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{{short description|National flag}}
{{redirect-distinguish|Hinomaru|Hanamaru}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2022}}
{{Infobox flag
| Name = Japan
| Image = Flag of Japan.svg
| Nickname = ''Nisshoki''<ref name="law" /> or ''Hinomaru''<ref name="sfcon" />
| Use = 110110
| Symbol = {{FIAV|110110}} {{FIAV|normal}}
| Proportion = 2:3<ref name="law" />
| Adoption = {{Start date and age|1870|02|27|df=y}}{{efn|As the civil ensign by Proclamation No. 57.}} (civil ensign)<br />{{Start date and age|1999|08|13|df=y}}{{efn|As the national flag and slight modifications to the design of the flag.}} (national flag)
| Design = A white background with a large crimson dot in the middle
}}

The [[national flag]] of [[Japan]] is a rectangular white banner bearing a crimson-red circle at its center. This flag is officially called the {{nihongo|''Nisshōki''|日章旗||'flag of the sun'}}, but is more commonly known in Japan as the {{nihongo|''Hinomaru''|日の丸||'Ball of the sun'}}. It embodies the country's [[sobriquet]]: the [[Land of the Rising Sun]].

The ''Nisshoki'' flag is designated as the national flag in the [[Act on National Flag and Anthem]], which was promulgated and became effective on 13 August 1999. Although no earlier legislation had specified a national flag, the sun-disc flag had already become the ''de facto'' national flag of Japan. Two proclamations issued in 1870 by the [[Daijō-kan]], the governmental body of the early [[Meiji period]], each had a provision for a design of the national flag. A sun-disc flag was adopted as the national flag for merchant ships under Proclamation No. 57 of Meiji 3 (issued on 27 February 1870<!--January 27 in JP calendar-->),<ref>{{cite wikisource |wslanguage=ja |plaintitle=[[s:ja:郵船商船規則|郵船商船規則]] |publisher=Government of Japan}}</ref> and as the national flag used by the Navy under Proclamation No. 651 of Meiji 3 (issued on 27 October 1870<!--October 3 in JP calendar-->).<ref>{{cite act |url=http://dl.ndl.go.jp/info:ndljp/pid/787950/220 |title=法令全書 |legislature=[[National Diet]] |language=ja |date=27 October 1870 |doi=10.11501/787950 |access-date=26 February 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190328042724/http://dl.ndl.go.jp/info:ndljp/pid/787950/220 |archive-date=28 March 2019 |url-status=live }}</ref> Use of the ''Hinomaru'' was severely restricted during the early years of the [[Occupation of Japan|Allied occupation of Japan]] after [[World War II]]; these restrictions were later relaxed.

The sun plays an important role in [[Japanese mythology]] and religion, as the [[Emperor of Japan|Emperor]] is said to be the [[Japanese imperial family tree|direct descendant]] of the [[Shinto]] sun goddess [[Amaterasu]], and the legitimacy of the [[Imperial House of Japan|ruling house]] rested on this divine appointment. The [[Names of Japan|name of the country]] as well as the design of the flag reflect this central importance of the sun. The ancient history [[Shoku Nihongi]] says that [[Emperor Monmu]] used a flag representing the sun in his court in 701, the first recorded use of a sun-motif flag in Japan.<ref name="toyokeizai" /><ref name="UdC" /> The oldest existing flag is preserved in Unpō-ji temple, [[Kōshū, Yamanashi]], which is older than the 16th century, and an ancient legend says that the flag was given to the temple by [[Emperor Go-Reizei]] in the 11th century.<ref>{{vcite web | title=日の丸の御旗 | url=http://www.yamanashi-kankou.jp/kankou/spot/p1_4496.html | publisher=Yamanashi Tourism Organization | access-date=17 July 2011 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111001060501/http://www.yamanashi-kankou.jp/kankou/spot/p1_4496.html | archive-date=1 October 2011 | url-status=live }}{{in lang|ja}}</ref><ref>{{vcite web | title=宝物殿の案内 | url=http://unpoji.ko-shu.jp/treasure.html | publisher=Unpoji | access-date=17 July 2011 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111104185140/http://unpoji.ko-shu.jp/treasure.html | archive-date=4 November 2011 | url-status=live }}{{in lang|ja}}</ref><ref>{{vcite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8x322-89x3MC&pg=PA54|title=Little-Known Wars of Great and Lasting Impact: The Turning Points in Our History We Should Know More About |first= Alan |last=Axelrod |publisher =Fair Winds|year= 2009 |isbn=1-59233-375-3|page=54}}</ref>  During the [[Meiji Restoration]], the sun disc and the [[Rising Sun Flag|Rising Sun Ensign]] of the [[Imperial Japanese Navy]] and [[Imperial Japanese Army|Army]] became major symbols in the emerging [[Empire of Japan|Japanese Empire]]. Propaganda posters, textbooks, and films depicted the flag as a source of pride and patriotism. In Japanese homes, citizens were required to display the flag during national holidays, celebrations and other occasions as decreed by the government. Different tokens of devotion to Japan and its Emperor featuring the ''Hinomaru'' motif became popular among the public during the [[Second Sino-Japanese War]] and other conflicts. These tokens ranged from slogans written on the flag to clothing items and dishes that resembled the flag.

Public perception of the national flag varies. Historically, both Western and Japanese sources claimed the flag was a powerful and enduring symbol to the Japanese. Since the end of World War II (the [[Pacific War]]), the use of the flag and the national anthem ''[[Kimigayo]]'' has been a contentious issue for Japan's public schools, and disputes about their use have led to protests and lawsuits. Several [[List of Japanese flags#Military flags|military banners of Japan]] are based on the ''Hinomaru'', including the sunrayed naval ensign. The ''Hinomaru'' also serves as a template for other Japanese flags in public and private use.

