laurasiatheria), as revealed by a comprehensive analysis of mitochondrial genomes.] Comptes Rendus Biologies, 335(1), 32–50.</ref><ref name = B>Heckeberg, N. S., Erpenbeck, D., Wörheide, G., & Rössner, G. E. (2016). [https://peerj.com/articles/2307/ Systematic relationships of five newly sequenced cervid species.] PeerJ, 4, e2307.</ref><ref name =C>Heckeberg, N. S. (2020). [https://peerj.com/articles/8114/ The systematics of the Cervidae: A total evidence approach.] PeerJ, 8, e8114.</ref>

===External relationships===

Until 2003, it was understood that the family [[Moschidae]] (musk deer) was [[sister taxon|sister]] to Cervidae. Then a [[phylogenetic]] study by Alexandre Hassanin (of [[National Museum of Natural History (France)|National Museum of Natural History, France]]) and colleagues, based on [[mitochondria]]l and [[nucleus (biology)|nuclear]] analyses, revealed that Moschidae and [[Bovidae]] form a [[clade]] sister to Cervidae. According to the study, Cervidae [[genetic divergence|diverged]] from the Bovidae-Moschidae clade 27 to 28 million years ago.<ref name="Hassanin2003">{{cite journal | last1=Hassanin | first1=A. | last2=Douzery | first2=E. J. P. | title=Molecular and morphological phylogenies of Ruminantia and the alternative position of the Moschidae | journal=Systematic Biology | date=2003 | volume=52 | issue=2 | pages=206–28 | doi=10.1080/10635150390192726 | url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/10760976 | pmid=12746147| doi-access=free }}</ref> The following [[cladogram]] is based on the 2003 study.<ref name="Hassanin2003"/>

{{Clade | style=font-size: 100%; line-height:100%
 | label1=[[Ruminantia]]
 | 1={{clade
 | label1=[[Tragulina]]
 | 1=[[Tragulidae]] [[File:Tragulus napu - 1818-1842 - Print - Iconographia Zoologica - Special Collections University of Amsterdam - (white background).jpg|50 px]]
 | label2=[[Pecora]]
 | 2={{clade
 | 1=[[Antilocapridae]] [[File:Antilocapra white background.jpg|50 px]]
 | 2=[[Giraffidae]] [[File:Giraffa camelopardalis Brockhaus white background.jpg|50 px]]
 | 3={{clade
 | 1='''Cervidae''' [[File:The deer of all lands (1898) Hangul white background.png|50 px]]
 | 2={{clade
 | 1=[[Bovidae]] [[File:Birds and nature (1901) (14562088237) white background.jpg |50px]]
 | 2=[[Moschidae]] [[File:Moschus chrysogaster white background.jpg|50 px]]
 }}
 }}
 }}
 }}
}}

===Internal relationships===

A 2006 [[phylogenetic]] study of the internal relationships in Cervidae by Clément Gilbert and colleagues divided the family into two major clades: Capreolinae (telemetacarpal or New World deer) and Cervinae (plesiometacarpal or Old World deer). Studies in the late 20th century suggested a similar bifurcation in the family. This as well as previous studies support [[monophyly]] in Cervinae, while Capreolinae appears [[paraphyletic]]. The 2006 study identified two lineages in Cervinae, Cervini (comprising the genera ''[[Axis (genus)|Axis]]'', ''[[Cervus]]'', ''[[Dama (deer)|Dama]]'' and ''[[Rucervus]]'') and Muntiacini (''[[Muntiacus]]'' and ''[[Elaphodus]]''). Capreolinae featured three lineages, Alceini (''[[Alces]]'' species), Capreolini (''[[Capreolus]]'' and the subfamily Hydropotinae) and Rangiferini (''[[Blastocerus]]'', ''[[Hippocamelus]]'', ''[[Mazama (genus)|Mazama]]'', ''[[Odocoileus]]'', ''[[Pudu]]'' and ''[[Reindeer|Rangifer]]'' species). The following cladogram is based on the 2006 study.<ref name="Gilbert2006">{{cite journal | last1=Gilbert | first1=C. | last2=Ropiquet | first2=A. | last3=Hassanin | first3=A. | title=Mitochondrial and nuclear phylogenies of Cervidae (Mammalia, Ruminantia): Systematics, morphology, and biogeography | journal=Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution | date=2006 | volume=40 | issue=1 | pages=101–17 | doi=10.1016/j.ympev.2006.02.017 | url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/7194962 | pmid=16584894}}</ref>

