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{{Английская Википедия/Панель перехода}}
{{short description|Ethnoreligious group of Russian origins}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=February 2022}}
{{Use Canadian English|date=May 2022}}
{{Infobox religious group
| group         = Doukhobors<br /><small></small>
| flag          =
| flag_caption  =
| image         = File:Vrouwen der Doukhobortzis.jpg
| image_caption = Doukhobour women, 1887
| population    =
| founder       = Siluan Kolesnikov (17??–1775)
| regions       =
| tablehdr =
| region1       = [[Canada]] ([[British Columbia]], etc.)
| pop1          = 40,000
| ref1          = <ref name="Magocsi" />
| region2       = [[Southern Russia]]
| pop2          = 30,000
| ref2          =
| religions     = [[Christianity]] ([[Old Believers]])
| scriptures    = ''Book of Life'' <small>(a hymnal)</small>
| languages     = [[South Russian dialects|South Russian]]{{•}}[[English language|English]]
| related-c     = [[Russians]]
| website       = {{url|doukhobor.org}}<br />
{{url|uscc-doukhobors.org}}}}

The '''Doukhobors''' or '''Dukhobors''' ({{lang-ru|духоборы, духоборцы|dukhobory, dukhobortsy}}; {{lit|Spirit-warriors, Spirit-wrestlers}})<ref>{{cite web |title=Lib.ru/Классика: Новицкий О. М.. Духоборцы |url=http://az.lib.ru/d/duhobory/text_0050.shtml |access-date=February 11, 2021 |website=az.lib.ru |archive-date=November 5, 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111105125532/http://az.lib.ru/d/duhobory/text_0050.shtml |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Peel 4372: Bonch-Bruevich, Vladimir Dmitrievich, Dukhobortsy v Kanadskikh preriiakh (1918) |url=http://peel.library.ualberta.ca/bibliography/4372.html |access-date=February 11, 2021 |website=peel.library.ualberta.ca |archive-date=January 16, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220116001651/http://peel.library.ualberta.ca/bibliography/4372.html |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Dukhobor {{!}} Russian religious sect |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Dukhobor |access-date=February 11, 2021 |website=[[Encyclopedia Britannica]] |language=en |archive-date=October 22, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201022043117/https://www.britannica.com/topic/Dukhobor |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=":3" /> are a [[Spiritual Christianity|Spiritual Christian]] [[ethnoreligious group]] of [[Russians|Russian]] origin. They are known for their [[pacifism]] and tradition of [[oral history]], hymn-singing, and [[Verse (poetry)|verse]]. They reject the Russian Orthodox priesthood and associated rituals, believing that personal revelation is more important than the Bible. Facing persecution by the Russian government for their nonorthodox beliefs, many migrated to Canada between 1899 and 1938, where most currently reside.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Sainsbury |first=Brendan |title=Canada's little-known Russian sect |url=https://www.bbc.com/travel/article/20210623-canadas-little-known-russian-sect |access-date=2023-01-04 |website=www.bbc.com |language=en}}</ref>

Doukhobors have been variously portrayed as "[[Folk religion|folk-Protestants]]", Spiritual Christians, [[sectarians]], and [[Heresy|heretics]]. Among their core beliefs is the rejection of [[Materialism and Christianity|materialism]]. They also reject the [[Russian Orthodox Church|Russian Orthodox priesthood]], the [[Iconoclasm|use of icons]], and all associated church rituals. Doukhobors believe the [[Bible]] alone is not enough to reach divine revelation<ref name="pinkerton">{{citation |last=Pinkerton |first=Robert |title=Russia: or, Miscellaneous Observations on the Past and Present State of that Country and its Inhabitants |url=http://www.doukhobor.org/Pinkerton.html |year=1833 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181231200846/http://www.doukhobor.org/Pinkerton.html |access-date=January 23, 2020 |archive-date=December 31, 2018 |url-status=live}}</ref> and that doctrinal conflicts can interfere with their faith. Biblical teachings are evident in some published Doukhobor [[psalm]]s, hymns, and beliefs. Since arriving in Canada, parts of the [[Old Testament]], but more profoundly the [[New Testament]], were at the core of most Doukhobor beliefs. There continue to be spiritually progressive thinkers who, through introspection and debate, search for divine revelation to improve the faith.

The Doukhobors have a history dating back to at least 1701 (though some scholars suspect the group has earlier origins).<ref>{{citation |last=Sussex |first=R. |title=The Slavonic Languages |year=1993 |editor1-last=Comrie |editor1-first=B. |contribution=Slavonic Languages in Emigration |publisher=[[Routledge]] |editor2-last=Corbett |editor2-first=G.G.}}.</ref> Doukhobors traditionally lived in their own villages and practiced [[Communal work|communal living]]. The name ''Doukhobors'', meaning "Spirit-wrestlers", derives from a [[Pejorative|slur]] made by the Russian Orthodox Church that was subsequently embraced by the group.<ref>{{Cite web |website=[[The Canadian Encyclopedia]] |title=Doukhobors |url=https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/doukhobors |date=February 26, 2019  |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230610111820/https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/doukhobors |archive-date=June 10, 2023 |url-status=live |quote=During the late 18th century, the group was persecuted by the tsars and the Russian Orthodox Church for heresy and pacifism. In 1785, an Orthodox archbishop called them Doukhobors, or "Spirit-Wrestlers." It was intended to mean "Wrestlers against the Holy Spirit," but the group adopted it, interpreting it as "Wrestlers for and with the Spirit."}}</ref>  

Before 1886, the Doukhobors had a series of leaders. The origin of the Doukhobors is uncertain; they first appear in first written records from 1701. 

The Doukhobors traditionally ate bread and ''[[borsch]]''.<ref>{{cite web|title=Civilization.ca - Doukhobors - Food for the Body |url=https://www.historymuseum.ca/cmc/exhibitions/cultur/doukhobors/dou03eng.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181204000052/https://www.historymuseum.ca/cmc/exhibitions/cultur/doukhobors/dou03eng.html |archive-date=December 4, 2018 |access-date=May 2, 2020 |website=www.historymuseum.ca}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Doukhobor Cuisine - Pyrahi |url=http://www.usccdoukhobors.org/cuisine/pyrahi.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200331212036/http://www.usccdoukhobors.org/cuisine/pyrahi.htm |archive-date=March 31, 2020 |access-date=May 2, 2020 |website=www.usccdoukhobors.org}}</ref> Some of their food-related religious symbols are bread, salt, and water.<ref>{{cite web|title=Bread Salt and Water |url=http://usccdoukhobors.org/culture/breadsalt.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191115075854/http://usccdoukhobors.org/culture/breadsalt.htm |archive-date=November 15, 2019 |access-date=May 2, 2020 |website=usccdoukhobors.org}}</ref>

== History ==
In the 17th-and-18th-century [[Russian Empire]], the first recorded Doukhobors concluded clergy and formal rituals are unnecessary, believing in God's presence in every human being. They rejected the secular government, the [[Russian Orthodox]] priests, icons, all church rituals, and the belief the Bible is a supreme source of divine revelation.<ref name=pinkerton /> The Doukhobors believed in the [[divinity of Jesus]]; their practices, emphasis on individual interpretation, and opposition to the government and church provoked antagonism from the government and the established Russian [[Eastern Orthodox Church]]. In 1734, the Russian government issued an edict against ''ikonobortsy'' (those who reject icons), condemning them as [[iconoclasts (religion)|iconoclasts]].<ref name="campos">{{cite book|last=Campos |first=Élisabeth |title=Les Doukhobors, "Lutteurs de l'esprit" |trans-title=The Doukhobors, "Spirit Fighters" |url=http://www.erta-tcrg.org/groupes/doukhoborshisto.htm |year=2005 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180911002513/http://www.erta-tcrg.org/groupes/doukhoborshisto.htm |publisher=ERTA TCRG |language=fr |access-date=January 12, 2008 |archive-date=September 11, 2018 }}</ref>

The first-known Doukhobor leader was Siluan (Silvan) Kolesnikov ({{lang-ru | Силуан Колесников}}), who was active from 1755 to 1775. Kolesnikov lived in the village Nikolskoye, [[Yekaterinoslav Governorate]], in modern-day south-central [[Ukraine]].<ref name = campos/> Kolesnikov was familiar with the works of Western [[Mysticism|mystics]] such as [[Karl von Eckartshausen]] and [[Louis Claude de Saint-Martin]].<ref>{{citation |contribution-url=http://www.vehi.net/brokgauz/all/038/38131.shtml |contribution=Духоборцы | trans-title = Doukhobortsy |title=[[Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary]] |language=ru |access-date=January 12, 2008 |archive-date=April 2, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080402232322/http://www.vehi.net/brokgauz/all/038/38131.shtml |url-status=live}}</ref>

The early Doukhobors called themselves "God's People" or "Christians." Their modern name, first in the form ''Doukhobortsy'' ({{lang-ru|link=no|духоборцы}}, ''dukhobortsy'' ("Spirit wrestlers"){{sp}}) is thought to have been first used in 1785 or 1786 by [[Ambrosius]] the Archbishop of [[Yekaterinoslav]]<ref name=campos/><ref>{{cite journal|last=Gentes |first=Andrew Armand |date=1999 |title=Larry Ewashen and Koozma J. Tarasoff, "In Search of Utopia: The Doukhobors" |url=https://www.proquest.com/openview/c7eb191e4875305c64a83aa5b617bcd4/1 |journal=[[Canadian Slavonic Papers]] |volume=41 |issue=3 |page=458 |via=ProQuest |access-date=January 15, 2022|archive-date=January 16, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220116001639/https://www.proquest.com/openview/c7eb191e4875305c64a83aa5b617bcd4/1 |url-status=live}}</ref> or his predecessor Nikifor ([[Nikephoros Theotokis]]).<ref name=inikova>{{citation |url=http://www.doukhobor.org/Spiritual-Origins.html |title=Spiritual Origins and the Beginnings of Doukhobor History |first=Svetlana A. |last=Inikova |publisher=Doukhobor Centenary Conference, [[University of Ottawa]] |date=October 22–24, 1999 |access-date=July 28, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160318013901/http://www.doukhobor.org/Spiritual-Origins.html |archive-date=March 18, 2016 |url-status=live}}; Doukhobor Genealogy Website (www.doukhobor.org).</ref>{{Refn | group = "lower-alpha" | Nikifor was styled "Archbishop of [[Sloviansk|Slavyansk]] and [[Kherson]]" (Славенский и Херсонский), while his successor, who was also called Ambrosius, was "Archbishop of Yekaterinoslav and [[Kherson]]" because the [[eparchy|diocese]] was renamed in 1786.<ref>{{citation |url=http://www.hierarchy.religare.ru/h-orthod-russian-ekater.html |language=ru |place=[[Russia|RU]] |title=Hierarchy |publisher=Religare |contribution=H Orthodox Russian Ekater |access-date=January 12, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090201090536/http://hierarchy.religare.ru/h-orthod-russian-ekater.html |archive-date=February 1, 2009 |url-status=live}}</ref> The seat of the archbishops was in [[Poltava]].}} The archbishop's intent was to mock the Doukhobors as heretics fighting against the [[Holy Spirit (Christianity)|Holy Spirit]] ({{lang-ru|link=no|Святой Дух}}, ''Svyatoy Dukh'') but around the beginning of the 19th century, according to SA Inikova,<ref name="inikova" /> the dissenters adopted the name "Doukhobors" usually in a shorter form ''Doukhobory'' ({{lang-ru|link=no|духоборы}}, ''dukhobory''), implying they are fighting alongside rather than against the Holy Spirit.<ref name="campos" /><ref name=":0">{{cite journal |last=Peretitskaya |first=Victoria I. |date=April 2014 |title=RUSSIAN DOUKHOBORS AT THE PEACE CONFERENCE IN VANCOUVER, CANADA, 1958 |url=https://art-texts.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/10/2014_4_web-1.pdf |journal=Art and Literature Scientific and Analytical Journal Texts |pages=111–119 |access-date=January 15, 2022 |archive-date=January 16, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220116001630/https://art-texts.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/10/2014_4_web-1.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref> The first known use of the spelling ''Doukhobor'' is in a 1799 government edict exiling 90 of the group to Finland;<ref name="campos" /> presumably the [[Vyborg]] area, which was part of the Russian Empire at the time, for producing anti-war propaganda.<ref name=":1">{{cite book|last1=Woodcock |first1=George |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SqwMBAAAQBAJ |title=The Doukhobors |last2=Avakumovic |first2=Ivan |date=January 1, 1977 |publisher=[[McGill-Queen's University Press]] |isbn=978-0-7735-9554-5 |pages=36–356 |language=en |access-date=January 15, 2022 |archive-date=January 16, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220116001815/https://books.google.ca/books?hl=en&lr=&id=SqwMBAAAQBAJ |url-status=live}}</ref>