==History==
===Ancient to medieval===
[[File:Atakebune3.jpg|thumb|The fleet of [[Kuki Yoshitaka]] in 1593]]
[[File:Shogunate Fleet View of Edo c1634.png|thumb|Shogunate fleet with hinomaru, {{Circa|1634}}]]
[[File:Asahi Maru warship 1856.png|thumb|[[Tokugawa shogunate]] warship {{ship|Japanese warship|Asahi Maru||2}} in 1856]]
[[File:Utagawa-Hiroshige-III-Progression-During-the-Imperial-Inspection-at-Ou-Matsushima-1876.png|thumb|Progression During the Imperial Inspection at Ou, Matsushima. Ukiyo-e by [[Hiroshige III]] (1876)]]
[[File:Flag of Japan (1870–1999).svg|thumb|{{FIAV|historical}}Flag of Japan (1870–1999)]]

The exact origin of the ''Hinomaru'' is unknown,<ref name="webjapanen">{{vcite web |url=http://web-japan.org/factsheet/en/pdf/11NFlagAnthem.pdf |title=National Flag and Anthem |home=Web Japan |publisher=Japanese Ministry of Foreign Affairs |year=2000 |access-date=11 December 2009 |format=PDF |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100615104013/http://web-japan.org/factsheet/en/pdf/11NFlagAnthem.pdf |archive-date=15 June 2010 |url-status=live }}</ref> but the rising sun has carried symbolic meaning since the early 7th century (the Japanese archipelago is east of the Asian mainland, and is thus where the sun "rises"). In 607, an official correspondence that began with "from the Emperor of the rising sun" was sent to Chinese [[Emperor Yang of Sui]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Dyer|1909|p=24}}</ref> Japan is often referred to as "the land of the rising sun".<ref>{{Harvnb|Edgington|2003|pp=123–124}}</ref>

The sun is closely related to the [[Imperial House of Japan|Imperial family]], as legend states the imperial throne was descended from the sun goddess [[Amaterasu]].<ref>{{harvnb|Ashkenazi|2003|pp=112–113}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Hall|1996|p=110}}</ref> The religion, which is categorized as the ancient [[Ko-Shintō]] religion of the [[Japanese people]], includes [[nature worship]] and [[animism]], and the [[faith]] has been worshiping the [[sun]], especially in [[agriculture]] and [[fishing]]. The Imperial God, [[Amaterasu|Amaterasu-ōmikami]], is the sun goddess. From the [[Yayoi period]] (300 BCE) to the [[Kofun period]] (250 CE) ([[Yamato period]]), the [[:ja: 内行花文鏡|Naiko Kamonkyo]] (内行花文鏡, a large bronze mirror with patterns like a flower-petal manufactured in Japan) was used as a celebration of the shape of the shining sun and there is a theory that one of the [[Imperial Regalia of Japan|Three Sacred Treasures]], [[Yata no Kagami]], is used like this mirror.<ref>森浩一著「日本神話の考古学」（朝日新聞出版 1993年7月）</ref>

During the eastern expedition (Jinmu tosei), [[Emperor Jimmu]]'s brother Itsuse no Mikoto was killed in a battle against the local chieftain Nagasunehiko ("the long-legged man") in Naniwa (modern-day Osaka). [[Emperor Jimmu]] realized, as descendants of the sun, that he did not want to fight towards the sun (to the east), but to fight from the sun (to the west). So his clan went to the east side of [[Kii Peninsula]] to battle westward. They reached [[Kumano, Mie|Kumano]] (or [[Ise, Mie|Ise]]) and went towards Yamato. They were victorious at the second battle with Nagasunehiko and conquered the [[Kinki region]].<ref>「日本古典文学大系 2 風土記」（岩波書店 1958年4月）の伊勢国風土記逸文に、神武天皇が[[伊勢国造]]の祖の天日別命に命じて[[伊勢国]]に攻め込ませ、国津神の[[伊勢津彦]]を追い出して伊勢を平定したとある。</ref><ref>熊野からでは北に向かって戦う事になる。このため[[鈴木眞年]]のように、伊勢まで行って西から[[奈良盆地|大和盆地]]に侵攻したとする説もある。</ref>

The use of the sun-shaped flag was thought to have taken place since the emperor's direct imperial rule (親政) was established after the [[Isshi Incident]] in 645 (first year of the [[Taika (era)|Taika]]).<ref>泉欣七郎、千田健共編『日本なんでもはじめ』ナンバーワン、1985年、149頁、{{ISBN|4931016065}}</ref>

The Japanese history text ''[[Shoku Nihongi]]'', completed in 797, has the first recorded use of the sun-motif flag by [[Emperor Monmu]]'s {{nihongo|Chōga|朝賀||'new year's greetings ceremony'}} in 701 (the first year of the [[Taihō (era)|Taihō era]]).<ref name="toyokeizai">{{cite web |url=https://toyokeizai.net/articles/-/97892?page=2 |title=｢国旗｣の真実をどれだけ知っていますか |date=23 December 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160204191818/https://toyokeizai.net/articles/-/97892?page=2 |archive-date=4 February 2016}}</ref><ref name="UdC" /> For the decoration of the ceremony hall on New Year's Day the {{nihongo|Nissho|日像||'the flag with the golden sun'}} was raised.<ref name="toyokeizai" /><ref name="UdC">{{cite web |title=Shoku Nihongi |url=https://jhti.berkeley.edu/Shoku%20Nihongi.html |website=[[University of California, Berkeley]] (see original Japanese text) |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210204020804/https://jhti.berkeley.edu/Shoku%20Nihongi.html |archive-date=4 February 2021}}</ref>

One prominent theory is influenced by the results of the [[Genpei War]] (1180–1185).<ref name="nishi" /> Until the [[Heian period]], the Nishiki flag (Nishiki no mihata 錦の御旗), a symbol of the Imperial Court, had a golden sun circle and a silver moon circle on a red background.<ref name="nishi" /> At the end of the Heian era, the [[Taira clan]] called themselves a government army and used the red flag with a gold circle (赤地金丸) as per the Imperial Court.<ref name="nishi" /> The Genji ([[Minamoto clan]]) were in opposition so they used a white flag with a red circle (白地赤丸) when they fought the Genpei War (1180–1185).<ref name="nishi" /> When the Taira clan was defeated, the samurai government ([[bakufu]], 幕府) was formed by the Genji.<ref name="nishi" /> The warlords who came after such as [[Oda Nobunaga]] and [[Tokugawa Ieyasu]] realized they were successors of Genji so they raised the ''Hinomaru'' flag in battle.<ref name="nishi">{{cite web |title=国旗「日の丸」のルーツは「種子島家の船贈」 |website=Nishinomote City |url=http://www.city.nishinoomote.lg.jp/material/files/group/44/hinomaruha.PDF |date= 28 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210728081345/http://www.city.nishinoomote.lg.jp/material/files/group/44/hinomaruha.PDF |archive-date=28 July 2021}}</ref>

In the 12th-century work, ''[[The Tale of the Heike]]'', it was written that different [[samurai]] carried drawings of the sun on their fans.<ref name="Itoh 205">{{Harvnb|Itoh|2003|p=205}}</ref> One legend related to the national flag is attributed to the [[Buddhism|Buddhist]] priest [[Nichiren]]. Supposedly, during a 13th-century [[Mongolia]]n invasion of Japan, Nichiren gave a sun banner to the ''[[shōgun]]'' to carry into battle.<ref>{{Harvnb|Feldman|2004|pp=151–155}}</ref>