<!--a small no. of images selected to show range of variation: no need to try to show everything per [[WP:NOTCAT]]-->
{{Clade | style=font-size: 90%; line-height:100%
 | label1='''Cervidae'''
 | 1={{clade
 | label1=[[Cervinae]] (Old World deer)
 | 1={{clade
 | label1=[[Muntiacini]]
 | 1={{clade
 | 1=[[Reeves's muntjac]] 
 | 2=[[Tufted deer]] [[File:The deer of all lands (1898) Michie's tufted deer white background.png| 50px]]
 }}
 | label2=[[Cervini]]
 | 2={{clade
 | 1={{clade
 | 1={{clade
 | 1=[[Common fallow deer]] [[File:Cervus dama - 1818-1842 - Print - Iconographia Zoologica -(white background).jpg| 50px]]
 | 2=[[Persian fallow deer]] [[File:Cervus dama (var. nigra) - 1818-1842 - Print - Iconographia Zoologica - (white background).jpg| 50px]]
 }}
 | 2={{clade
 | 1={{clade
 | 1={{clade
 | 1=[[Javan rusa|Rusa]][[File:The deer of all lands (1898) Moluccan rusa white background.png| 50px]]
 | 2=[[Sambar deer|Sambar]] [[File:Archives du Muséum d'Histoire Naturelle, Paris (1852) (Cervus unicolor).png| 50px]]
 }}
 | 2={{clade
 | 1=[[Red deer]] [[File:Cervus elaphus - 1818-1842 - Print - Iconographia Zoologica - Special Collections University of Amsterdam - (white background).jpg| 50px]]
 | 2=[[Thorold's deer]] [[File:The deer of all lands (1898) Thorold's deer white background.png| 50px]]
 | 3=[[Sika deer]] [[File:Recherches pour servir à l'histoire naturelle des mammifères (Pl. 22) (Cervus nippon).jpg| 50px]]
 | 4=[[Elk]] (Wapiti) [[File:Cervus canadensis - 1818-1842 - Print - Iconographia Zoologica - Special Collections University of Amsterdam - (white background).jpg| 50px]]
 }}
 }}
 | 2={{clade
 | 1=[[Eld's deer]] [[File:Cervus hippelaphus - 1818-1842 - Print - Iconographia Zoologica - (white background).jpg| 50px]]
 | 2=[[Père David's deer]] [[File:Elaphurusdavidianus white background.jpg| 50px]]
 }}
 }}
 }}
 | 2={{clade
 | 1=[[Barasingha]][[File:The deer of all lands (1898) Swamp deer white background.png| 50px]]
 | 2={{clade
 | 1=[[Indian hog deer]]
 | 2=[[Chital]][[File:Cervus axis - 1818-1842 - Print - Iconographia Zoologica - Special Collections University of Amsterdam - (white background).jpg| 50px]]
 }}
 }}
 }}
 }}
 | label2=[[Capreolinae]] (New World deer)
 | 2={{clade
 | label1=[[Rangiferini]]
 | 1={{clade
 | 1=[[Reindeer]] (Caribou) [[File:The deer of all lands (1898) Scandinavian reindeer white background.png| 50px]]
 | 2={{clade
 | 1={{clade
 | 1=[[American red brocket]] [[File:PZSL1850PlateMammalia24 Mazama americana.png| 50px]]
 | 2={{clade
 | 1=[[White-tailed deer]] [[File:The deer of all lands (1898) Virginia deer white background.png| 50px]]
 | 2=[[Mule deer]] [[File:The deer of all lands (1898) Mule deer white background.png| 50px]]
 }}
 }}
 | 2={{clade
 | 1=[[Marsh deer]]
 | 2=[[Gray brocket]]
 | 3=[[Southern pudu]] [[File:Pudu puda Werner (white background).JPG| 50px]]
 | 4=[[Taruca]] [[File:The deer of all lands (1898) Peruvian guemal white background.png| 50px]]
 }}
 }}
 }} 
 | label2=[[Capreolini]]
 | 2={{clade
 | 1=[[Roe deer]] [[File:The deer of all lands (1898) European roe deer white background.png|50px]]
 | label2=
 | 2=[[Water deer]] [[File:The deer of all lands (1898) Chinese water deer white background.png|50px]]
 }}
 | label3=[[Alceini]]
 | 3=[[Moose]] or [[Moose|Eurasian elk]] [[File:The deer of all lands (1898) Elk white background.png|50px]]
 }}
 }}
}}