The early Doukhobors were pacifists who rejected military institutions and war and were thus oppressed in [[Imperial Russia]]. Both the [[tsar]]ist state and church authorities were involved in the persecution and deprivation of the dissidents' normal freedoms.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Kalmakoff |first=Jonathan |title=The Hyas Doukhobour Settlement |url=https://doukhobor.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/01/Hyas.pdf |journal=[[Saskatchewan History]] |volume=59 |issue=2 |page=1 |access-date=January 15, 2022 |archive-date=January 16, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220116001629/https://doukhobor.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/01/Hyas.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref>

In 1802, Tsar [[Alexander I of Russia|Alexander I]] encouraged the resettlement of religious minorities to the "Milky Waters" (''Molochnye Vody'') region around the [[Molochna River|Molochnaya River]] around [[Melitopol]] in modern-day southern [[Ukraine]]. This was motivated by the desire to quickly populate the rich [[steppe]] lands on the north shore of the [[Black Sea|Black]] and [[Azov Sea]]s, and to prevent the "heretics" from contaminating the population of the heartland with their ideas. Many Doukhobors, as well as [[Molotschna|Mennonites from Prussia]], accepted the Emperor's offer and travelled to the Molochnaya from other provinces of the Empire over the next 20 years.<ref name=":1" />

=== Transcaucasian exile ===
[[File:Gorelowka 1893.gif|thumb|The village of Gorelovka in southern Georgia, the "capital" of the Doukhobors of Transcaucasia (1893)]]
[[File:Sirotski dom.jpg|thumb|The Doukhobor worship place in Georgia]]

When [[Nicholas I of Russia|Nicholas I]] succeeded Alexander as Tsar, on February 6, 1826, he issued a decree intending to force the [[Cultural assimilation|assimilation]] of the Doukhobors through military conscription, prohibiting their meetings, and encouraging conversions to the established church.<ref name = campos /><ref name=":0"/> On October 20, 1830, another decree followed, specifying all able-bodied members of dissenting religious groups engaged in propaganda against the established church should be conscripted and sent to the Russian army in the [[Caucasus]] while those not capable of military service, and their women and children, should be resettled in Russia's recently acquired [[Transcaucasia]]n provinces. With other dissenters, around 5,000 Doukhobors were resettled in [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]] between 1841 and 1845. [[Akhalkalaki]] ''[[uyezd]]'' (district) in the [[Tiflis Governorate]] was chosen as the main place of their settlement.<ref name=":1"/> Doukhobor villages with Russian names appeared there; Gorelovka, Rodionovka, Yefremovka, Orlovka, Spasskoye (Dubovka), Troitskoye, and [[Ninotsminda|Bogdanovka]]. Later, other groups of Doukhobors were resettled by the government or migrated to Transcaucasia of their own accord. They also settled in neighbouring areas, including the [[Marneuli|Borchaly]] uyezd of Tiflis Governorate and the [[Gədəbəy|Kedabek]] uyezd of [[Elisabethpol Governorate]].<ref name=":2">{{cite journal|last=Kalmakoff |first=Jonathan |date=2019 |title=Ulichnye Familii among Doukhobors of the Caucasus and Canada |url=https://onomastica.ijp.pan.pl/index.php/ONOM/article/view/72 |journal=Onomastica |language=pl |volume=63 |pages=67–114 |doi=10.17651/ONOMAST.63.5 |s2cid=213418831 |issn=2658-2783 |access-date=January 15, 2022 |archive-date=November 30, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201130192855/https://onomastica.ijp.pan.pl/index.php/ONOM/article/view/72 |url-status=live|doi-access=free }}</ref>

In 1844, Doukhobors who were being exiled from their home near [[Melitopol]] to the village of Bogdanovka carved the [[Doukhobor Memorial Stone]], which is now held in the collection of the [[Melitopol Museum of Local History]].<ref>{{cite web |date=2020-01-25 |title=Doukhobor Memorial Stone from the Village of Bogdanovka |url=https://doukhobor.org/doukhobor-memorial-stone-from-the-village-of-bogdanovka/ |access-date=2022-03-10 |website=Doukhobor Heritage |language=en-CA}}</ref>

After Russia's conquest of [[Kars]] and the [[Treaty of San Stefano]] of 1878, some Doukhobors from Tiflis and Elisabethpol Governorates moved to the Zarushat and Shuragel uyezds of the newly created [[Kars Oblast]] to the north-east of [[Kars]] in the modern-day [[Republic of Turkey]].<ref>{{cite journal|last=Breyfogle |first=Nicholas B. |date=1995 |title=Building Doukhoboriia: religious culture, social identity and Russian colonization in Transcaucasia, 1845-1895 |url=https://www.proquest.com/docview/1293167920 |journal=Canadian Ethnic Studies |volume=27 |issue=3 |page=46 |id={{ProQuest|1293167920}} |via=[[ProQuest]]}}</ref> The leader of the main group of Doukhobors, who arrived in Transcaucasia from Ukraine in 1841, was Illarion Kalmykov ({{lang-ru |Илларион Калмыков}}). He died in the same year and was succeeded as the community leader by his son Peter Kalmykov (?–1864). After Peter Kalmykov's death in 1864, his widow Lukerya Vasilyevna Gubanova (? – December 15, 1886; ({{lang-ru|link=no|Лукерья Васильевна Губанова}}); also known as Kalmykova) took his leadership position.<ref name="shubin">{{cite book|first=Daniel H. |last=Shubin |title=A History of Russian Christianity |volume=III |pages=141–48 |publisher=Algora |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-87586-427-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=W7h-RhKG2Q4C |access-date=September 21, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140707035347/http://books.google.com/books?id=W7h-RhKG2Q4C |archive-date=July 7, 2014 |url-status=live |via=[[Google Books]]}}</ref>

The Kalmykov dynasty lived in the village of Gorelovka, a Doukhobor community in Georgia.<ref name="kalmakoff-georgia">{{cite web |last=Kalmakoff |first=Jonathan J. |title=Doukhobor Historical Maps: Doukhobors Settlements in the Georgian Republic |url=http://www.doukhobor.org/Maps.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160319040140/http://www.doukhobor.org/Maps.html |website=Doukhobor Genealogy |access-date=July 28, 2016 |archive-date=March 19, 2016 |url-status=live}}.</ref><ref name=":2" /> Lukerya was respected by the provincial authorities, who had to cooperate with the Doukhobors. At the time of her death in 1886, there were around 20,000 Doukhobors in Transcaucasia. By that time, the region's Doukhobors had become [[vegetarian]] and were aware of [[Leo Tolstoy]]'s philosophy, which they found quite similar to their own traditional teachings.<ref name=shubin />

=== Religious revival and crises ===
The death of Lukerya, who had no children, was followed by a leadership crisis that divided the Dukhobortsy in the Caucasus into two major groups, which disputed their next leader. Lukerya wanted leadership to pass to her assistant [[Peter Vasilevich Verigin]]. Although most of the community—"the Large Party" {{lang-ru |Большая сторона|Bolshaya Storona}}—accepted him as the leader, a minority faction known as "the Small Party" (Малая сторона ''Malaya Storona'') rejected Verigin, and sided with Lukerya's brother Michael Gubanov and the village elder Aleksei Zubkov.<ref name = shubin /><ref name=lohm>{{cite web|first=Hedwig |last=Lohm |title=Dukhobors in Georgia: A Study of the Issue of Land Ownership and Inter-Ethnic Relations in Ninotsminda rayon (Samtskhe-Javakheti) |date=November 2006 |url=http://www.ecmi.de/download/working_paper_35_en.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100602192825/http://www.ecmi.de/download/working_paper_35_en.pdf |archive-date=June 2, 2010}}</ref><ref name=":0"/>

[[File:Douchobor's village Slavyanka.jpg|thumb|The Doukhobor village in Slavyanka Azerbaijan 2018]]

While the Large Party was a majority, the Small Party had the support of the older members of the community and the local authorities. On January 26, 1887, at a community service at which the new leader was to be acclaimed, police arrived and arrested Verigin. He, along with some of his associates, was sent into internal exile in [[Siberia]]. Large Party Doukhobors continued to consider Verigin their spiritual leader and to communicate with him, by mail and via delegates who travelled to see him in [[Salekhard|Obdorsk]].<ref name="shubin" /><ref name="lohm" /><ref>{{cite journal|last=McCormick |first=P.L. |date=1978 |title=The Doukhobors in 1904 |url=http://parkscanadahistory.com/publications/sk/veregin/sh-v31n1-1978.pdf |journal=[[Saskatchewan History]] |volume=31 |issue=1 |pages=12–19 |access-date=January 15, 2022 |archive-date=October 29, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201029052545/http://parkscanadahistory.com/publications/sk/veregin/sh-v31n1-1978.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref> An isolated population of exiled Doukhobors, a third "party", was about {{Convert|5000|miles|km|abbr=out}} east in [[Amur Oblast]].