During the [[Battle of Nagashino]] (28 June 1575), Oda Nobunaga and Tokugawa Ieyasu's allied forces fought [[Takeda Katsuyori]].<ref name="nishi" /> Both Nobunaga and Ieyasu had their own flags with family crests, but they also held the ''Hinomaru''.<ref name="nishi" /> On the other hand, the Takeda clan side also raised the ''Hinomaru''.<ref name="nishi" /> So the ''Hinomaru'' was used as a national symbol.<ref name="nishi" />

One of Japan's oldest flags is housed at the Unpo-ji temple in [[Kōshū, Yamanashi|Kōshū]] city, [[Yamanashi Prefecture]].<ref name="nishi" /> Legend states it was given by [[Emperor Go-Reizei]] to [[Minamoto no Yoshimitsu]] and has been treated as a family treasure by the [[Takeda clan]] for the past 1,000 years,<ref name="nishi" /><ref name="japantimes">{{vcite news |author=Hongo, Jun |title=Hinomaru, 'Kimigayo' express conflicts both past and future |date=17 July 2007 |url=http://search.japantimes.co.jp/cgi-bin/nn20070717i1.html |work=[[The Japan Times]] |access-date=11 January 2008 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120718030711/http://www.japantimes.co.jp/text/nn20070717i1.html%23.UAYoUKgo9Rw |archive-date=18 July 2012 |url-status=live }}</ref> and at least it is older than 16th century.

In the 16th century [[Azuchi–Momoyama period|unification period]], each ''[[daimyō]]'' had flags that were used primarily in battle. Most of the flags were long banners usually charged with the [[mon (badge)|mon]] (family crest) of the ''daimyō'' lord. Members of the same family, such as a son, father, and brother, had different flags to carry into battle. The flags served as identification and were displayed by soldiers on their backs and horses. Generals also had their own flags, most of which differed from soldiers' flags due to their square shape.<ref>{{Harvnb|Turnbull|2001}}</ref>{{page needed|date=February 2021}}

In 1854, during the [[Tokugawa shogunate]], Japanese ships were ordered to hoist the ''Hinomaru'' to distinguish themselves from foreign ships.<ref name="Itoh 205" /> Before then, different types of ''Hinomaru'' flags were used on vessels that were trading with the U.S. and Russia.<ref name="webjapanen" /> The ''Hinomaru'' was decreed the merchant flag of Japan in 1870 and was the legal national flag from 1870 to 1885, making it the first national flag Japan adopted.<ref>{{harvnb|Goodman, Neary|1996|pp=77–78}}</ref><ref>{{vcite web |url=http://crd.ndl.go.jp/GENERAL/servlet/detail.reference?id=1000057111 |title=レファレンス事例詳細 |trans_title=Reference Case Details |access-date=20 November 2009 |date=2 July 2009 |publisher=National Diet Library |language={{in lang|ja}} |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110720131906/http://crd.ndl.go.jp/GENERAL/servlet/detail.reference?id=1000057111 |archive-date=20 July 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref>

While the idea of national symbols was strange to the Japanese, the Meiji Government needed them to communicate with the outside world. This became especially important after the landing of U.S. Commodore [[Matthew C. Perry|Matthew Perry]] in Yokohama Bay.<ref>{{Harvnb|Feiler|2004|p=214}}</ref> Further Meiji Government implementations gave more identifications to Japan, including the anthem ''Kimigayo'' and the imperial seal.<ref name="Ohnuki-Tierney 68–69">{{Harvnb|Ohnuki-Tierney|2002|pp=68–69}}</ref> In 1885, all previous laws not published in the Official Gazette of Japan were abolished.<ref>{{Harvnb|Rohl|2005|p=20}}</ref> Because of this ruling by the new cabinet of Japan, the ''Hinomaru'' was the ''de facto'' national flag since no law was in place after the [[Meiji Restoration]].<ref name="defacto">{{Harvnb|Befu|1992|pp=32–33}}</ref>

===Early conflicts and the Pacific War===
[[File:1939 Family photo from Nagano.jpg|thumb|alt=A family gathers around a young boy in a military uniform, surrounded by banners and flags. Some of the children also hold flags.|1930s photo of a military enrollment. The ''Hinomaru'' is displayed on the house and held by several children.]]
[[File:Manchuguo Poster.harmony of J,C and Mpeople.jpg|thumb|upright|alt=Three children holding flags in front of a building and a rising sun|[[Propaganda]] poster promoting harmony among [[Japanese people|Japanese]], [[Han Chinese|Chinese]], and [[Manchu]]. The caption in Chinese (read right to left) reads "With the cooperation of Japan, China, and Manchukuo, the world can be in peace".]]
The use of the national flag grew as Japan sought to develop an empire, and the ''Hinomaru'' was present at celebrations after victories in the [[First Sino-Japanese War|First Sino-Japanese]] and [[Russo-Japanese War]]s. The flag was also used in war efforts throughout the country.<ref name="Befu 92–95">{{Harvnb|Befu|2001|pp=92–95}}</ref> A Japanese propaganda film in 1934 portrayed foreign national flags as incomplete or defective with their designs, while the Japanese flag is perfect in all forms.<ref>{{Harvnb|Nornes|2003|p=81}}</ref> In 1937, a group of girls from [[Hiroshima Prefecture]] showed solidarity with Japanese soldiers fighting in China during the [[Second Sino-Japanese War]], by eating "flag meals" that consisted of an [[umeboshi]] in the middle of a bed of rice. The ''Hinomaru [[bento]]'' became the main symbol of Japan's war mobilization and solidarity with its soldiers until the 1940s.<ref>{{Harvnb|Cwiertka|2007|pp=117–119}}</ref>

Japan's early victories in the Sino-Japanese War resulted in the ''Hinomaru'' again being used for celebrations. It was seen in the hands of every Japanese during parades.<ref name="Befu 92–95" />

Textbooks during this period also had the ''Hinomaru'' printed with various slogans expressing devotion to the Emperor and the country. Patriotism was taught as a virtue to Japanese children. Expressions of patriotism, such as displaying the flag or worshiping the Emperor daily, were all part of being a "good Japanese".<ref>{{Harvnb|Partner|2004|pp=55–56}}</ref>