==Human interaction==

{{Further|Deer in mythology}}
[[File:Lascaux, Megaloceros.jpg|thumb|[[Upper Palaeolithic]] [[cave painting]] of a ''[[Megaloceros]]'' giant deer at [[Lascaux]], 17,300 years old]]

===Prehistoric===

Deer were an important source of food for early hominids. In China, ''[[Homo erectus]]'' fed upon the [[sika deer]], while the red deer was hunted in Germany. In the [[Upper Palaeolithic]], the reindeer was the staple food for [[Cro-Magnon]] people,<ref name=guide/> while the [[cave paintings]] at [[Lascaux]] in southwestern France include some 90 images of stags.<ref name=Curtis>{{cite book |last=Curtis |first=Gregory |title=The Cave Painters: Probing the Mysteries of the World's First Artists |year=2006 |publisher=Alfred A. Knopf |location=New York |isbn=978-1400043484 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/cavepaintersprob00curt/page/96 96–97, 102] |edition=1st |url=https://archive.org/details/cavepaintersprob00curt/page/96 }}</ref> In [[China]], deer continued to be a main source of food for millennia even after people began farming, and it is possible that sika and other deer benefited from the frequently abandoned field sites.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lander |first1=Brian |last2=Brunson |first2=Katherine |title=Wild Mammals of Ancient North China |journal=The Journal of Chinese History |date=2018 |volume=2 |issue=2 |pages=291–312 |doi=10.1017/jch.2017.45|s2cid=90662935 }}</ref> <ref>{{cite journal |last1=Brunson |first1=Katherine |last2=Lander |first2=Brian |title=Deer and Humans in the Early Farming Communities of the Yellow River Valley: A Symbiotic Relationship |journal=Human Ecology |date=2023 |volume=51 |issue=4 |pages=609–625 |doi=10.1007/s10745-023-00432-x |s2cid=261164022 }}</ref>

===Historic===

[[File:Greek Gilt-silver Rhyton (Libation Vessel) In the Form of a Stag's Head.jpg|left|thumb|[[Ancient Greece|Ancient Greek]] gilt-silver [[rhyton]], 4th century BC]]
Deer had a central role in the ancient art, culture and mythology of the [[Hittites]], the [[ancient Egypt]]ians, the [[Celtic people|Celts]], the [[Ancient Greece|ancient Greeks]], the Asians and several others. For instance, the [[Stag Hunt Mosaic]] of ancient [[Pella]], under the [[Kingdom of Macedonia]] (4th century BC), possibly depicts [[Alexander the Great]] hunting a deer with [[Hephaestion]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Chugg |first=Andrew |year=2006 |title=Alexander's Lovers |location=Raleigh, N.C. |publisher=Lulu |isbn=978-1-4116-9960-1 |pages=78–79}}</ref> In Japanese [[Shintoism]], the sika deer is believed to be a messenger to the gods. [[History of China|In China]], deer are associated with great medicinal significance; [[deer penis]] is thought by some in China to have [[aphrodisiac]] properties.<ref>{{cite news|last=Harding |first=Andrew|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/programmes/from_our_own_correspondent/5371500.stm|title=Beijing's penis emporium|work=[[BBC News]]|date=23 September 2006|access-date=23 June 2010}}</ref> Spotted deer are believed in China to accompany the god of longevity. Deer was the principal sacrificial animal for the Huichal Indians of Mexico. In medieval Europe, deer appeared in hunting scenes and coats-of-arms. Deer are depicted in many materials by various pre-Hispanic civilizations in the Andes.<ref name=guide>{{cite book |last1=Feldhamer |first1=G. A. |last2=McShea |first2=W. J. |title=Deer: The Animal Answer Guide|date=2011 |publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press |location=Baltimore |isbn=9781421403885 |pages=123–32}}</ref><ref name="Ref_f">Berrin, Katherine & Larco Museum (1997) ''The Spirit of Ancient Peru:Treasures from the [[Larco Museum|Museo Arqueológico Rafael Larco Herrera]].'' New York: [[Thames and Hudson]], {{ISBN|0500018022}}.</ref>