At the same time, the Russian government applied greater pressure to enforce the Doukhobors' compliance with its laws and regulations. The Doukhobors had resisted registering marriages and births, contributing grain to state emergency funds, and swearing oaths of allegiance. In 1887, Russia extended universal military conscription, which applied to the rest of the empire, to the Transcaucasian provinces. While the Small Party cooperated with the state, the Large Party, reacting to the arrest of their leaders and inspired by their letters from exile,<ref name=pozdnyakov>{{cite book|first=Vasily Nikolaevich (В. Поздняков) |last=Pozdnyakov |trans-title=The Truth about the Doukhobors in Transcaucasia and Siberia |script-title=ru:Правда о духоборах в Закавказье и в Сибири |year=1900s |publisher=[[Vladimir Chertkov|VG and AK Chertkov]] |publication-date=1914 |language=ru}}, quoted in {{cite book|first=O.A. (ОА Голиненко) |last=Golinenko |url=http://next.feb-web.ru/feb/tolstoy/critics/nta/nta-194-.htm |trans-title=Leo Tolstoy's questions to a Doukhobor |script-title=ru:Вопросы Л.Н. Толстого Духобору |language=ru |access-date=January 15, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080409205008/http://next.feb-web.ru/feb/tolstoy/critics/nta/nta-194-.htm |archive-date=April 9, 2008 |url-status=live}}</ref> felt strengthened in their desire to abide by the righteousness of their faith. Under instructions from Verigin, the Large Party stopped using tobacco and alcohol, divided their property equally among the members of the community, and resolved to adhere to the practice of pacifism and non-violence. They refused to swear the [[oath of allegiance]] required in 1894 by the newly ascended Tsar [[Nicholas II of Russia|Nicholas II]].<ref name=campos/><ref name=lohm />

Under further instructions from Verigin, about 7,000 of the most zealous Doukhobors—about one-third of all Doukhobors—of the three Governorates of Transcaucasia destroyed their weapons and refused to serve in the military. As the Doukhobors gathered to burn their guns on the night of June 28/29 (July 10/11, [[Gregorian calendar]]) 1895, while singing psalms and spiritual songs, government [[Cossacks]] arrested and beat them. Shortly after, the government billeted Cossacks in many of the Large Party's villages; around 4,000 Doukhobors were forced to disperse to villages in other parts of Georgia. Many died of starvation and exposure.<ref name=lohm/><ref>{{cite book|last=Tarasoff |first=Koozma J.|url=http://www.nonkilling.org/pdf/nkbalkans.pdf |title=Doukhobor Nonkilling Legacy |publisher=Center for Global Nonkilling |year=2015 |page=187 |language=en |access-date=January 15, 2022 |archive-date=March 24, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160324134947/http://www.nonkilling.org/pdf/nkbalkans.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Migration to Canada ===
<!-- The reason that this is citing Wikipedia is because it is a summary. -->

=== First emigrants ===
[[File:Batum.jpg|thumb|The port of [[Batumi]] as it was in 1881. Here the Doukhobors embarked on their transatlantic journey in 1898 and 1899<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.doukhobor.org/Shiplists.html |first=Jonathan J. |last=Kalmakoff |title=Index to Doukhobor Ship Passenger Lists |website=Doukhobor Genealogy Website (www.doukhobor.org) |access-date=July 28, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160225014904/http://www.doukhobor.org/Shiplists.html |archive-date=February 25, 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref>]]

The resistance of the Doukhobors gained international attention and the Russian Empire was criticized for its treatment of this religious minority. In 1897, the Russian government agreed to let the Doukhobors leave the country, subject to conditions:
* emigrants should never return;
* emigrants must emigrate at their own expense;
* community leaders currently in prison or exile in Siberia must serve the balance of their sentences before they could leave Russia.<ref name=campos/>

Emigrants initially attempted to settle in [[Cyprus]].  Cyprus was, at the time, recognized as a possession of the [[Ottoman Empire]], but in the wake of the [[Russo-Turkish War of 1877-1878|Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878)]], the Ottoman Empire had granted the [[United Kingdom]] the right to administer the island in exchange for support in its continuing conflict with the [[Russian Empire]].  This fact made the potential settlement of the Russian Doukhobors a politically-sensitive question among some in the British government, but after [[Religious Society of Friends|Quaker]] supporters both made assurances of the Doukhobors' political inoffensiveness and provided financial guarantees against their potential indigency, officials permitted over 1,000 Doukhobors to establish farming settlements in several locations on the island beginning in the second half of 1898.  However, the Cyprus experiment soon proved to be disastrous: beset by disease (made worse by insufficient food that met the Doukhobors' religious requirements) as well as internal disagreements over community organization, nearly ten percent of the colony died by early 1899.{{Citation needed|date=October 2022}}

Canada offered more land, transportation, and aid to resettle in the Saskatchewan area. Around 6,000 Doukhobors emigrated there in the first half of 1899, settling on land granted to them by the government in modern-day [[Manitoba]], [[Saskatchewan]], and [[Alberta]]. The Cyprus colony and others joined them, and around 7,500 Russian Doukhobor emigrants—about a third of their number in Russia—arrived in Canada by the end of the year.<ref name="ashworth">{{cite web|last=Ashworth |first=John |title=Doukhobortsy and Religious Persecution in Russia |url=https://doukhobor.org/the-dukhobortsy-and-religious-persecution-in-russia/ |year=1900 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160318013901/http://www.doukhobor.org/Spiritual-Origins.html |website=Doukhobor Genealogy Website (www.doukhobor.org) |access-date=July 28, 2016 |archive-date=March 18, 2016 |url-status=live}}.</ref> Several smaller groups joined the main body of emigrants in later years, coming directly from Transcaucasia and other places of exile.<ref name = lohm /> Among these latecomers were 110 leaders of the community who had to complete their sentences before being allowed to emigrate.<ref name = ashworth /> By 1930, about 8,780 Doukhobors had migrated from Russia to Canada.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Kalmakoff |first1=Jonathan |title=Researching Your Russian Doukhobor Roots |url=https://doukhobor.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/12/Researching-Russian-Doukhobor-Roots.pdf |website=Doukhobor Genealogy Website |access-date=April 6, 2017 |page=30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160318005651/http://www.doukhobor.org/Researching-Russian-Doukhobor-Roots.pdf |archive-date=March 18, 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref>

The [[Quakers]] and [[Tolstoyan movement]] covered most of the costs of passage for the emigrants; writer [[Leo Tolstoy]] arranged for the royalties from his novel ''[[Resurrection (Tolstoy novel)|Resurrection]]'', his story ''Father Sergei'', and some others to go to the emigration fund. Tolstoy also raised money from wealthy friends; his efforts provided about 30,000 [[ruble]]s, half of the emigration fund. The anarchist [[Peter Kropotkin]] and professor of political economy at the [[University of Toronto]] [[James Mavor]] also helped the emigrants.<ref name= adelman>{{cite journal|author-link=Jeremy Adelman |first=Jeremy |last=Adelman |url=http://www.doukhobor.org/Adelman.html |title=Early Doukhobor Experience on the Canadian Prairies |journal=[[Canadian Ethnic Studies]] |year=1990–1991 |volume=25 |number=4 |via=Doukhobor Genealogy Website (www.doukhobor.org) |access-date=July 28, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160318005924/http://www.doukhobor.org/Adelman.html |archive-date=March 18, 2016 |url-status=live}}.</ref>{{sfn|Thorsteinson|1917}}

The emigrants adapted to life in agricultural communes; they were mostly of peasant origin and had low regard for advanced education. {{efn|Not until 1918 did [[Peter Makaroff]] become the "first Doukhobor in the world to get an education, to receive a university degree, and to enter a profession".<ref name="BiographicalDictionary1985">{{cite book|title=Biographical Dictionary of Modern Peace Leaders |last=Josephson |first=Harold |publisher=[[Greenwood Publishing]] |year=1985 |isbn=0-313-22565-6 |location=Connecticut |pages=594–596}}</ref>}} Many worked as loggers, lumbermen, and carpenters. Eventually, many left the communal dormitories and became private farmers on the Canadian plains. Religious ''a cappella'' singing, pacifism, and passive resistance were markers of the sect. One subgroup occasionally demonstrated naked, typically as a protest against compulsory military service.<ref name="Makarova 2013">{{cite journal|first=Veronika |last=Makarova |title=Doukhobor 'freedom seeker' nudism: Exploring the sociocultural roots. |journal=Culture and Religion |volume=14 |number=2 |date=2013 |pages=131–145|doi=10.1080/14755610.2012.706228 |s2cid=145269278 }}</ref> Their policies made them controversial. The modern descendants of the first wave of Doukhobor emigrants continue to live in southeastern [[British Columbia]] communities such as [[Krestova]], and in southern [[Alberta]] and [[Saskatchewan]]. {{As of|1999}}, the estimated population of Doukhobor descent in North America was 40,000 in Canada and about 5,000 in the United States.<ref name="Magocsi">{{cite book|editor-last=Magocsi |editor-first=Paul Robert |date=1999 |title=Encyclopedia of Canada's Peoples |pages=422–434}}</ref>

=== Canadian prairies ===
[[File:Doukhobor Village of Vosnesenya - Thunder Hill Colony.jpg|thumb|Vosnesenia ('Ascension') village, NE of [[Arran, Saskatchewan]] (North Colony). A typical one-street village, modelled on those in the Old World.]]

In accordance with the ''[[Dominion Lands Act]]'' of 1872, for a nominal fee of {{CAD|10}}, the Canadian government would grant {{convert|160|acre|km2}} of land to any male homesteader who was able to establish a working farm on that land within three years. Single-family [[Homestead (buildings)|homesteads]] would not fit the Doukhobors' [[communitarian]] tradition but a "Hamlet Clause" within the Act had been adopted 15 years earlier to accommodate other communitarian groups such as [[Mennonites]]. The clause allowed beneficiaries of the Act to live in a hamlet within {{convert|3|mi|km}} from their land rather than on the land itself.<ref name= hardwick>{{cite book|first=Susan Wiley |last=Hardwick |title=Russian Refuge: Religion, Migration, and Settlement on the North American Pacific Rim |publisher=[[University of Chicago Press]] |year=1993 |isbn=0-226-31610-6 |chapter=The Doukhobors |pages=80– |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Qbcd8P0ZOcEC |access-date=September 21, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121114010716/http://books.google.com/books?id=Qbcd8P0ZOcEC |archive-date=November 14, 2012 |url-status=live |via=[[Google Books]]}}</ref> This allowed the Doukhobors to establish a communal lifestyle similar to that of the [[Hutterite]]s. Also, by passing Section 21 of the ''Dominion Military Act'' in late 1898, the Canadian Government exempted the Doukhobors from military service.<ref name=hardwick/>

The land for the Doukhobor immigrants, in total {{convert|773400|acre|km2}} within what was to soon become the Province of [[Saskatchewan]], came in three [[block settlement]] areas or "reserves", and an annex:<ref name=kalmakoff_sk>{{cite web |first=Jonathan J. |last=Kalmakoff |url=http://www.doukhobor.org/Maps.html |title=Doukhobor Historical Maps: Saskatchewan |website=Doukhobor Genealogy |access-date=July 28, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160319040140/http://www.doukhobor.org/Maps.html |archive-date=March 19, 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref>
* The '''North Colony''', also known as the "Thunder Hill Colony" or "Swan River Colony" in the [[Pelly, Saskatchewan|Pelly]] and [[Arran, Saskatchewan|Arran]] districts of Saskatchewan became home to 2,400 Doukhobors from [[Tiflis Governorate]], who established 20 villages on {{convert|69000|acre|km2}} of the land grant.
* The '''South Colony''', also known as the "Whitesand Colony" or "[[Yorkton]] Colony" in the [[Canora, Saskatchewan|Canora]], [[Veregin, Saskatchewan|Veregin]] and [[Kamsack, Saskatchewan|Kamsack]] districts of Saskatchewan. 3,500 Doukhobors from [[Tiflis Governorate]], [[Elisabethpol Governorate]], and [[Kars Oblast]] settled there in 30 villages on {{convert|215010|acre|km2}} of land grant.
* The '''Good Spirit Lake Annex''' in the [[Buchanan, Saskatchewan|Buchanan]] district of Saskatchewan received 1,000 Doukhobors from Elisabethpol Governorate and Kars Oblast, Russia, and settled there in eight villages on {{convert |168930|acre|km2}} of land grant. The annex was along the [[Good Spirit River]], which flows into [[Good Spirit Lake]] (previously known as Devil's Lake).
* The '''Saskatchewan Colony''', also known as the "[[Rosthern, Saskatchewan|Rosthern]] Colony",<ref name=hardwick/> "[[Prince Albert, Saskatchewan|Prince Albert]] Colony" and "[[Duck Lake, Saskatchewan|Duck Lake]] Colony" was located along [[North Saskatchewan River]] in the [[Langham, Saskatchewan|Langham]] and [[Blaine Lake, Saskatchewan|Blaine Lake]] districts of Saskatchewan, north-west of [[Saskatoon]]. 1,500 Doukhobors from Kars Oblast settled there in 13 villages on {{convert|324800|acre|km2}} of land grant.