The flag was a tool of Japanese imperialism in the occupied Southeast Asian areas during the [[World War II|Second World War]]: people had to use the flag,<ref>{{Harvnb|Tipton|2002|p=137}}</ref> and schoolchildren sang ''Kimigayo'' in morning flag raising ceremonies.<ref>{{Harvnb|Newell|1982|p=28}}</ref> Local flags were allowed for some areas such as the [[Second Philippine Republic|Philippines]], [[Japanese occupation of the Dutch East Indies|Indonesia]], and [[Manchukuo]].<ref>{{vcite news | title=The Camera Overseas: The Japanese People Voted Against Frontier Friction | date=21 June 1937 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1UQEAAAAMBAJ&dq=Manchukuo+flag&pg=PA74 | work=[[Life (magazine)|Life]]| page=75 | access-date=19 January 2010 }}</ref><ref>{{vcite web |url=http://www.nhi.gov.ph/index2.php?option=com_content&do_pdf=1&id=26 |title=The Controversial Philippine National Flag |access-date=19 January 2010 |date=2008 |format=PDF |publisher=National Historical Institute |url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090601003438/http://www.nhi.gov.ph/index2.php?option=com_content&do_pdf=1&id=26 |archive-date=1 June 2009 |df= }}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Taylor|2004|p=321}}</ref> In [[Korea under Japanese rule|Korea]] which was part of the Empire of Japan, the ''Hinomaru'' and other symbols were used to declare that the Koreans were subjects of the empire.<ref>{{harvnb|Goodman, Neary|1996|p=102}}</ref>

During the Pacific War, Americans coined the derogatory term "meatballs" for the ''Hinomaru'' and Japanese [[military aircraft insignia]].<ref>Morita, D. (19 April 2007) "A Story of Treason", San Francisco: ''[[Nichi Bei Times]]''.</ref> To the Japanese, the ''Hinomaru'' was the "Rising Sun flag that would light the darkness of the entire world".<ref>{{Harvnb|Ebrey|2004|p=443}}</ref> To Westerners, it was one of the Japanese military's most powerful symbols.<ref>{{vcite news | author =Hauser, Ernest | title =Son of Heaven | date =10 June 1940 | url =https://books.google.com/books?id=4j8EAAAAMBAJ&dq=japanese+flag+loyal+Emperor&pg=PA79 | work =Life | page =79 | access-date =17 January 2010 | archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20111214192215/http://books.google.com/books?id=4j8EAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA79&dq=japanese+flag+loyal+emperor&lr=&as_brr=0&client=firefox-a&cd=7#v=onepage&q=japanese%20flag%20loyal%20Emperor&f=false | archive-date =14 December 2011 | url-status =live }}</ref>

===U.S. occupation=== <!--Flag of Germany links here -->
[[File:Surrender of Japanese Forces in Southern Korea.jpg|thumb|upright|left|alt=Men in military dress watch a flag being lowered.|The ''Hinomaru'' is lowered in [[Seoul|Seoul, Korea]], on 9 September 1945, the day of the surrender.]]

The ''Hinomaru'' was the ''[[de facto]]'' flag of Japan throughout World War&nbsp;II and the occupation period.<ref name="defacto" /> During the [[occupation of Japan]] after [[World War&nbsp;II]], permission from the [[Supreme Commander of the Allied Powers]] (SCAPJ) was needed to fly the ''Hinomaru''.<ref name="flag45">{{vcite web |url=http://www.mext.go.jp/b_menu/houdou/11/09/990906j.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080110115759/http://www.mext.go.jp/b_menu/houdou/11/09/990906j.htm |archive-date=10 January 2008 |title=国旗，国歌の由来等 |trans_title=Origin of the National Flag and Anthem |publisher=Ministry of Education |language={{in lang|ja}} |date=1 September 1999 |access-date=1 December 2007}}</ref><ref name='Goodman' /> Sources differ on the degree to which the use of the ''Hinomaru'' flag was restricted; some use the term "banned;"<ref name='Wesiman' /><ref name="banned">{{vcite book | author = Hardarce, Helen; Adam L. Kern | title = New Directions in the Study of Meiji Japan | publisher = Brill | date = 1997 | page = 653 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=pXlZoSjXb2QC&dq=Japanese+flag+banned&pg=PA653 | isbn = 90-04-10735-5 | access-date = 18 October 2015 }}</ref> however, while the original restrictions were severe, they did not amount to an outright ban.<ref name="defacto" />

After World War&nbsp;II, an [[Ensign (flag)|ensign]] was used by Japanese civil ships of the United States Naval Shipping Control Authority for Japanese Merchant Marines.<ref name="scajape">{{vcite web|url=http://homepage2.nifty.com/captysd/yomoyama/syometu.htm|title=邦人船員消滅|trans_title=Kunihito crew extinguished|author=吉田 藤人|language={{in lang|ja}}|access-date=2 December 2007|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://archive.today/20121209001156/http://homepage2.nifty.com/captysd/yomoyama/syometu.htm|archive-date=9 December 2012|df=}}</ref> Modified from the "E" [[International maritime signal flags|signal code]], the ensign was used from September 1945 until the U.S. occupation of Japan ceased.<ref>{{vcite book | author = University of Leicester | title = The Journal of Transport History | publisher = University of Leicester | year = 1987 | location = Manchester, United Kingdom | page = 41 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=pYO2AAAAIAAJ&q=flag+SCAJAP+Easy | access-date = 18 October 2015 }}</ref> U.S. ships operating in Japanese waters used a modified "O" signal flag as their ensign.<ref>{{Harvnb|Carr, Hulme|1956|p=200}}</ref>

On 2 May 1947, General [[Douglas MacArthur]] lifted the restrictions on displaying the ''Hinomaru'' in the grounds of the [[National Diet Building]], on the [[Tokyo Imperial Palace|Imperial Palace]], on the [[Kantei|Prime Minister's residence]] and on the Supreme Court building with the ratification of the new [[Constitution of Japan]].<ref name="47letter">{{vcite web |url=http://www.ndl.go.jp/constitution/shiryo/05/002_23/002_23tx.html |title=Letter from Shigeru Yoshida to General MacArthur dated May 2, 1947 |publisher=National Diet Library |author=Yoshida, Shigeru |language={{in lang|ja}}, English |date=2 May 1947 |access-date=3 December 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081208161853/http://www.ndl.go.jp/constitution/shiryo/05/002_23/002_23tx.html |archive-date=8 December 2008 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{vcite web |url=http://www.ndl.go.jp/constitution/e/shiryo/05/142/142tx.html |title=Letter from Douglas MacArthur to Prime Minister dated May 2, 1947 |access-date=10 December 2009 |author=MacArthur, Douglas |date=2 May 1947 |publisher=National Archives of Japan |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110611221724/http://www.ndl.go.jp/constitution/e/shiryo/05/142/142tx.html |archive-date=11 June 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref> Those restrictions were further relaxed in 1948, when people were allowed to fly the flag on national holidays. In January 1949, the restrictions were abolished and anyone could fly the ''Hinomaru'' at any time without permission. As a result, schools and homes were encouraged to fly the ''Hinomaru'' until the early 1950s.<ref name="flag45" />