The common male first name ''[[Oscar (given name)|Oscar]]'' is taken from the [[Irish Language]], where it is derived from two elements: the first, ''os'', means "deer"; the second element, ''cara'', means "friend". The name is borne by a famous hero of [[Irish mythology]]—[[Oscar (Irish mythology)|Oscar]], grandson of [[Fionn Mac Cumhail]]. The name was popularised in the 18th century by [[James Macpherson]], creator of 'Ossianic poetry'.

===Literary===

[[File:Rama stalks the demon Marica, who has assumed the form of a golden deer.jpg|thumb|upright|In the Indian epic [[Ramayana]], [[Rama]] kills the illusional [[Maricha|golden deer]]]]
Deer have been an integral part of fables and other literary works since the inception of writing. Stags were used as symbols in the latter Sumerian writings. For instance, the boat of Sumerian god Enki is named the ''Stag of Azbu''. There are several mentions of the animal in the [[Rigveda]] as well as the [[Bible]]. In the Indian epic [[Ramayana]], [[Sita]] is lured by a golden deer which [[Rama]] tries to catch. In the absence of both Rama and [[Lakshman]], [[Ravana]] kidnaps Sita. Many of the allegorical [[Aesop's fables]], such as "The Stag at the Pool", "The One-Eyed Doe" and "The Stag and a Lion", personify deer to give moral lessons. For instance, "The Sick Stag" gives the message that uncaring friends can do more harm than good.<ref name=guide/> The [[Yaqui people|Yaqui]] deer song accompanies the deer dance which is performed by a pascola [from the Spanish 'pascua', Easter] dancer (also known as a deer dancer). Pascolas would perform at religious and social functions many times of the year, especially during Lent and Easter.<ref name=guide/><ref name=harvey>{{cite book |last1=Harvey |first1=G. |title=Readings in Indigenous Religions |date=2002 |publisher=Continuum |location=London |isbn=978-0826451019 |page=109}}</ref>

In one of [[Rudolf Erich Raspe]]'s 1785 stories of ''[[Baron Munchausen]]'s Narrative of his Marvellous Travels and Campaigns in Russia'', the baron encounters a stag while eating cherries and, without ammunition, fires the cherry-pits at the stag with his musket, but it escapes. The next year, the baron encounters a stag with a [[cherry tree]] growing from its head; presumably this is the animal he had shot at the previous year. In [[Christmas]] lore (such as in the narrative poem "[[A Visit from St. Nicholas]]"), [[reindeer]] are often depicted pulling the [[sleigh]] of [[Santa Claus]].<ref name="A Visit from St. Nicholas">{{cite news |last=Moore |first=Clement C. |author-link=Clement Clarke Moore |url=http://iment.com/maida//familytree/henry/xmas/poemvariants/troysentinel1823.htm |title=An Account of A Visit from St. Nicholas |work=Troy Sentinel |date=2 December 1823 |page=2 |access-date=27 March 2015}}</ref> [[Marjorie Kinnan Rawlings]]'s [[Pulitzer Prize]]-winning 1938 novel ''[[The Yearling]]'' was about a boy's relationship with a baby deer. The fiction book ''[[Fire Bringer]]'' is about a young fawn who goes on a quest to save the Herla, the deer kind.<ref name=firebringer>{{cite book |last1=Clement-Davies |first1=D. |title=Fire Bringer |date=2007 |publisher=Firebird |location=New York |isbn=978-0142408735 |edition=1st American}}</ref> In the 1942 [[Walt Disney Pictures]] film, ''[[Bambi]]'' is a [[white-tailed deer]], while in [[Felix Salten]]'s original 1923 book ''[[Bambi, a Life in the Woods]]'', he is a [[roe deer]]. In [[C. S. Lewis]]'s 1950 fantasy novel ''[[The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe]]'' the adult Pevensies, now kings and queens of [[Narnia]], chase the White Stag on a hunt, as the Stag is said to grant its captor a wish. The hunt is key in returning the Pevensies to their home in England. In the 1979 book ''[[The Animals of Farthing Wood (book)|The Animals of Farthing Wood]]'', The Great White Stag is the leader of all the animals.