North and South Colonies, and Good Spirit Lake Annex, were located around [[Yorkton, Saskatchewan|Yorkton]] near the modern-day border with Manitoba; the Saskatchewan (Rosthern) Colony was located north-west of Saskatoon, a significant distance from the other three reserves.{{cn|date=May 2022}}

In 1899, all four reserves formed part of the [[Northwest Territories]]: Saskatchewan (Rosthern) Colony in the territories' [[Districts of the Northwest Territories|provisional District]] of Saskatchewan. North Reserve straddled the boundary of Saskatchewan and [[Assiniboia]] districts, and the other reserves were entirely in Assiniboia. After the [[History of Saskatchewan|establishment of the Province of Saskatchewan]] in 1905, all reserves were located within that province.{{cn|date=May 2022}}

[[File:Doukhobor women pulling a plough - Thunder Hill Colony-Manitoba.jpg|thumb|Doukhobor women pulling a plow, Thunder Hill Colony, Manitoba]]

Verigin persuaded his followers to free their animals, and pull their wagons and plows themselves. On the lands granted to them in the prairies, the settlers established Russian-style villages, some of which received Russian names after settlers' home villages in Transcaucasia; for example Spasovka, Large and Small Gorelovka, and Slavianka; while others gained more abstract "spiritual" names not common in Russia, such as Uspeniye ([[Dormition of the Theotokos|Dormition]]), Terpeniye (Patience), Bogomdannoye (Given by God), and Osvobozhdeniye (Liberation).<ref name=kalmakoff_sk /> The settlers found Saskatchewan winters much harsher than those in Transcaucasia, and expressed disappointment the climate was not as suitable for growing fruits and vegetables. Women greatly outnumbered the men; many women worked on the farms tilling the land while many men took non-farm jobs, especially in railway construction.<ref name=hardwick/> The earliest arrivals came from three backgrounds, had varying commitments to communal life, and lacked leadership. Verigin arrived in December 1902, was recognized as the leader, and reimposed communalism and self-sufficiency. The railway arrived in 1904 and hopes of isolation from Canadian society ended.<ref>{{cite journal|first=P. L. |last=McCormick |title=The Doukhobors in 1904 |journal=Saskatchewan History |date=1978 |volume=31 |number=1 |pages=12–19}}</ref>{{sfn|Thorsteinson|1917|pp=24–30}}

==== Popular distrust ====
Canadians, politicians, and the media were deeply suspicious of the Doukhobors. Their communal lifestyle seemed suspicious, their refusal to send children to school was considered deeply troubling, while pacifism caused anger during the [[First World War]]. The oppression of the Russian Tsarist regime had entrenched its resulting pacifist beliefs into the Doukhobour tenets and they did not waver with the onset of either World War. Some Canadians who were willing to go to war did not respect a sect of people that were excused from military service. This difference in perspective produced much political prejudice towards the Doukhobours.  Tumultuous political posturing and years of polarized social disagreements eventually brought some Doukhobours to the point of protests aimed at maintaining their simple, non-materialistic, and autonomous communal living.  The Doukhobor faction known as [[Freedomites|Sons of Freedom]] conducted nude marches and carried out night-time arson attacks, which was considered unacceptable and offensive.<ref>{{cite journal|first1=John E. |last1=Lyons |title=Toil and a Peaceful Life: Peter V. Verigen and Doukhobor Education |journal=Communal Societies |date=1991 |volume=11 |pages=78–92}}</ref> Canadian magazines showed strong curiosity, giving special attention to women's bodies and clothing. Magazines and newspapers carried stories and photographs of Doukhobor women engaging in hard farm labour, doing "women's work", wearing the traditional ethnic dress, and in partial or total states of undress.<ref>{{cite journal|first1=Ashleigh |last1=Androsoff |title=A Larger Frame: 'Redressing' The Image Of Doukhobor-Canadian Women in the Twentieth Century |journal=Journal of the Canadian Historical Association |date=2007 |volume=18 |number=1 |pages=81–105|doi=10.7202/018255ar |doi-access=free }}</ref> Doukhobors received financial help from Quakers. [[Clifford Sifton]], the Minister of the Interior, wanted the Doukhobors in Canada; he arranged financial subsidies to allow them to migrate.{{sfn|Thorsteinson|1917|pp=19–23}}

==== Loss of land rights ====
{{Unreferenced|section|date=May 2022}}
Due to the community's aversion to private ownership of land, Verigin had the land registered in the name of the community. By 1906, the Canadian Government's new [[Minister of the Interior (Canada)|Minister of the Interior]] [[Frank Oliver (politician)|Frank Oliver]] started requiring the registration of land in the name of individual owners. Many Doukhobors refused to comply, resulting in 1907 in the reverting of more than a third ({{convert|258880|acre|km2}}) of Doukhobor lands back to the Crown. The loss of legal title to their land became a major grievance.

=== Schism ===
Ten years after the Russian conscription crisis, another political issue arose because the Doukhobors would have to become naturalized British citizens and swear an [[Oath of Allegiance (Canada)|Oath of Allegiance]] to the British Crown—something that had always been against their principles.<ref name=bc1912>{{citation|publisher=SFU |place=CA |url=http://www.lib.sfu.ca/cgi-bin/edocs/Doukhobor-Collection?Display=148 |title=Report of Royal Commission on matters relating to the sect of Doukhobors in the province of British Columbia |year=1912 }}{{dead link|date=May 2022}}</ref>

The issue resulted in a three-way split of the Doukhobor community in Canada:<ref name=campos/>
* The ''edinolichniki'' (Independents), who in 1907 comprised 10% of the Canadian Doukhobors, maintained their religion but abandoned communal ownership of land and rejected hereditary leadership and communal living as non-essential to it.
* The ''obshchine'' (Communal, or Community) were largest group, sometimes called "orthodox Doukhobors" (not to be confused with the Russian Orthodox Church), led by their spiritual leader [[Peter V. Verigin]]. They formed the [[Christian Community of Universal Brotherhood]] (CCUB), which reformed in 1939 as the Union of Spiritual Communities of Christ (USCC).<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.usccdoukhobors.org/ |title=USCC Doukhobors: Union of Spiritual Communities of Christ |access-date=January 17, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080208224230/http://www.usccdoukhobors.org/ |archive-date=February 8, 2008 |url-status=live}}</ref>
* The ''svobodniki'' (free, sovereign people) in 1902 tried to return to Russia, refused to obey laws, and attacked law-abiding Doukhobors. They became the famous dissident "Sons of Freedom", also called "[[Freedomites]]" by the media. They embraced Verigin's writings in such a zealous manner that he banned them. The media and government mistakenly confused them with all Doukhobors when reporting their sensational protests.{{cn|date=May 2022}}

Of these groupings, the Independents integrated the most readily into Canadian capitalist society. They had no problem registering their land groups and largely remained in Saskatchewan. In 1939, they definitively rejected the authority of Peter Verigin's great-grandson John J. Verigin, Sr.{{cn|date=May 2022}}

=== British Columbia and Verigin's assassination ===
In 1908, to remove his followers from the corrupting influence of non-Doukhobors and ''edinolichniki'' (individual owners) Doukhobors, and to find better conditions for agriculture, Verigin bought large tracts of land in south-eastern [[British Columbia]]. His first purchase was around [[Grand Forks, British Columbia|Grand Forks]] near the US border. He later acquired large tracts of land further east in the [[Slocan Valley]] around [[Castlegar, British Columbia|Castlegar]]. Between 1908 and 1912, about 8,000 people moved from Saskatchewan to these British Columbia lands to continue their communal way of living.<ref name=kalmakoff_sk/> In the milder climate of British Columbia, the settlers were able to plant fruit trees and within a few years became renowned orchardists and producers of fruit preserves. As the Community Doukhobors left Saskatchewan, the reserves there were closed by 1918.

[[Image:Verigin Memorial.jpg|thumb|Verigin Memorial]]

On October 29, 1924, Peter V. Verigin was killed in a bomb explosion on a scheduled passenger train ''en route'' to British Columbia. The government had initially stated the bombing was perpetrated by people within the Doukhobor community, although no arrests were made because of the Doukhobors' customary refusal to cooperate with Canadian authorities due to fear of intersect violence. It is still unknown who was responsible for the bombing. While the Doukhobors were initially welcomed by the Canadian government, this assassination, as well as Doukhobors' beliefs regarding communal living, their intolerance for schooling, and other beliefs considered offensive or unacceptable, created a decades-long mistrust between government authorities and Doukhobors.<ref name="Hannant 2004">{{cite magazine|first=Larry |last=Hannant |title=The Mysterious Death of Peter Verigin |magazine=Beaver |date=October-November 2004 |volume=84 |number=5 |pages=26–28}}</ref>

Peter V. Verigin's son Peter P. Verigin, who arrived from the Soviet Union in 1928, succeeded his father as leader of the Community Doukhobors. He became known as "Peter the Purger" (''Chistiakov'') and worked to smooth relations between the Community Doukhobors and wider Canadian society. The governments in Ottawa and the western provinces concluded he was the closet leader of the Sons of Freedom and was perhaps a dangerous [[Bolshevik]]. The governments decided to deport him, use the justice system to impose conformity to Canadian values on the Doukhobors, and force them to abide by Canadian law and repudiate unacceptable practices. With a legal defence managed by [[Peter Makaroff]], the deportation effort failed in 1933.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |author1=John P. S. McLaren |title=Verigin, Peter Petrovich |encyclopedia=Dictionary of Canadian Biography |date=2022 |publisher=University of Toronto/Université Laval |volume=16 |url=http://www.biographi.ca/en/bio/verigin_peter_petrovich_16F.html |access-date=17 February 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|first=John |last=McLaren |title=Wrestling spirits: The strange case of Peter Verigin II |journal=Canadian Ethnic Studies |date=1995 |volume=27 |number=3 |pages=95–130}}</ref> The Sons of Freedom repudiated Verigin's policies as ungodly and assimilationist, and escalated their protests. The Sons of Freedom burnt Community Doukhobors' property and organized more nude parades. In 1932, the [[Parliament of Canada]] responded by criminalizing [[public nudity]]. Over 300 radical Doukhobor men and women were arrested for this offence, which typically carried a three-year prison sentence.<ref name=hardwick />

Doukhobors could not vote in British Columbia until 1952. They were the last ethnic or religious community to be granted suffrage in the province.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.leg.bc.ca/dyl/Pages/1917-Women-Win-the-Right-to-Vote.aspx |title=1917 - Women Win the Right to Vote |website=Legislative Assembly of British Columbia}}</ref>