===Postwar to 1999===
[[File:Japan joins the United Nations.jpg|thumb|upright|alt=A group of men and women watching a flag being raised.|The ''Hinomaru'' being raised at the [[United Nations]] headquarters in [[New York City]] in 1956]]
Since World War&nbsp;II, Japan's flag has been criticized for its association with the country's [[militarism|militaristic]] past. Similar objections have also been raised to the current national anthem of Japan, ''[[Kimigayo]]''.<ref name="japantimes" /> The feelings about the ''Hinomaru'' and ''Kimigayo'' represented a general shift from a patriotic feeling about "Dai Nippon"&nbsp;– Great Japan&nbsp;– to the pacifist and anti-militarist "Nihon". Because of this ideological shift, the flag was used less often in Japan directly after the war even though restrictions were lifted by the SCAPJ in 1949.<ref name='Goodman'>{{harvnb|Goodman, Neary|1996|pp=81–83}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Meyer|2009|p=266}}</ref>

As Japan began to re-establish itself diplomatically, the ''Hinomaru'' was used as a political weapon overseas. In a visit by [[Hirohito|Emperor Hirohito]] and [[Empress Kōjun]] to the [[Netherlands]], the ''Hinomaru'' was burned by Dutch citizens who demanded that he either be sent home to Japan or tried for the deaths of Dutch [[prisoner of war|prisoners of war]] during the Second World War.<ref>{{Harvnb|Large|1992|p=184}}</ref> Domestically, the flag was not even used in protests against a new [[Status of Forces Agreement]] being negotiated between the U.S. and Japan. The most common flag used by the trade unions and other protesters was the [[red flag (politics)|red flag]] of revolt.<ref>{{Harvnb|Yamazumi|1988|p=76}}</ref>

An issue with the ''Hinomaru'' and national anthem was raised once again when Tokyo hosted the [[1964 Summer Olympics|1964 Summer Olympic Games]]. Before the Olympic Games, the size of the sun disc of the national flag was changed partly because the sun disc was not considered striking when it was being flown with other national flags.<ref name='Goodman' /> Tadamasa Fukiura, a color specialist, chose to set the sun disc at two-thirds of the flag's length. Fukiura also chose the flag colors for the 1964 games as well as for the [[1998 Winter Olympics]] in Nagano.<ref>{{cite AV media |people=Fukiura, Tadamasa|title=ブラックマヨネーズ|medium=TV|publisher=New Star Creation|location=Japan|date=2009}}</ref>

In 1989, the death of Emperor Hirohito once again raised moral issues about the national flag. Conservatives felt that if the flag could be used during the ceremonies without reopening old wounds, they might have a chance to propose that the ''Hinomaru'' become the national flag without being challenged about its meaning.<ref name="Borneman 112">{{harvnb|Borneman|2003|p=112}}</ref> During an official six-day mourning period, flags were flown at half staff or draped in black bunting all across Japan.<ref>{{vcite news | author=Chira, Susan | title=Hirohito, 124th Emperor of Japan, Is Dead at 87 | date=7 January 1989 | url=https://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/bday/0429.html | work=[[The New York Times]] | access-date=30 January 2010 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100107042919/http://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/bday/0429.html | archive-date=7 January 2010 | url-status=live }}</ref> Despite reports of protesters vandalizing the ''Hinomaru'' on the day of the Emperor's funeral,<ref>{{harvnb|Kataoka|1991|p=149}}</ref> schools' right to fly the Japanese flag at [[half-staff]] without reservations brought success to the conservatives.<ref name="Borneman 112" />

===Since 1999===
[[File:国旗及び国歌に関する法律.jpg|thumb|upright|alt=A page with Asian characters and a black-and-white version of the Japanese flag left above|The ''Law Regarding the National Flag and National Anthem'' as it appears in the Official Gazette on 15 August 1999]]
The ''[[Act on National Flag and Anthem (Japan)|Law Regarding the National Flag and National Anthem]]'' was passed in 1999, choosing both the ''Hinomaru'' and ''Kimigayo'' as Japan's national symbols. The passage of the law stemmed from the suicide of the principal of [[:ja: 広島県立世羅高等学校|Sera High School]] in [[Sera, Hiroshima|Sera]], [[Hiroshima Prefecture|Hiroshima]], Toshihiro Ishikawa, who could not resolve a dispute between his school board and his teachers over the use of the ''Hinomaru'' and ''Kimigayo''.<ref>{{Harvnb|Aspinall|2001|p=126}}</ref><ref name="nytimes.com">{{vcite news | title = Vote in Japan Backs Flag and Ode as Symbols | date = 23 July 1999 | url = https://www.nytimes.com/1999/07/23/world/vote-in-japan-backs-flag-and-ode-as-symbols.html | work = The New York Times | access-date = 13 October 2010 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130601063502/http://www.nytimes.com/1999/07/23/world/vote-in-japan-backs-flag-and-ode-as-symbols.html | archive-date = 1 June 2013 | url-status = live }}</ref> The Act is one of the most controversial laws passed by the [[Diet of Japan|Diet]] since the 1992 "Law Concerning Cooperation for United Nations Peacekeeping Operations and Other Operations", also known as the "International Peace Cooperation Law".<ref name="Williams">{{harvnb|Williams|2006|p=91}}</ref>

[[Prime Minister of Japan|Prime Minister]] [[Keizō Obuchi]] of the [[Liberal Democratic Party (Japan)|Liberal Democratic Party]] (LDP) decided to draft legislation to make the ''Hinomaru'' and ''Kimigayo'' official symbols of Japan in 2000. His [[Chief Cabinet Secretary]], [[Hiromu Nonaka]], wanted the legislation to be completed by the 10th anniversary of Emperor [[Akihito]]'s [[Enthronement of the Japanese Emperor|enthronement]].<ref name="Itoh 2003 209–210">{{Harvnb|Itoh|2003|pp=209–210}}</ref> This is not the first time legislation was considered for establishing both symbols as official. In 1974, with the backdrop of the 1972 return of Okinawa to Japan and the [[1973 oil crisis]], Prime Minister [[Kakuei Tanaka]] hinted at a law being passed enshrining both symbols in the law of Japan.<ref name='Goodman82-83'>{{harvnb|Goodman, Neary|1996|pp=82–83}}</ref> In addition to instructing the schools to teach and play ''Kimigayo'', Tanaka wanted students to raise the ''Hinomaru'' flag in a ceremony every morning, and to adopt a moral curriculum based on certain elements of the [[Imperial Rescript on Education]] pronounced by the [[Meiji Emperor]] in 1890.<ref>{{vcite news | title = Education: Tanaka v. the Teachers | date = 17 June 1974 | url = http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,879332-1,00.html | work = [[Time (magazine)|Time]] | access-date = 13 October 2010 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110623055527/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,879332-1,00.html | archive-date = 23 June 2011 | url-status = dead }}</ref> Tanaka was unsuccessful in passing the law through the Diet that year.<ref>{{harvnb|Okano|1999|p=237}}</ref>