===Heraldic===

[[File:Blason Raon aux bois.svg|thumb|upright|right|Arms of [[Raon-aux-Bois]], France]]
[[File:Coat of arms of Åland.svg|thumb|upright|left|Arms of [[Åland]]]]
Deer of various types appear frequently in European [[heraldry]]. In the British armory, the term "stag" is typically used to refer to antlered male red deer, while "buck" indicates an antlered male fallow deer. Stags and bucks appear in a number of [[Attitude (heraldry)|attitudes]], referred to as "lodged" when the deer is lying down, "trippant" when it has one leg raised, "courant" when it is running, "springing" when in the act of leaping, "statant" when it is standing with all hooves on the ground and looking ahead, and "at gaze" when otherwise statant but looking at the viewer. Stags' heads are also frequently used; these are typically portrayed without an attached neck and as facing the viewer, in which case they are termed "caboshed".<ref name="Davies">[[Arthur Fox-Davies]], [https://archive.org/details/completeguidetoh00foxduoft. ''A Complete Guide to Heraldry''], T.C. and E.C. Jack, London, 1909, 208–210,</ref>

Examples of deer in [[coats of arms]] can be found in the arms of [[Hertfordshire]], England, and its county town of [[Hertford]]; both are examples of [[canting arms]]. A deer appears on the arms of the [[Israel Postal Company|Israeli Postal Authority]]. Coats of arms featuring deer include those of [[Baden-Württemberg]], [[Dotternhausen]], [[Thierachern]], [[Friolzheim]], [[Bauen]], [[Albstadt]], and [[Dassel]] in Germany; of the [[Earls Bathurst]] in England;<ref>{{Cite book|last=Courthope|first=William|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=v6u5S-H7BCUC&dq=rendalen&pg=PR15|title=Debrett's Complete Peerage of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland: With Additions to the Present Time and a New Set of Coats of Arms from Drawings by Harvey|date=1839|publisher=J. G. & F. Rivington|language=en}}</ref> of [[Balakhna]],<ref>{{cite web |url=https://geraldika.ru/s/10615 |title=ГЕРБ ГОРОДА БАЛАХНА |author=<!--Not stated--> |date= |website=ГЕРБОВНИК.РУ |publisher= |access-date=5 November 2023 |quote=}}</ref> [[Gusev, Kaliningrad Oblast|Gusev]],<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.admgusev.ru/city/cityinfo/symbols.php |title=Символика |author=<!--Not stated--> |date= |website=АДМИНИСТРАЦИЯ МУНИЦИПАЛЬНОГО ОБРАЗОВАНИЯ "ГУСЕВСКИЙ ГОРОДСКОЙ ОКРУГ" |publisher= |access-date= 5 November 2023 |quote=}}</ref> [[Nizhny Novgorod]],<ref>{{cite web |url=https://xn--b1acdfjbh2acclca1a.xn--p1ai/upload/getODA/depdoc51513_0.html |title=Положение о символах города Нижнего Новгорода |author=<!--Not stated--> |date= 20 December 2006|website=Городская Дума Нижнего Новгорода  |publisher= |access-date=5 November 2023 |quote=}}</ref> [[Odintsovo]],<ref>{{cite web |url=https://geraldika.ru/s/2419 |title=ГЕРБ ОДИНЦОВСКОГО ГОРОДСКОГО ОКРУГА |author=<!--Not stated--> |date= |website=ГЕРБОВНИК.РУ |publisher= |access-date=5 November 2023 |quote=}}</ref> [[Slavsk]]<ref>{{cite web |url=https://geraldika.ru/s/9488 |title=ГЕРБ СЛАВСКОГО МУНИЦИПАЛЬНОГО ОКРУГА |author=<!--Not stated--> |date= |website=ГЕРБОВНИК.РУ |publisher= |access-date=5 November 2023 |quote=}}</ref> and [[Yamalo-Nenets Autonomous Okrug|Yamalo-Nenets]]<ref>{{cite web |url=https://geraldika.ru/s/1887 |title=ГЕРБ ЯМАЛО-НЕНЕЦКОГО АВТОНОМНОГО ОКРУГА |author=<!--Not stated--> |date= |website=ГЕРБОВНИК.