=== Nudism and arson ===
The Sons of Freedom used nudism and arson as visible methods of protest.<ref>Simma Holt, ''Terror in the Name of God'' (McClelland and Stewart, 1964) is a study of the Sons of Freedom</ref> They protested against materialism, the land seizure by the government, compulsory education in government schools, and Verigin's assassination. This led to many confrontations with the Canadian government and the [[Royal Canadian Mounted Police]], which continued into the 1970s. Nudism was first used after the Doukhobors' arrival in Canada.<ref name="Makarova 2013"/> They used violence to fight modernity, and destroyed threshing machines and other signs of modernity. The group conducted night-time arson attacks on schools built by the Doukhobor commune and Verigin's house.<ref name="Hannant 2004"/>

During 1947 and 1948, Sullivan's [[Royal Commission]] investigated acts of arson and bombing attacks in British Columbia and recommended several measures intended to integrate the Doukhobors into Canadian society, notably through the education of their children in public schools. Around that time, the provincial government entered into direct negotiations with the [[Freedomite]] leadership. [[W. A. C. Bennett]]'s [[Social Credit]] government, which came to power in 1952, took a harder stance against the "Doukhobor problem." In 1953, 174 children of the Sons of Freedom were forcibly interned by government agents in a residential school in [[New Denver, British Columbia]]. Abuse of the interned children was later alleged.<ref>{{cite web |title=The lost children of British Columbia |url=https://archive.macleans.ca/article/1957/5/11/the-lost-children-of-british-columbia |access-date=December 9, 2020 |archive-date=November 25, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201125231613/https://archive.macleans.ca/article/1957/5/11/the-lost-children-of-british-columbia |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=B.C. government reconsiders apology for Doukhobor children taken from their families in 1950s |newspaper=The Globe and Mail |date=September 9, 2018 |url=https://www.theglobeandmail.com/canada/british-columbia/article-bc-government-reconsiders-apology-for-doukhobor-children-taken-from/ |access-date=December 9, 2020 |last1=Kryak |first1=Violetta |archive-date=November 9, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201109014718/https://www.theglobeandmail.com/canada/british-columbia/article-bc-government-reconsiders-apology-for-doukhobor-children-taken-from/ |url-status=live}}</ref>

In less than fifty years, the Sons of Freedom committed 1,112 separate acts of violence and arson, costing over $20&nbsp;million in damages; these acts include bombing and arson attacks on public schools, bombings of Canadian railway bridges and tracks,<ref name="spokesman1961">{{cite news|title=Bomb Blasts Rail Bridge in Kootenay| url= https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=p1spAAAAIBAJ&pg=5368,3816839 |access-date=October 4, 2010 |newspaper=[[The Spokesman-Review]] |date=December 11, 1961 |archive-date=February 27, 2021 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20210227072517/https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=p1spAAAAIBAJ&pg=5368,3816839 |url-status=live}}</ref> the bombing of a courthouse at [[Nelson, British Columbia|Nelson]],<ref name="torrance">{{cite book|last=Torrance |first=Judy |title=Public Violence in Canada, 1867–1982 |publisher=[[McGill-Queen's University Press]] |year=1988 |isbn=0-7735-0666-7 |page=[https://archive.org/details/publicviolencein0000torr/page/34 34] |url=https://archive.org/details/publicviolencein0000torr |url-access=registration}}</ref> and the destruction of a power transmission tower servicing [[East Kootenay]] district, resulting in the loss of 1,200 jobs. Many of the independent and community Doukhobors believed the Sons of Freedom's arson and bombings violated the Doukhobor central principle of nonviolence, and that they did not deserve to be called Doukhobors.<ref>{{cite book|title=Plakun Trava, The Doukhobors |last=Tarasoff |first=Koozma |publisher=Mir Publication Society |year=1982 |isbn=0-920046-05-3 |page=133}}</ref>

=== Doukhobors remaining in Russia ===
After the departure of the more zealous and uncompromising Doukhobors, and many community leaders, to Canada at the close of the [[Elisabethpol Governorate]] in the [[Caucasus Viceroyalty (1801–1917)|Caucasus Viceroyalty]] (now [[Azerbaijan]]), the former Doukhobor villages became mostly repopulated by [[Baptists]]. Elsewhere, some Doukhobors joined nearby [[Spiritual Christian]] groups.<ref name=shubin />

Those who remained Doukhobors were required to submit to the state. Few protested against military service; of 837 Russian [[court-martial]] cases against [[conscientious objector]]s recorded between the beginning of [[World War I]] and April 1, 1917, 16 had Doukhobor defendants, none of whom hailed from the Transcaucasian provinces.<ref name=shubin /> Between 1921 and 1923, Verigin's son Peter P. Verigin arranged the resettlement of 4,000 Doukhobors from the [[Ninotsminda]] (Bogdanovka) district in south Georgia to [[Rostov Oblast]] in southern Russia, and another 500 into [[Zaporizhzhia Oblast]] in Ukraine.<ref name="lohm" /><ref>{{cite web |first=Jonathan J. |last=Kalmakoff |url=http://www.doukhobor.org/Maps.html |title=Doukhobor Historical Maps  |website=Doukhobor Genealogy |access-date=July 28, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160319040140/http://www.doukhobor.org/Maps.html |archive-date=March 19, 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref>

The Soviet reforms greatly affected the lives of the Doukhobors, both in their old villages in [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]] and in the new settlement areas in southern Russian and Ukraine. [[Persecution of Christians in the Soviet Union|State anti-religious campaigns]] resulted in the suppression of Doukhobor religious tradition, and the loss of books and archival records. Many religious leaders were arrested or exiled; for example, 18 people were exiled from Gorelovka in 1930.<ref name=lohm/> Communists' [[collectivization in the Soviet Union|imposition of collective farming]] did not contradict the Doukhobor way of life. Industrious Doukhobors made their [[kolkhoz|collective farms]] prosperous, often specializing in [[cheesemaking]].<ref name=lohm />

Of the Doukhobor communities in the Soviet Union, those in South Georgia were the most sheltered from outside influence because of their geographic isolation in mountainous terrain, their location near the international border, and concomitant travel restrictions for outsiders.<ref name=lohm />

== Hymnody ==
Doukhobor oral holy hymns, which they call the "Book of Life" (Russian: ''Zhivotnaya kniga''), ''de facto'' replaced the written Bible. Their teaching is founded on this tradition.{{sfn|Chertkov|1911}}{{sfn|Peacock|1970}} ''The Book of Life of the Doukhobors'' (1909) is the first printed hymnal containing songs in the [[Southern Russian dialects|Southern Russian dialect]], which were composed to be sung aloud. Their prayer meetings and gatherings are dominated by the singing of ''[[a cappella]]'' psalms, hymns, and spiritual songs.{{sfn|Peacock|1970}}

== Population ==
=== Current population ===
{{Unreferenced|section|date=May 2022}}
In 2001, an estimated 20,000–40,000 people of Doukhobor heritage lived in Canada, 3,800 of whom claimed "Doukhobor" as their religious affiliation. An estimated 30,000 people of Doukhobor heritage live in Russia and neighbouring countries. In 2011, there were 2,290 persons in Canada who identified their religious affiliation as "Doukhobor"; in Russia there were 50 such persons by the mid-2000s.

=== Canada ===
CCUB, the Orthodox Doukhobors organization or Community Doukhobors, was succeeded by the [[Union of Spiritual Communities of Christ]] formed by Peter P. Verigin, Peter V. Verigin's son, in 1938.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://uscc-doukhobors.org/uscc/ |title=Union of Spiritual Communities of Christ |website=Union of Spiritual Communities of Christ}}</ref> The largest and most active formal Doukhobor organization, it is headquartered in [[Grand Forks, British Columbia]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.usccdoukhobors.org/ |title=USCC Doukhobors |access-date=January 17, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080208224230/http://www.usccdoukhobors.org/ |archive-date=February 8, 2008 |url-status=live}}</ref>

During the [[Canada 2011 Census]],<ref name=census>{{citation |url=https://www12.statcan.gc.ca/nhs-enm/2011/dp-pd/dt-td/Rp-eng.cfm?TABID=2&LANG=E&A=R&APATH=3&DETAIL=0&DIM=3&FL=A&FREE=0&GC=01&GL=-1&GID=1118296&GK=1&GRP=1&O=D&PID=105399&PRID=0&PTYPE=105277&S=0&SHOWALL=0&SUB=0&Temporal=2013&THEME=95&VID=21289&VNAMEE=&VNAMEF=&D1=0&D2=0&D3=0&D4=0&D5=0&D6=0 |title=2011 National Household Survey: Data tables: Religion |website=Statistics Canada |date=May 8, 2013 |access-date=November 2, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131102215737/http://www12.statcan.gc.ca/nhs-enm/2011/dp-pd/dt-td/Rp-eng.cfm?TABID=1&LANG=E&A=R&APATH=3&DETAIL=0&DIM=0&FL=A&FREE=0&GC=0&GID=0&GK=0&GRP=1&O=D&PID=105399&PRID=0&PTYPE=105277&S=0&SHOWALL=0&SUB=0&Temporal=2013&THEME=95&VID=0&VNAMEE=&VNAMEF=&D1=0&D2=0&D3=0&D4=0&D5=0&D6=0 |archive-date=November 2, 2013 |url-status=live}}. The census numbers are actually based on extrapolating a 20% sample.</ref> 2,290 persons in Canada—of whom 1,860 in [[British Columbia]], 200 in [[Alberta]], 185 in [[Saskatchewan]], and 25 in [[Ontario]]—identified their religious affiliation as "Doukhobor". The proportion of older people among these self-identified Doukhobors is higher than among the general population.
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Age groups
! Total
! 0–14 years
! 15–24 years
! 25–44 years
! 45–64 years
! 65–84 years
! 85 years and over
|-
| All Canadians, 2001
| 29,639,035
| 5,737,670
| 3,988,200
| 9,047,175
| 7,241,135
| 3,337,435
| 287,415
|-
| Self-identified Doukhobors, 2001
| 3,800
| 415
| 345
| 845
| 1,135
| 950
| 110
|-
| Self-identified Doukhobors, 1991
| 4,820 
| 510 
| 510 
| 1,125 
| 1,400 
| 1,175 
| 100
|}

Twenty-eight percent of the self-identified Doukhobors in 2001 were over 65 (born before 1936), as compared to 12% of the entire population of Canadian respondents. The aging of the denomination is accompanied by its shrinkage, starting in the 1960s:<ref name=census/><ref name=postnikoff>{{cite magazine|first=John I. |last=Postnikoff |url=https://doukhobor.org/doukhobors-an-endangered-species |title=Doukhobors: An Endangered Species |magazine=MIR magazine |publisher=MIR Publication Society |via=Doukhobor Genealogy Website (www.doukhobor.org) |number=16 |place=Grand Forks, BC |date=May 1978 |orig-date=1977 |access-date=June 26, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080416075358/http://www.doukhobor.org/postnikoff.html |archive-date=April 16, 2008 |url-status=live}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Census year
! Self-identified Doukhobor population
|-
| 1921
| 12,674
|-
| 1931
| 14,978
|-
| 1941
| 16,898
|-
| 1951
| 13,175
|-
| 1961
| 13,234
|-
| 1971
| 9,170
|-
| 1981.g., 28%
| ? coded as "Doukhobor, Orthodox" and "Doukhobor, Reformed"
|-
| 1991
| 4,820 
|-
| 2001
| 3,800
|-
| 2011
| 2,290
|-
| 2021
| 1,675
|}