The main supporters of the bill were the LDP and the [[Komeito]] (CGP), while the opposition included the [[Social Democratic Party (Japan)|Social Democratic Party]] (SDPJ) and [[Japanese Communist Party|Communist Party]] (JCP), who cited the connotations both symbols had with the war era. The CPJ was further opposed for not allowing the issue to be decided by the public. Meanwhile, the [[Democratic Party of Japan]] (DPJ) could not develop party consensus on it. DPJ President and future prime minister [[Naoto Kan]] stated that the DPJ must support the bill because the party already recognized both symbols as the symbols of Japan.<ref>{{vcite web |url=http://archive.dpj.or.jp/news/?num=11044 |title=国旗国歌法制化についての民主党の考え方 |access-date=17 January 2010 |date=21 July 1999 |publisher=Democratic Party of Japan |trans_title=The DPJ Asks For A Talk About the Flag and Anthem Law |language={{in lang|ja}} |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130708111200/http://archive.dpj.or.jp/news/?num=11044 |archive-date=8 July 2013 |url-status=live }}</ref> Deputy Secretary General and future prime minister [[Yukio Hatoyama]] thought that this bill would cause further divisions among society and the public schools. Hatoyama voted for the bill while Kan voted against it.<ref name="Itoh 2003 209–210" />

Before the vote, there were calls for the bills to be separated at the Diet. [[Waseda University]] professor Norihiro Kato stated that ''Kimigayo'' is a separate issue more complex than the ''Hinomaru'' flag.<ref>{{vcite book | last1 = Calichman | first1 = Richard | title = Contemporary Japanese Thought | publisher = Columbia University Press | year = 2005 | page = 211 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=Y8Paxm86ONwC&dq=kimigayo&pg=PA211 | access-date = 14 October 2010 | isbn = 978-0-231-13620-4}}</ref> Attempts to designate only the ''Hinomaru'' as the national flag by the DPJ and other parties during the vote of the bill were rejected by the Diet.<ref>{{vcite web |url=http://archive.dpj.or.jp/news/?num=8506 |title=国旗・国歌法案、衆院で可決 民主党は自主投票 |access-date=18 January 2010 |trans_title=Flag and Anthem Law Passed by the House, DPJ Free Vote |date=22 July 1999 |publisher=Democratic Party of Japan |language={{in lang|ja}} |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131019105928/http://archive.dpj.or.jp/news/?num=8506 |archive-date=19 October 2013 |url-status=live }}</ref> The House of Representatives passed the bill on 22 July 1999, by a 403 to 86 vote.<ref>{{vcite web |url=http://kokkai.ndl.go.jp/SENTAKU/syugiin/145/0001/14507220001047c.html |title=第１４５回国会 本会議 第４７号 |access-date=17 January 2010 |date=22 July 1999 |publisher=National Diet Library |language={{in lang|ja}} |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120714043020/http://kokkai.ndl.go.jp/SENTAKU/syugiin/145/0001/14507220001047c.html |archive-date=14 July 2012 |url-status=dead }}</ref> The legislation was sent to the House of Councilors on 28 July and was passed on 9 August. It was enacted into law on 13 August.<ref>{{vcite web|url=http://www.shugiin.go.jp/itdb_gian.nsf/html/gian/keika/1CE3AB6.htm |title=議案審議経過情報: 国旗及び国歌に関する法律案 |access-date=17 January 2010 |date=13 August 1999 |publisher=House of Representatives |language={{in lang|ja}} |url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110323180056/http://www.shugiin.go.jp/itdb_gian.nsf/html/gian/keika/1CE3AB6.htm |archive-date=23 March 2011 |df= }}</ref>

On 8 August 2009, a photograph was taken at a DPJ rally for the [[2009 Japanese general election|House of Representatives election]] showing a banner that was hanging from a ceiling. The banner was made of two ''Hinomaru'' flags cut and sewn together to form the shape of the DPJ logo. This infuriated the LDP and Prime Minister [[Tarō Asō]], saying this act was unforgivable. In response, DPJ President Yukio Hatoyama (who voted for the Law Regarding the National Flag and National Anthem)<ref name="Itoh 2003 209–210" /> said that the banner was not the ''Hinomaru'' and should not be regarded as such.<ref name='dpjrally'>{{vcite news | title=【日本の議論】日の丸裁断による民主党旗問題 国旗の侮辱行為への罰則は是か非か | trans_title=(Japan) Discussion of penalties of acts of contempt against the Hinomaru by the DPJ | date=30 August 2009 | publisher=Sankei Digital | url=http://sankei.jp.msn.com/life/trend/090830/trd0908301601006-n1.htm | work=Sankei Shimbun | access-date=6 September 2009 | language={{in lang|ja}} | url-status=dead| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090902084654/http://sankei.jp.msn.com/life/trend/090830/trd0908301601006-n1.htm | archive-date=2 September 2009 | df= }}</ref>

==Flag design==
[[File:Flag of Japan.jpg|thumb|left|upright|Flag of Japan flying]]
Passed in 1870, the Prime Minister's Proclamation No.&nbsp;57 had two provisions related to the national flag. The first provision specified who flew the flag and how it was flown; the second specified how the flag was made.<ref name="webjapanen" /> The ratio was seven units width and ten units length (7:10). The red disc, which represents the sun, was calculated to be three-fifths of the [[Flag terminology|hoist width]]. The law decreed the disc to be in the center, but it was usually placed one-hundredth ({{frac|1|100}}) towards the hoist.<ref>{{Harvnb|明治3年太政官布告第57号}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Takenaka|2003|pp=68–69}}</ref> (this makes the disc appear centered when the flag is flying; this technique is used in other flags, such as the [[Flag of Bangladesh]]). On 3 October of the same year, regulations about the design of the merchant ensign and other naval flags were passed.<ref name="reg651">{{Harvnb|明治3年太政官布告第651号}}</ref> For the merchant flag, the ratio was two units width and three units length (2:3). The size of the disc remained the same, but the sun disc was placed one-twentieth ({{frac|1|20}}) towards the hoist.<ref>{{Harvnb|Takenaka|2003|p=66}}</ref>
[[File:Construction sheet of the Japanese flag EN.svg|alt=The flag has a ratio of two by three. The diameter of the sun is three-fifths of the height of the flag. The sun is placed directly in the center.|thumb|Construction sheet]]
When the ''[[Act on National Flag and Anthem (Japan)|Law Regarding the National Flag and National Anthem]]'' passed, the dimensions of the flag were slightly altered.<ref name="law">{{Harvnb|国旗及び国歌に関する法律}}</ref> The overall ratio of the flag was changed to two units width by three units length (2:3). The red disc was shifted towards the center, but the overall size of the disc stayed the same.<ref name="sfcon">{{vcite web |url=http://www.sf.us.emb-japan.go.jp/en/e_m08_01_01.htm#5 |title=Basic / General Information on Japan |access-date=19 November 2009 |date=1 January 2008 |publisher=Consulate-General of Japan in San Francisco |url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121211064613/http://www.sf.us.emb-japan.go.jp/en/e_m08_01_01.htm#5 |archive-date=11 December 2012 |df= }}</ref> The background of the flag is white and the center is a {{nihongo|red circle|紅色|beni iro}}, but the exact color shades were not defined in the 1999 law.<ref name="law" /> The only hint given about the red colour is that it is a "deep" shade.<ref>{{vcite web |url=http://www.cao.go.jp/en/flag_anthem.html |title=National Flag & National Anthem |access-date=2 January 2010 |date=2006 |publisher=Cabinet Office, Government of Japan |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090522185219/http://www.cao.go.jp/en/flag_anthem.html |archive-date=22 May 2009 |url-status=live }}</ref>