РУ |publisher= |access-date=5 November 2023 |quote=}}</ref> in Russia; of [[Åland]],<ref>{{cite web |title=CoA of Åland |url=https://heraldica.narc.fi/aineisto.html?id=590&lang=en |website=EUROPEANA HERALDICA |publisher=National Archives of Finland |access-date=5 November 2023}}</ref> Finland; of [[Gjemnes]],<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.gjemnes.kommune.no/ |title=Velkommen til Gjemnes kommune |author=<!--Not stated--> |date= |website=Gjemnes kommune |publisher= |access-date= 5 November 2023|quote=}}</ref> [[Hitra]],<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.hitra.kommune.no/ |title=Hitra kommune |author=<!--Not stated--> |date= |website=Hitra kommune |publisher= |access-date=6 November 2023 |quote=}}</ref> [[Hjartdal]]<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.hjartdal.kommune.no/ |title=Hjartdal kommune |author=<!--Not stated--> |date= |website=Hjartdal kommune |publisher= |access-date=6 November 2023 |quote=}}</ref> and [[Rendalen]]<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.rendalen.kommune.no/|title=Rendalen kommune |author=<!--Not stated--> |date= |website=Rendalen kommune |publisher= |access-date=6 November 2023 |quote=}}</ref> in Norway; of [[Jelenia Góra]],<ref>{{cite web |url=https://patchion.com/en/poland/1821-jelenia-gora-deer-mountain-coat-of-arms.html |title=Jelenia Gora - Deer Mountain Coat of Arms |author=<!--Not stated--> |date= |website=Patchion |publisher= |access-date=6 November 2023 |quote=}}</ref> Poland; of [[Umeå]],<ref name="Wærn 1992">Clara Nevéus och Bror Jacques de Wærn: ''Ny svensk vapenbok'', Streiffert, Stockholm 1992, {{ISBN|91-7886-092-X}}, p.150</ref> Sweden; of [[Queensland]],<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.qld.gov.au/about/how-government-works/flags-emblems-icons/coat-of-arms |title=Coat of Arms |author=<!--Not stated--> |date=5 July 2017 |website= |publisher=Queensland Government |access-date=6 November 2023 |quote=}}</ref> Australia; of [[Cervera]],<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cervera.cat/ |title=Paeria de Cervera |author=<!--Not stated--> |date= |website=Paeria de Cervera |publisher= |access-date=6 November 2023  |quote=}}</ref> Catalonia; of [[Selonia]]<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.president.lv/lv/jaunums/andris-teikmanis-jaunizveidotais-gerbonis-atveido-selijas-unikalitati-identitati-un-vesturi |title=Andris Teikmanis: jaunizveidotais ģerbonis atveido Sēlijas unikalitāti, identitāti un vēsturi |author=<!--Not stated--> |date=31 May 2022 |website=Latvijas Valsts Prezidents |publisher= |access-date= 6 November 2023|quote=}}</ref> and [[Semigallia]]<ref>{{cite web |url=https://likumi.lv/ta/id/246381-vidzemes-latgales-kurzemes-un-zemgales-gerbonu-likums |title=Latviešu vēsturisko zemju ģerboņu likums |author=<!--Not stated--> |date= 18 October 2023|website=Likumi |publisher= |access-date= 6 November 2023|quote=}}</ref> in Latvia; and of [[Coat of arms of Chile|Chile]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://minrel.gob.cl/minrel/ministerio/ceremonial-y-protocolo/emblemas-nacionales |title=Emblemas nacionales |author=<!--Not stated--> |date= |website=Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores |publisher= Gobierno de Chile |access-date= 6 November 2023|quote=}}</ref>

Other types of deer used in heraldry include the hind, portrayed much like the stag or buck but without antlers, as well as the reindeer and winged stags. Winged stags are used as [[supporter]]s in the arms of the [[de Carteret family]]. The sea-stag, having the antlers, head, forelegs and upper body of a stag and the tail of a [[mermaid]], is often found in German heraldry.<ref name="Davies"/>