The number of Canadians with Doukhobor heritage is much higher than the number of those who consider themselves members of this religion. In 2012, Doukhobor researchers estimated there were "over 20,000" people "from [Doukhobor] stock" in Canada<ref name=postnikoff/> and over 40,000 Doukhobors by "a wider definition of religion, ethnicity, way of life, and social movement".{{Sfn | Tarasoff | 2002}}{{Rp | needed = yes|date=October 2012}}

Canadian Doukhobors no longer live communally. Doukhobors do not practice [[baptism]]. They reject several items considered orthodox among Christian churches, including church organization and liturgy, the inspiration of the scriptures, the literal interpretation of resurrection, the literal interpretation of the [[Trinity]], and heaven and hell. Some avoid the use of alcohol, tobacco, and [[veganism|animal products for food]], and eschew involvement in partisan politics. Doukhobors believe in the goodness of man and reject the idea of [[original sin]].<ref>{{cite web |last1=Inikova |first1=Svetlana |title=Spiritual Origins and the Beginning of Doukhobor History |url=https://doukhobor.org/spiritual-origins-and-the-beginnings-of-doukhobor-history/ |website=Doukhobor Heritage |publisher=Jonathan Kalmakoff |access-date=22 July 2022}}</ref>

=== Georgia and Russia ===
[[File:Sirotski dom.jpg|thumb|[[Peter Kalmykov]]'s house in Gorelovka, Georgia]]

Since the late 1980s, many of the Doukhobors of [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]] started emigrating to Russia. Various groups moved to [[Tula Oblast]], [[Rostov Oblast]], [[Stavropol Krai]], and elsewhere. After the 1991 independence of Georgia, many villages with Russian names received Georgian names; Bogdanovka became [[Ninotsminda]], Troitskoe became [[Sameba, Georgia|Sameba]]. According to various estimates, in [[Ninotsminda]] District, the Doukhobor population fell from around 4,000 in 1979 to between 3,000 and 3,500 in 1989, and around 700 in 2006. In [[Dmanisi]] district, it fell from around 700 Doukhobors in 1979 to no more than 50 by the mid-2000s. Most of those who remain in Georgia are older people; the younger generation found it easier to relocate to Russia. The Doukhobor community of Gorelovka in Ninotsminda District, the former "capital" of the Kalmykov family, is thought to be the best-preserved in all [[Commonwealth of Independent States|former Soviet Union countries]].<ref name=lohm/>

== Ecumenical relations ==
The Doukhobors have maintained a close association with [[Mennonites]] and [[Quakers]] due to similar religious practices; all of these groups are collectively considered to be [[peace churches]] due to their belief in [[Christian pacifism|pacifism]].<ref name="FlemingRowan2004">{{cite book|last1=Fleming |first1=John A. |last2=Rowan |first2=Michael J. |last3=Chambers |first3=James Albert |title=Folk Furniture of Canada's Doukhobors, Hutterites, Mennonites and Ukrainians |year=2004 |publisher=[[University of Alberta]] |language=en |isbn=978-0-88864-418-3 |page=[https://archive.org/details/folkfurnitureofc00flem/page/4 4] |quote=The English Quakers, who had made contact with the Doukhobors earlier, as well as the Philadelphia Society of Friends, also determined to help with their emigration from Russia to some other country—the only action which seemed possible. |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/folkfurnitureofc00flem/page/4}}</ref><ref name="DyckMartin">{{cite book|last1=Dyck |first1=Cornelius J. |last2=Martin |first2=Dennis D. |title=The Mennonite Encyclopedia |publisher=Mennonite Brethren Publishing House |language=en |page=107}}</ref><ref name="Fahlbusch2008">{{cite book|last=Fahlbusch |first=Erwin |title=The Encyclodedia of Christianity |date=February 14, 2008 |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing |language=en |isbn=978-0-8028-2417-2 |page=208 |quote=The only contact with Mennonites was the period 1802–41 when they lived in the Molotschna, where Johann Cornies (q.v.) rendered them considerable assistance.}}</ref>

== Historical sites and museums ==
[[File:Leotolstoy castlegar.jpg|upright=0.66|left|thumb|148px|[[Leo Tolstoy]] Statue at Doukhobor Discovery Centre]]

In 1995, the [[Brilliant Suspension Bridge|Doukhobor Suspension Bridge]] spanning the Kootenay River was designated a [[National Historic Sites of Canada|National Historic Site of Canada]].<ref>{{CRHP|7818|Doukhobor Suspension Bridgey|November 13, 2011}}</ref> The site of Community Doukhobors' headquarters in [[Veregin, Saskatchewan]], was designated a National Historic Site in 2006, under the name "[[Doukhobors at Veregin]]".

A Doukhobor museum, currently known as "Doukhobor Discovery Centre" (formerly, "Doukhobor Village Museum") operates in [[Castlegar, British Columbia]]. It contains over 1,000 artifacts representing the arts, crafts, and daily lives of the Doukhobors of the [[Kootenays]] in 1908–38.<ref>{{citation |url=http://doukhobor-museum.org/ |title=Doukhobor Discovery Center |access-date=January 14, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080106101832/http://www.doukhobor-museum.org/ |archive-date=January 6, 2008 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="castlegarmuseumprofile">{{cite news|last=Jackson |first=Kristin |title=Doukhobor heritage lives on in southeast BC |url=http://seattletimes.nwsource.com/html/travel/2012302095_trbritishcolumbia11.html |access-date=October 6, 2010 |newspaper=[[The Seattle Times]] |date=July 10, 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100914155008/http://seattletimes.nwsource.com/html/travel/2012302095_trbritishcolumbia11.html |archive-date=September 14, 2010 |url-status=live}}</ref>

Although most of the early Doukhobor village structures in British Columbia have vanished or been significantly remodelled by later users, a part of Makortoff Village outside [[Grand Forks, British Columbia]] has been preserved as a museum by Peter Gritchen, who purchased the property in 1971 and opened it as Mountain View Doukhobor Museum on June 16, 1972. The site's future became uncertain after his death in 2000 but in March 2004, in cooperation with local organizations and concerned citizens, [[The Land Conservancy]] of British Columbia purchased the historical site known as [[Hardy Mountain Doukhobor Village]] while Boundary Museum Society acquired the museum collection and loaned it to TLC for display.<ref name=TLC>{{citation |url=http://www.conservancy.bc.ca/content.asp?sectionid=181&regionack=OK |title=Conservancy |contribution=Hardy Mountain Doukhobor Village Historic Site |place=BC, CA |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071018214627/http://www.conservancy.bc.ca/content.asp?sectionid=181 |archive-date=October 18, 2007}}</ref>

The [[Canadian Museum of Civilization]] in [[Ottawa]] has a collection of Doukhobor-related items. A special exhibition there was run in 1998–99 to mark the centennial anniversary of the Doukhobor arrival in Canada.<ref>{{citation |url=http://www.civilization.ca/cultur/doukhobors/dou01eng.html |title=The Doukhobors: "Spirit Wrestlers" |place=Canada |publisher=Museum of Civilization |date=September 7, 1998 |access-date=April 13, 2004 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040404014030/http://www.civilization.ca/cultur/doukhobors/dou01eng.html |archive-date=April 4, 2004 |url-status=live}}</ref>

== Linguistic history and dialect ==
{{main|Doukhobor Russian}}

The Doukhobors took with them to Canada a Southern Russian dialect, which in the following decades changed under the influence of Canadian English and the speech of the Ukrainian settlers in [[Saskatchewan]]. Over several generations, this dialect has been mostly lost because the modern descendants of the original Doukhobor migrants to Canada are typically native English speakers; when they speak Russian, it is typically a fairly standard variety.<ref name=":3">{{cite book|last=Makarova |first=Veronika |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2b-YAQAAQBAJ |title=Russian Language Studies in North America: New Perspectives from Theoretical and Applied Linguistics |date=October 1, 2013 |publisher=Anthem Press |isbn=978-1-78308-046-5 |page=247 |language=en |access-date=January 15, 2022 |archive-date=January 16, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220116001634/https://books.google.ca/books?hl=en&lr=&id=2b-YAQAAQBAJ |url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Linguistic history ===
In 1802, the Doukhobors and other [[spiritual Christian]] tribes were encouraged to migrate to the [[Molochna River]] region around [[Melitopol]] near Ukraine's [[Sea of Azov]] coast, within the [[Pale of Settlement]] neighbouring settlements of [[anabaptists]] from Germany.<ref name=":1" /><ref>{{cite journal|last=Tarasoff |first=Koozma J. |date=January 1, 1972 |title=Doukhobors - Their Migration Experience |url=https://www.proquest.com/openview/b1a7e8c8e62523374caa967e1bbbd817 |journal=Canadian Ethnic Studies |volume=4 |issue=1 |pages=1–2 |via=[[ProQuest]]}}</ref> Over the next 10 or 20 years, the Doukhobors and others, mostly speaking a variety of Southern Russian dialects, arrived at the Molochna from several provinces, most of which are located in modern-day eastern Ukraine and south-central Russia.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Palmieri |first=Aurelio |date=January 1915 |title=The Russian Doukhobors and their Religious Teachings |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/harvard-theological-review/article/abs/russian-doukhobors-and-their-religious-teachings/7EAAB40C3CCA93B8876F6F12448FD0AE |journal=[[Harvard Theological Review]] |language=en |volume=8 |issue=1 |pages=65–66 |doi=10.1017/S0017816000008324 |s2cid=154439550 |issn=1475-4517}}</ref> In the settlers' villages, an opportunity for the formation of a [[Koiné language|dialect koiné]] based on Southern Russian and Eastern Ukrainian dialects arose.<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":5">{{cite journal|last=Schaarschmidt |first=Gunter |date=March 1, 2008 |title=The Ritual Language of the British Columbia Doukhobors as an Endangered Functional Style: Issues of Interference and Translatability |journal=Canadian Slavonic Papers |volume=50 |issue=1–2 |pages=101–105 |doi=10.1080/00085006.2008.11092575 |s2cid=194016348 |issn=0008-5006}}</ref>

Starting in 1841, the Doukhobors and others were resettled from southern Ukraine to [[Transcaucasia]], where they founded several villages surrounded by mostly non-Russian speaking neighbours—primarily [[Azerbaijanis]] in [[Elisabethpol Governorate]], [[Armenians]]<ref>[[Tiflis Governorate]] was in Georgia, it is ethnic Armenians who populated its [[Samtskhe-Javakheti]] area, where the Doukhobor villages were</ref> in [[Tiflis Governorate]], and likely a mix of both in the later post-1878 settlements in [[Kars Oblast]]. These conditions allowed the dialect to develop in comparative isolation from mainstream Russian.<ref name=":3" />