Issued by the Japan Defense Agency (now the [[Ministry of Defense (Japan)|Ministry of Defense]]) in 1973 ([[Shōwa era|Shōwa]] 48), specifications list the red color of the flag as 5R 4/12 and the white as N9 in the [[Munsell color]] chart.<ref name="z8701">{{vcite web |url=https://www.mod.go.jp/j/procurement/chotatsu/nds/pdf/z/z8701.pdf |title=Defense Specification Z 8701C (DSPZ8701C) |publisher=Ministry of Defense |format=PDF |language={{in lang|ja}} |date=27 November 1973 |access-date=9 July 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120420171251/http://www.mod.go.jp/j/procurement/chotatsu/nds/pdf/z/z8701.pdf |archive-date=20 April 2012 |url-status=live }}</ref> The document was changed on 21 March 2008 ([[Heisei]] 20) to match the flag's construction with current legislation and updated the Munsell colours. The document lists [[acrylic fiber]] and [[nylon]] as fibers that could be used in construction of flags used by the military. For acrylic, the red color is 5.7R 3.7/15.5 and white is N9.4; nylon has 6.2R 4/15.2 for red and N9.2 for white.<ref name="z8701" /> In a document issued by the [[Official Development Assistance (Japan)|Official Development Assistance]] (ODA), the red color for the ''Hinomaru'' and the ODA logo is listed as [[Dainippon Ink & Chemicals|DIC]] 156 and [[CMYK color model|CMYK]] 0-100-90-0.<ref name='odamark'>{{vcite web |url=http://www.jica.go.jp/announce/musho/info/consultant/13.pdf |title=日章旗のマーク、ODAシンボルマーク |trans_title=National flag mark, ODA Symbol |access-date=6 September 2009 |format=PDF |publisher=Office of Developmental Assistance |language={{in lang|ja}} |date=1 September 1995 |url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110928015954/http://www.jica.go.jp/announce/musho/info/consultant/13.pdf |archive-date=28 September 2011 |df= }}</ref> During deliberations about the ''Law Regarding the National Flag and National Anthem'', there was a suggestion to either use a {{nihongo|bright red|赤色|aka iro}} shade or use one from the color pool of the [[Japanese Industrial Standards]].<ref>{{vcite web |url=http://kokkai.ndl.go.jp/SENTAKU/sangiin/145/0044/14508020044004a.html |title=第１４５回国会 国旗及び国歌に関する特別委員会 第４号 |access-date=1 February 2010 |date=2 August 1999 |publisher=National Diet Library |trans_title=145th Meeting of the Diet, Discussion about the bill ''Law Regarding the National Flag and National Anthem'' |language={{in lang|ja}} |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110819132720/http://kokkai.ndl.go.jp/SENTAKU/sangiin/145/0044/14508020044004a.html |archive-date=19 August 2011 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

=== Colour chart ===

{| class="wikitable" style="margin:auto;"
|-
! Official colour (White)
! Official colour (Red)
! Colour system
! Source
! Year
|-
| {{color box|#e0e0e0}} N9<ref name="feel">Hexadecimal obtained by placing the colors in [http://www.feelimage.jp/analyzer/productinfo_3.htm Feelimage Analyzer] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100125152445/http://www.feelimage.jp/analyzer/productinfo_3.htm |date=25 January 2010 }}</ref>
| {{color box|#b0000f}} 5R 4/12<ref name="feel" />
| Munsell
| DSP Z 8701C<ref name="z8701" />
|1973
|-
| N/A
| {{color box|#EE0000}} 156<ref name='DIC'>{{vcite web |url=https://www.dic.co.jp/cgi-bin/cs_result7.cgi |title=DICカラーガイド情報検索 (ver 1.4) |trans_title=DIC Color Guide Information Retrieval (version 1.4) |access-date=15 September 2009 |publisher=DIC Corporation |language={{in lang|ja}} }}{{dead link|date=September 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>
| DIC
| ODA Symbol Mark Guidelines<ref name='odamark' />
| 1995
|}

==Use and customs==
[[File:Osaka Metro national flag.jpg|thumb|right|In [[Osaka Metro]],the flag is hoisted on national holidays]]

When the ''Hinomaru'' was first introduced, the government required citizens to greet the Emperor with the flag. There was some resentment among the Japanese over the flag, resulting in some protests. It took some time for the flag to gain acceptance among the people.<ref name="Ohnuki-Tierney 68–69" />

Before World War&nbsp;II, all homes were required to display ''Hinomaru'' on national holidays.<ref name="defacto" /> Since the war, the display of the flag of Japan is mostly limited to buildings attached to national and local governments such as city halls; it is rarely seen at private homes or commercial buildings,<ref name="defacto" /> but some people and companies have advocated displaying the flag on holidays. Although the government of Japan encourages citizens and residents to fly the ''Hinomaru'' during national holidays, they are not legally required to do so.<ref>{{vcite web |url=http://web-japan.org/factsheet/archives/ja/pdf/J11_flagan.pdf |title=国旗と国歌 |trans_title=National Flag and Anthem |access-date=11 December 2009 |format=PDF |home=Web Japan |publisher=Ministry of Foreign Affairs |language={{in lang|ja}} |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110605234300/http://web-japan.org/factsheet/archives/ja/pdf/J11_flagan.pdf |archive-date=5 June 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{vcite web |url=http://www.sangiin.go.jp/japanese/joho1/kousei/syuisyo/019/touh/t019009.htm |title=答弁書第九号 |access-date=1 February 2010 |author=Yoshida, Shigeru |date=27 April 1954 |publisher=House of Councillors |language={{in lang|ja}} |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100122222502/http://www.sangiin.go.jp/japanese/joho1/kousei/syuisyo/019/touh/t019009.htm |archive-date=22 January 2010 |url-status=live }}</ref> Since [[The Emperor's Birthday|the Emperor's 80th Birthday]] on 23 December 2002, the [[Kyushu Railway Company]] has displayed the ''Hinomaru'' at 330 stations.<ref name="47news">{{vcite web |url=http://www.47news.jp/CN/200211/CN2002112601000363.html |title=ＪＲ九州、日の丸を掲揚へ 有人３３０駅、祝日に |trans_title=JR Kyushu 330 manned stations to hoist the national flag |publisher=47news |language={{in lang|ja}} |date=26 November 2002 |url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081208205752/http://www.47news.jp/CN/200211/CN2002112601000363.html |archive-date=8 December 2008 |df= }}</ref>