===Economic===

[[File:Warring States Bronze Deer 1b.jpg|thumb|Bronze deer, [[Warring States period]]]]
Deer have long had economic significance to humans. Deer meat, known as [[venison]], is highly nutritious.<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Kralj |first1=Richard Andrew |url=https://extension.psu.edu/venison-is-it-for-you|title=Venison, Is It For You?|website=Penn State Extension|date=September 2014|language=en|access-date=20 January 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Blythman |first1=Joanna |last2=Sykes |first2=Rosie |title=Why venison is good for you {{!}} Joanna Blythman and Rosie Sykes |url=https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2013/sep/28/venison-deer-meat-health-heart-benefits |work=The Guardian |date=September 2013 |access-date=20 January 2020}}</ref> Due to the inherently wild nature and diet of deer, venison is most often obtained through deer hunting. In the United States, it is produced in small amounts compared to [[beef]], but still represents a significant trade. Deer hunting is a popular activity in the U.S. that can provide the hunter's family with high quality meat and generates revenue for states and the federal government from the sales of licenses, permits and tags. The 2006 survey by the [[United States Fish and Wildlife Service|U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service]] estimates that license sales generate approximately $700 million annually. This revenue generally goes to support conservation efforts in the states where the licenses are purchased. Overall, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service estimates that big game hunting for deer and elk generates approximately $11.8 billion annually in hunting-related travel, equipment and related expenditures.<ref name="Ref_d">{{cite web|url=http://library.fws.gov/pubs/nat_survey2006_final.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://library.fws.gov/pubs/nat_survey2006_final.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live |title=U.S. Department of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service, and U.S. Department of Commerce, U.S. Census Bureau. 2006 National Survey of Fishing, Hunting, and Wildlife-Associated Recreation |access-date=16 November 2012}}</ref> Conservation laws prevent the sale of unlicensed wild game meat, although it may be donated.

[[File:Mavrogheni trasura cerbi.jpg|left|thumb|[[Nicholas Mavrogenes]], [[Phanariotes|Phanariote]] [[List of rulers of Wallachia|Prince]] of [[Wallachia]], riding through [[Bucharest]] in a stag−drawn carriage. Late 1780s]]
Deer have often been bred in captivity as ornaments for parks, but only in the case of reindeer has thorough domestication succeeded.<ref name=ea/> By 2012, some 25,000 tons of red deer were raised on farms in North America. The [[Sami people|Sami]] of Scandinavia and the [[Kola Peninsula]] of Russia and other nomadic peoples of northern Asia use reindeer for food, clothing, and transport. Others are bred for hunting are selected based on the size of the antlers.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Laskow |first1=Sarah |title=Antler Farm |url=https://medium.com/re-form/antler-farm-dbd3ba1ec3f2 |website=[[Medium (service)]] |access-date=28 August 2014|date=27 August 2014 }}</ref> The major deer-producing countries are New Zealand, the market leader, with Ireland, Great Britain and Germany. The trade earns over $100 million annually for these countries.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Burden|first1=Dan|date=June 2012|title=Deer Venison Ranching Profile|url=http://www.agmrc.org/commodities-products/livestock/deer-venison-ranching-profile/|access-date=11 April 2016|publisher=Agricultural Marketing Resource Center|archive-date=20 April 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160420142405/http://www.agmrc.org/commodities-products/livestock/deer-venison-ranching-profile/|url-status=dead}}</ref>

Automobile collisions with deer can impose a significant cost on the economy. In the U.S., about 1.5&nbsp;million deer-vehicle collisions occur each year, according to the [[National Highway Traffic Safety Administration]]. Those accidents cause about 150 human deaths and $1.1&nbsp;billion in property damage annually.<ref name="Ref_c">{{cite news|url=http://www.cnn.com/2006/AUTOS/11/14/deer_crash/index.html |date=14 November 2006 |title=Worst states for auto-deer crashes |publisher=CNN.com |access-date=5 April 2009}}</ref> In Scotland, several roads including the [[A82 road|A82]], the [[A87 road|A87]] and the [[A835 road|A835]] have had significant enough problems with ''deer vehicle collisions'' (DVCs) that sets of vehicle activated automatic warning signs have been installed along these roads.<ref>{{cite journal|url=http://www.snh.gov.uk/docs/C301114.pdf|title=North West Area: Vehicle Activated Deer Warning Signs|publisher=[[Transport Scotland]]|id=07/NW/0805/046|date=April 2010|access-date=11 July 2013|journal=|archive-date=16 March 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140316083756/http://www.snh.gov.uk/docs/C301114.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref>