With the migration of 7,500 Doukhbors from Transcaucasia to Saskatchewan in 1899, and some smaller latecomer groups from both Transcaucasia and from places of exile in Siberia and elsewhere, the dialect spoken in the Doukhobor villages of Transcaucasia was taken to the plains of Canada. From that point, it experienced influence from Canadian English and, during the years of Doukhobor stay in Saskatchewan, the speech of their [[Canadian Ukrainian|Ukrainian neighbours]].<ref name=":3" /><ref>{{cite journal|last=Breyfogle |first=Nicholas B. |date=January 1, 1995 |title=Building Doukhoboriia: religious culture, social identity and Russian colonization in Transcaucasia, 1845-1895 |url=https://www.proquest.com/openview/a9c48702b8236b87d1628b3eb16dd829/ |journal=Canadian Ethnic Studies |volume=27 |issue=3 |page=24 |via=[[ProQuest]] |access-date=February 19, 2022 |archive-date=February 19, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220219015115/https://www.proquest.com/openview/a9c48702b8236b87d1628b3eb16dd829/ |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Voisey |first=Paul |date=1998 |title=Toil and Peaceful Life': Doukhobor Village Settlement in Saskatchewan, 1899–1918 by Carl J. Tracie (review) |url=https://muse.jhu.edu/article/590285 |journal=[[Canadian Historical Review]] |volume=79 |issue=2 |pages=368–369 |issn=1710-1093}}</ref>

A split in the Doukhobor community resulted in a large number of Doukhobors moving from Saskatchewan to south-eastern [[British Columbia]] around 1910. Those who moved, the so-called Community Doukhobors—followers of [[Peter Vasilevich Verigin|Peter Verigin]]'s [[Christian Community of Universal Brotherhood]]—continued living communally for several decades, and had a better chance to preserve their Russian language than the Independent Doukhobors, who stayed in Saskatchewan as individual farmers.<ref name=":3" />

By the 1970s, as most Russian-born members of the community died, English became the first language of the great majority of Canadian Doukhobors.<ref name="postnikoff2">Dr. John I. Postnikoff [http://www.doukhobor.org/postnikoff.html Doukhobors: An Endangered Species] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080416075358/http://www.doukhobor.org/postnikoff.html |date=April 16, 2008 }} MIR magazine, No. 16 (Grand Forks, BC: MIR Publication Society, May 1978) (Doukhobor Genealogy Website).</ref><ref name=postnikoff/> Their English speech is not noticeably different from that of other English-speaking Canadians of their provinces. Russian still remains in use, at least for religious purposes, among those who practice the Doukhobor religion.<ref name=":3" />

=== Features of the Doukhobor Russian dialect in Canada ===
Research into the Russian spoken by Canada's Doukhobors has not been extensive but several articles, mostly published in the 1960s and 1970s, noted a variety of features in Doukhobors' Russian speech that were characteristic of Southern, and in some cases [[Central Russian dialects]]; for example, use of the Southern [h] where Standard Russian has [g].<ref name=":5" /><ref name=":4">{{cite journal|last=Schaarschmidt |first=Gunter |date=January 1, 1995 |title=Aspects of the history of Doukhobor Russian|url=https://www.proquest.com/openview/f8985eb3d7066041ffa58b0337b58f0a/ |journal=Canadian Ethnic Studies |volume=27 |issue=3 |page=197 |via=[[ProQuest]] |access-date=February 19, 2022 |archive-date=February 19, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220219015112/https://www.proquest.com/openview/f8985eb3d7066041ffa58b0337b58f0a/ |url-status=live}}</ref>

Features characteristic of many locales in the [[East Slavic Languages|East Slavic]] language space were noted, reflecting the heterogeneous origin of the Doukhobors' settlements in [[Molochna River]] after 1800; for example, like [[Belarusians]], Doukhobor speakers do not palatalize [r] in "редко" (''redko'', 'seldom'). Remarkable was the dropping of the final -t in the third-person singular form of verbs, which can be considered a Ukrainian feature and is also attested in some Russian dialects spoken in Southern Ukraine (e.g., [[Mykolaiv Oblast|Nikolaev]] near the Doukhobors' former homeland on the Molochna). As with other immigrant groups, the Russian speech of the Doukhobors uses English loanwords for some concepts they had not encountered until moving to Canada.<ref name=":2"/>{{rp|74}}<ref name=":4" />

== In popular culture ==
* A 1962 [[Eric Frank Russell]] science-fiction novel, ''[[The Great Explosion]]'', adapted and expanded from his 1951 novella "...And Then There Were None", mentions the Doukhobors as a group of interstellar settlers on the planet Hygeia who had been marginalized by later [[naturist]] settlers.
* {{citation |title=Garden in the wind |first=Gabrielle |last=Roy |author-link=Gabrielle Roy |publisher=McClelland & Stewart |type=novel |chapter=Hoodoo Valley |year=1975}}.
* A [[Robert A. Heinlein]] short story, ''[[The Year of the Jackpot]]'', briefly mentions the Doukhobors as a group in Canada that practised nudity.
* {{citation |title=Doukhobor Daze |first=Hazel |last=O'Neail |publisher=Gray's, Evergreen |year=1962}}.
* {{citation |title=Man and Other Natural Disasters |first=Nerys |last=Parry |publisher=Great Plains |year=2011}}.<ref>{{cite web|last=Parry |first=Nerys |title=Straddling the divides: fact, fiction and Freedomites |date=December 18, 2011 |url=http://www.nerysparry.com/2011/12/18/straddling-the-divides-fact-fiction-and-freedomites/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130313231224/http://www.nerysparry.com/2011/12/18/straddling-the-divides-fact-fiction-and-freedomites/ |access-date=January 7, 2012 |archive-date=March 13, 2013 }}.</ref>
* {{cite book|title=Head Cook at Weddings and Funerals, And Other Stories of Doukhobor Life |type=novel |first=Vi |last=Plotnikoff |publisher=Raincoast Books |year=2001}}.
* {{cite book|title=Svoboda |type=novel |first=Bill |last=Stenson |publisher=Thistledown Press |year=2007 |isbn=978-1-897235-30-0}}.<ref name="vs-svoboda">{{cite news|last=Wiersema |first=Robert J. |title=Doukhobor novel does more than tell a good story |date=January 5, 2008 |url=http://www.canada.com/vancouversun/news/story.html?id=8c024dbe-57af-438e-ab5a-1fde3a853296 |newspaper=[[Vancouver Sun]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080108123907/http://www.canada.com/vancouversun/news/story.html?id=8c024dbe-57af-438e-ab5a-1fde3a853296 |archive-date=January 8, 2008 }}.</ref>

=== Drama ===
* Doukhobors (1970). Collective creation at Theatre Passe Muraille.

=== Non-fiction ===
* {{citation |title=The Spirit Wrestlers: A Russian Odyssey |author-link=Philip Marsden |first=Philip |last=Marsden |publisher=[[HarperCollins]] |year=1998}}.
* {{citation |title=Spirit Wrestlers: Doukhobor Pioneers' Strategies for Living |first=Koozma J. |last=Tarasoff |publisher=Legas |year=2002 |ref=none}}.
* {{citation |title=The Doukhobors |author1-link=George Woodcock |first1=George |last1=Woodcock |first2=Ivan |last2=Avakumovic |publisher=[[Carleton University]] Institute of Canadian Studies, McClelland & Stewart |year=1977}}.
* {{citation |title=Slava Bohu |author1-link=J. F. C. Wright |first1=James |last1=Wright |first2=Frederic Church |last2=Wright |publisher=Farrar & Rinehart Inc |year=1940}}.

=== Music ===
* {{Citation | year = 1962 | author-link = Malvina Reynolds | first = Malvina | last = Reynolds | title = The Best of Broadside 1962–88 | contribution = Do As the Doukhobors Do}} (originally ''The Doukhobor Do'') is about the Doukhobor nude protests. The song was recorded by [[Pete Seeger]].
* In the bonus track "Ferdinand the Imposter" on the 2000 re-issue of ''[[Music from Big Pink]]'' by the Canadian roots-rock group [[The Band]], the title character "claimed he was a Doukhobor" after being arrested.<ref>{{cite web|title=Ferdinand the Imposter lyrics |url=http://theband.hiof.no/lyrics/ferdinand_the_imposter.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140816040435/http://theband.hiof.no/lyrics/ferdinand_the_imposter.html |archive-date=August 16, 2014 |access-date=August 27, 2014}}</ref> The implication in the lyrics is that Ferdinand may have been apprehended for some public display of nudity in [[Baltimore, Maryland]]. He attempted to escape punishment by stating he came from the Doukhobors of Canada. Unfortunately for Ferdinand, the American officers were unfamiliar with the group and were unmoved by Ferdinand's plea.<ref>{{cite web|title=Sadavid: Ferdinand the Imposter |url=http://theband.hiof.no/articles/ferdinand_the_imposter_sadavid.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161029033527/http://theband.hiof.no/articles/ferdinand_the_imposter_sadavid.html |archive-date=October 29, 2016 |access-date=December 18, 2016 |website=theband.hiof.no}}</ref>

=== Television ===
* {{citation |title=The Doukhobors |year=1976 |publisher=[[Canadian Broadcasting Corporation|CBC]]/[[National Film Board of Canada|NFB]] |type=film |first=George |last=Woodcock}}. Two parts: ''The Living Book'' and ''Toil and Peaceful Life''.<ref>{{cite web|title=Lost Childhood: Doukhobors|url=http://www.globalnews.ca/video/lost+childhood+doukhobors+preview++part+1/video.html?v=2311533530#video |access-date=March 10, 2013 |work=16:9 |publisher=Global Television}}{{Dead link|date=April 2021 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>