[[File:Roe deer fur skin (leather side).jpg|thumb|243x243px|Leather side of a [[roe deer]] hide]]
The skins make a peculiarly strong, soft leather, known as [[Buckskin (leather)|buckskin]]. There is nothing special about skins with the fur still on since the hair is brittle and soon falls off. The hooves and antlers are used for ornamental purposes, especially the antlers of the [[roe deer]], which are utilized for making umbrella handles, and for similar purposes; elk antlers is often employed in making knife handles. Among the [[Inuit]], the traditional ''[[ulu]]'' women's knife was made with an antler or ivory handle.<ref>{{cite web|title=Inuit Bering Sea Eskimo Walrus Ivory and Iron Semi-Lunar Knife 'Ulu' (1800 to 1900 Inuit)|url=https://www.finch-and-co.co.uk/antiquities/d/inuit-bering-sea-eskimo-walrus-ivory-and-iron-semi-lunar-knife-ulu/51906|access-date=2 October 2018|archive-date=2 October 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181002180601/http://www.finch-and-co.co.uk/antiquities/d/inuit-bering-sea-eskimo-walrus-ivory-and-iron-semi-lunar-knife-ulu/51906|url-status=dead}}</ref> In China, a [[traditional chinese medicine]] is made from stag antler, and the antlers of certain species are eaten when "in the velvet".<ref name=ea>{{Cite Americana|wstitle=Deer}}</ref> Antlers can also be boiled down to release the protein gelatin, which is used as a topical treatment for skin irritation and is also used in cooking.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kawtikwar|first=Pravin|date=2010|title=Deer antlers- Traditional use and future perspectives|journal=Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledge|volume=9|pages=245–251}}</ref>

Since the early 20th century, deer have become commonly thought of as pests in New Zealand due to a lack of predators on the island causing population numbers to increase and begin encroaching on more populated areas. They compete with livestock for resources, as well as cause excess erosion and wreak havoc on wild plant species and agriculture alike. They can also have an effect on the conservation efforts of other plant and animal species, as they can critically offset the balance within an environment by drastically depleting diversity within forests.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Nugent|first1=G.|last2=Fraser|first2=K. W.|date=1993-10-01|title=Pests or valued resources? Conflicts in management of deer|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/03014223.1993.10420359|journal=New Zealand Journal of Zoology|volume=20|issue=4|pages=361–366|doi=10.1080/03014223.1993.10420359|issn=0301-4223}}</ref>

==See also==

{{Portal|Animals|Mammals}}

* [[Australian Deer Association]]
* [[Deer forest]]
* [[Deer management]]
* [[Largest cervids]]
* [[Reindeer hunting in Greenland]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==Further reading==

* ''Deerland: America's Hunt for Ecological Balance and the Essence of Wildness'' by Al Cambronne, Lyons Press (2013), {{ISBN|978-0-7627-8027-3}}

==External links==

{{Wikispecies|Cervidae}}
{{Wiktionary}}
{{Commons|Cervidae}}
* [http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Cervidae.html Family Cervidae] at the [[Animal Diversity Web]]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20130504233808/http://www.dnr.state.md.us/wildlife/Hunt_Trap/deer/disease/cwdinformation.asp Chronic Wasting Disease Information]
* {{Cite EB1911 |wstitle= Deer |volume= 7 |last= Lydekker |first= Richard  |author-link= Richard Lydekker |pages=922-924 |short=1}}
*[https://worldofdeer.com/museum/ World of Deer Museum] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201022142701/https://worldofdeer.com/museum/ |date=22 October 2020 }}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20090819192649/http://digital.library.okstate.edu/encyclopedia/entries/D/DE004.html Encyclopedia of Oklahoma History and Culture – Deer]
* {{Cite NSRW|wstitle=Deer|short=x}}

{{Artiodactyla|R.1}}
{{Heraldic creatures}}

{{Taxonbar|from=Q23390}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Articles containing video clips]]
[[Category:Deer| ]]
[[Category:Extant Rupelian first appearances]]
[[Category:Livestock]]
[[Category:Mammal common names]]
[[Category:Mammal families]]
[[Category:Taxa named by Georg August Goldfuss]]
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