== Notes ==
{{Reflist | group = "lower-alpha" | colwidth = 64em}}

== References ==
{{Reflist | colwidth = 32em}}{{Nuttall|title=Doukhobours}}

== Bibliography ==
* Bartolf, Christian / Dominique Miething: "Flame of Truth": the global significance of Doukhobor Pacifism. ''Russian Journal of Church History'', Vol. 4, No. 4 (Special Issue: History of Christian Peacemaking and Pacifism, Editor: Dr. Nadezhda Beliakova) (2023): 6-27. [https://churchhistory.elpub.ru/jour/article/view/142/180 PDF]
* {{cite EB1911|wstitle=Doukhobors|last=Chertkov|first=Vladimir|author-link=Vladimir Chertkov|pages=448–49}}
* {{Citation | title = The Doukhobors: their history in Russia; their migration to Canada | first = Joseph | last = Elkinton}}.
* {{Citation | title = The Community Doukhobors: A People in Transition | first1 = John W | last1 = Friesen | first2 = Michael M | last2 = Verigin}}.
* {{Citation | title = Spirit Wrestlers | first = James 'Jim' | last = Hamm | year = 2002 | type = documentary video}} about the [[Freedomite]] Doukhobors.
* {{Citation | title = The Doukhobors of British Columbia | first = Harry B | last = Hawthorn}}.
* Holt, Simma. ''Terror in the Name of God The Story of the Sons of Freedom Doukhobors'' (McClelland and Stewart, 1964)
* {{Citation | title = Songs of the Doukhobors: An Introductory Outline | editor-last = Peacock | editor-first = Kenneth | translator = E. A. Popoff (song texts) | place = Ottawa | publisher = The National Museums of Canada; Queen's Printer of Canada | year = 1970 | series = National Museums of Canada Bulletin No. 231, Folklore Series No. 7 | url = https://collections.museedelhistoire.ca/public/objects/common/webmedia.php%3Firn%3D5192506&ved=2ahUKEwjd3v6YrNDzAhWHXSsKHW8tCg8QFnoECAkQAQ&usg=AOvVaw2uboqpPg0K3gg_tBlPBkDz | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20230405010942/https://collections.museedelhistoire.ca/public/objects/common/webmedia.php?irn=5192506&ved=2ahUKEwjd3v6YrNDzAhWHXSsKHW8tCg8QFnoECAkQAQ&usg=AOvVaw2uboqpPg0K3gg_tBlPBkDz | archive-date = April 5, 2023 | format = PDF }}
* {{Citation |title=Plakun Trava: The Doukhobors | first = Koozma J | last = Tarasoff}}.
* Tarasoff, Koozma J. "Doukbhobors" in Paul Robert Magocsi, ed., ''Encyclopedia of Canada's Peoples'' (1999) pp 422–34
* {{Citation |publication-date=2006 |year=2002 |first=Koozma J. |last=Tarasoff |title=Spirit Wrestlers: Doukhobor Pioneers' Strategies for Living |chapter-url=http://www.spirit-wrestlers.com/excerpts/2006_Doukhobors_Overview.html |chapter=Overview |author-mask=3 |place=Ottawa |publisher=Legas |isbn=1-896031-12-9}}.
* {{Citation |title=Spirit Wrestlers: centennial papers in honour of Canada's Doukhobor Heritage |first1=Koozma J. |last1=Tarasoff |first2=Robert B. |last2=Klymasz |year=1995 |isbn=0-660-14034-9}}.
* {{cite journal|last=Thorsteinson |first=Elina |title=The Doukhobors in Canada |journal=Mississippi Valley Historical Review |date=1917 |volume=4 |number=1 |pages=3–48 |doi=10.2307/1886809 |jstor=1886809}}
* {{Citation | title = The Doukhobors | author1-link = George Woodcock | first1 = George | last1 = Woodcock | first2 = Ivan | last2 = Avakumovic}}.
* Makarova V. (2012). The use of Russian in contemporary Doukhobor prayer service. In: International scientific research Internet conference "Current issues in philology and methods of teaching foreign languages", February 1–29, 2012, Novosibirsk, Russia. Международнaя научно-практическая Интернет-конференция «Актуальные проблемы филологии и методики преподавания иностранных языков», 1 февраля - 29 февраля 2012 года; http://ffl.nspu.net/?p=144 {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121204154355/http://ffl.nspu.net/?p=144 |date=December 4, 2012 }}
* Makarova V. A., Usenkova, E.V., Evdokimova, V.V. Evgrafova, K. V. (2011). The Language of Saskatchewan Doukhobors: Introduction to analysis. Izvestija Vysshix uchebnyx zavedenij [The News of Higher Schools]. Serija Gumanitarnyje nauki [Humanities]. Razdel Lingvistika [Linguistics section]. Vol 2 (2), pp.&nbsp;146–151. http://www.isuct.ru/e-publ/gum/ru/2011/t02n02/philology-and-linguistics {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160316054943/https://www.isuct.ru/e-publ/gum/ru/2011/t02n02/philology-and-linguistics |date=March 16, 2016 }}
* Schaarschmidt Gunter (University of Victoria, Canada) [http://www.inst.at/trans/15Nr/06_1/schaarschmidt.htm Four norms – one culture: Doukhobor Russian in Canada]
* Schaarschmidt, G. (2012). Russian language history in Canada. Doukhobor internal and external migrations: effects on language development and structure. In: V. Makarova (Ed), ''Russian Language Studies in North America: the New Perspectives from Theoretical and Applied Linguistics'' . London/New York: Anthem Press. pp.&nbsp;235–260. www.anthempress.com

== Further reading ==
{{refbegin}}
* {{Citation | last = Burnham | first = Dorothy K | title = Unlike the Lilies: Doukhobor Textile Traditions in Canada | place = Toronto, Ontario, Canada | publisher = Royal Ontario Museum | year = 1986 | isbn = 0-88854-322-0}}.
* Cran, Gregory J. ''Negotiating Buck Naked: Doukhobors, Public Policy, and Conflict Resolution'' (UBC Press, 2006) 180 pp. deals only with the Sons of Freedom.
* {{Citation | last1 = Donskov | first1 = Andrew | first2 = John | last2 = Woodsworth | first3 = Chad | last3 = Gaffield | title = The Doukhobor Centenary in Canada: A Multi-Disciplinary Perspective on Their Unity and Diversity | publisher = Slavic Research Group at the University of Ottawa | year = 2000 | isbn = 0-88927-276-X}}.
* {{Citation | last = Holt | first = Simma | title = Terror in the Name of God: The story of the Sons of Freedom Doukhobors | publisher = McClelland & Stewart | place = Toronto/Montreal | year = 1964}}.
* {{Citation | last = Janzen | first = William | title = Limits on Liberty: The Experience of Mennonite, Hutterite, and Doukhobor Communities in Canada | place = Toronto | publisher = U of Toronto Press | year = 1990 | isbn = 0-8020-2731-8}}.
* Kalmakoff, Jonathan. "The Hyas Doukhobour Settlement", ''Saskatchewan History'' (2007) 59#2 pp 27–34. covers 1902 to 1907.
* Livanov, Feodor Vasilyevich, [https://www.amazon.com/Early-Dukhabors-History-Practices-Persecutions/dp/1300342552 Early Dukhabors] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220219015127/https://www.amazon.com/Early-Dukhabors-History-Practices-Persecutions/dp/1300342552 |date=February 19, 2022 }}, English translation by Daniel H. Shubin, 2021. {{ISBN|978-1-300-34255-7}}
* {{Citation | last = Makarova | first = V | year = 2013 | title = Doukhobor nudism: exploring the socio-cultural roots. Culture and Religion}}.
* {{cite conference |mode=cs2 | last = Makarova | first = V | title= The use of Russian in contemporary Doukhobor prayer service |conference=International scientific research Internet conference | trans-title = Current issues in philology and methods of teaching foreign languages | date = February 1–29, 2012 | place = Novosibirsk, Russia |script-title=ru:Актуальные проблемы филологии и методики преподавания иностранных языков | url = http://ffl.nspu.net/?p=144 | author-mask = 3 | access-date = June 18, 2012 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20121204154355/http://ffl.nspu.net/?p=144 | archive-date = December 4, 2012 | url-status = live }}
* {{Citation | last1 = Makarova | first1 = VA | last2 = Usenkova | first2 = EV | last3 = Evdokimova | first3 = VV | last4 = Evgrafova | first4 = KV | year = 2011 | title = The Language of Saskatchewan Doukhobors: Introduction to analysis. Izvestija Vysshix uchebnyx zavedenij [The News of Higher Schools]. Serija Gumanitarnyje nauki [Humanities]. Razdel Lingvistika [Linguistics section] | volume = 2 | issue = 2 | pages = 146–51 | journal = Philology & Linguistics | publisher = ISUCT | place = [[Russia|RU]] | url = http://www.isuct.ru/e-publ/gum/ru/2011/t02n02/philology-and-linguistics | access-date = June 18, 2012 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160316054943/https://www.isuct.ru/e-publ/gum/ru/2011/t02n02/philology-and-linguistics | archive-date = March 16, 2016 | url-status = live }}.
* {{Citation | last = [[Aylmer and Louise Maude|Maude]] | first = Aylmer | title = A Peculiar People: the Doukhobors | publisher = Constable, London | year = 1905}}.
* {{Citation | last = Mealing | first = Francis Mark | title = Doukhobor Life: A Survey of Doukhobor Religion, History, & Folklife | publisher = Kootenay Doukhobor Historical Society | year = 1975}}.
* Morrell, Kathy. "The Life of Peter P. Verigin." ''Saskatchewan History'' (2009) 61#1 pp 26–32. covers 1928 to 1939.
* {{Citation | last = O'Neail | first = Hazel | title = Doukhobor Daze | place = Surrey, BC | publisher = Heritage House | year = 1994 | isbn = 1-895811-22-8}}.
* {{Citation | last = Rak | first = Julie | title = Negotiated Memory: Doukhobor Autobiographical Discourse | place = Vancouver | publisher = UBC Press | year = 2004 | isbn = 0-7748-1030-0}}.
* Rozinkin, W. M. ''The Doukhobor Saga''. [Nelson, B.C.: News Publishing Co.], 1974.
* Schaarschmidt, G. 2012. Russian language history in Canada. Doukhobor internal and external migrations: effects on language development and structure. In: V. Makarova (Ed), Russian Language Studies in North America: the New Perspectives from Theoretical and Applied Linguistics. London/New York: Anthem Press.pp 235–260. www.anthempress.com
* Sorokin, Stephan Sebastian, and Steve Lapshinoff. ''Doukhobor Problem''. Crescent Valley, B.C.: Steve Lapshinoff, 1990.
* {{Citation | last = Tarasoff | first = Koozma J | title = Traditional Doukhobor Folkways: An Ethnographic and Biographic Record of Prescribed Behaviour | series = Mercury | place = Ottawa | publisher = National Museums of Canada | year = 1977}}.
* Tracie, Carl. ''Toil and Peaceful Life: Doukhobor Village Settlement in Saskatchewan, 1899–1918''. Regina: Canadian Plains Research Center, University of Regina, 1996. {{ISBN|0-88977-100-6}}
* Union of Spiritual Communities of Christ. ''Hospitality: Vegetarian Cooking the Doukhobor Way''. Grand Forks, B.C.: USCC Centennial Cookbook Committee, 2003. {{ISBN|0-9732514-0-9}}
* Woodsworth, John. ''Russian Roots and Canadian Wings: Russian Archival Documents on the Doukhobor Emigration to Canada''. Canada/Russia series, v. 1. [Manotick, Ont.]: Penumbra Press, 1999. {{ISBN|0-921254-89-X}}
* {{cite web |url=https://thewalrus.ca/2008-06-society/ |title=How the Doukhobors brought democracy to the USSR |first=Christopher |last=Shulgan |date=June 12, 2008 |work=The Walrus |access-date=September 19, 2021 |archive-date=September 19, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210919013227/https://thewalrus.ca/2008-06-society/ |url-status=live }}
{{refend}}

== External links ==
{{Commons category|Doukhobors}}
{{EB1911 Poster|Doukhobors}}
* [http://www.usccdoukhobors.org/index.htm Union of Spiritual Communities of Christ (USCC) — Doukhobors]
* [http://www.doukhobor.org Doukhobor Heritage - the oldest, largest and most comprehensive website about Doukhobors.]
* {{Citation | url = http://www.doukhobor.org | title = Doukhobor Heritage website | place = Canada | type = Doukhobor genealogy and history}}"
* "Explosion on the Kettle Valley Line: The Death of Peter Verigin", ''[https://www.canadianmysteries.ca/sites/verigin/home/indexen.html Great Unsolved Mysteries in Canadian History]''
* {{Citation | url = http://www.Doukhobor-Museum.org/ | title = Doukhobor Discovery Centre}}, Castlegar, British Columbia.
* {{Citation | url = http://www.ivansysoev.com/ | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20050403221806/http://www.ivansysoev.com/ | archive-date = April 3, 2005 | title = Ivan Sysoev }}, prolific and well-known Doukhobor poet and hymnist..
* {{Citation | url = https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/the-doukhobors-arrive-in-canada-feature | contribution = The Doukhobors Arrive in Canada | title = The Canadian Encyclopedia}}
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