Starting in 1995, the ODA has used the ''Hinomaru'' motif in their official logo. The design itself was not created by the government (the logo was chosen from 5,000 designs submitted by the public) but the government was trying to increase the visualization of the ''Hinomaru'' through their aid packages and development programs. According to the ODA, the use of the flag is the most effective way to symbolise aid provided by the Japanese people.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.mofa.go.jp/policy/oda/white/2006/oda2006/html/box/bx01005.htm |title=Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan |access-date=27 December 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130126023020/http://www.mofa.go.jp/policy/oda/white/2006/ODA2006/html/box/bx01005.htm |archive-date=26 January 2013 |url-status=live }}</ref>

===Hinomaru Yosegaki===
{{Main|Good Luck Flag}}
[[File:Signed Hinomaru flag of Eihachi Yamaguchi.JPG|thumb|right|An example of a [[Good Luck Flag|Hinomaru Yosegaki]] from World War II]]

During World War&nbsp;II in Japanese culture, it was a popular custom for friends, classmates, and relatives of a deploying soldier to sign a ''Hinomaru'' and present it to him. The flag was also used as a good luck charm and a prayer to wish the soldier back safely from battle. One term for this kind of charm is {{nihongo|''[[Good Luck Flag|Hinomaru Yosegaki]]''|日の丸寄せ書き}}.<ref name='yosegaki'>{{vcite web |url=http://www.city.himeji.lg.jp/koho/press/_18144/_18145/_18955.html |title=開催中の平和資料館収蔵品展から「日の丸寄せ書き」について |trans_title=Museum collections from the exhibition "Group flag efforts" being held for peace |access-date=25 September 2009 |publisher=City of Himeji, Hyogo Prefecture |language={{in lang|ja}} |url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110813054342/http://www.city.himeji.lg.jp/koho/press/_18144/_18145/_18955.html |archive-date=13 August 2011 |df= }}</ref> One tradition is that no writing should touch the sun disc.<ref name='smith75'>{{Harvnb|Smith|1975|p=171}}</ref> After battles, these flags were often captured or later found on deceased Japanese soldiers. Some of these flags have become souvenirs,<ref name="smith75" /> and some are being returned to Japan and the descendants of the deceased.<ref>{{vcite news | author=McBain, Roger | title=Going back home | date=9 July 2005 | publisher= | url=http://www.rose.sannet.ne.jp/nishiha/iryuhin/medea/cpress.html | work=Courier & Press | pages= | access-date=25 September 2009 | language= | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721233111/http://www.rose.sannet.ne.jp/nishiha/iryuhin/medea/cpress.html | archive-date=21 July 2011 | url-status=live }}</ref>

In modern times, the "Hinomaru Yosegaki" is still being used. The tradition of signing the ''Hinomaru'' as a good luck charm still continues, though in a limited fashion. The ''Hinomaru Yosegaki'' is shown at sporting events to give support to the Japanese national team.<ref>{{Harvnb|Takenaka|2003|p=101}}</ref> The Yosegaki (group effort flag, 寄せ書き) is used for campaigning soldiers,<ref name="siryoukan">{{Cite web |url=http://www.nishi.or.jp/~kyodo/tenji/senji/13/13.htm |title=西宮市立郷土資料館の企画展示 |access-date=24 October 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080619055335/http://www.nishi.or.jp/~kyodo/tenji/senji/13/13.htm |archive-date=19 June 2008 |url-status=dead }}</ref> athletes, retirees, transfer students in a community and for friends. The colored paper and flag has writing with a message. In modern Japan, it is given as a present to a person at a send-off party, for athletes, a farewell party for colleagues or transfer students, for graduation and retirement. After natural disasters such as the [[Aftermath of the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami|2011 Tōhoku Earthquake and tsunami]] people write notes on a Hinomaru Yosegaki to show support.

===Hachimaki===
[[File:Kobayashi Takeru, Japanese competitive eater 1.jpg|thumb|right|[[Takeru Kobayashi]] wears a [[hachimaki]].]]

The {{nihongo|''[[hachimaki]]''|鉢巻||"helmet-scarf"}} is a white [[headband]] ([[bandana]]) with the red sun in the middle. Phrases are usually written on it. It is worn as a symbol of [[Courage|perseverance]], effort, and/or [[courage]] by the wearer. These are worn on many occasions by for example sports spectators, women giving birth, students in [[juku|cram school]], office workers,<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://duncansensei.com/2015/03/hachimaki-japanese-headbands/|title=Hachimaki – Japanese Headbands – DuncanSensei Japanese|website=DuncanSensei Japanese|date=24 March 2015|language=en-US|access-date=19 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160306170039/http://duncansensei.com/2015/03/hachimaki-japanese-headbands/|archive-date=6 March 2016|url-status=live}}</ref> tradesmen taking pride in their work etc. During World War&nbsp;II, the phrases {{nihongo|"Certain Victory"|必勝|Hisshō}} or "Seven Lives" was written on the ''hachimaki'' and worn by [[kamikaze]] pilots. This denoted that the pilot was willing to die for his country.<ref>{{Harvnb|Cutler|2001|p=271}}</ref>

===Hinomaru Bentō===
[[File:Hinomaru_bento_20141027.jpg|thumb|180px|A Hinomaru bentō]]

A [[bentō]] and [[makunouchi]] are types of Japanese lunch boxes. It can have {{nihongo|Hinomaru rice|日の丸ご飯|Hinomaru gohan}}. It consists of [[List of Japanese dishes#Rice dishes (ご飯物)|gohan]] (steamed white rice) with a red [[umeboshi]] (dried [[ume]]) in the center which represents the sun and the flag of Japan. A {{nihongo|Hinomaru lunch box|日の丸弁当|Hinomaru bentō}} only has white rice and a red [[umeboshi]] in the center. The salty, vinegar soaked umeboshi acts as a preservative for the rice. There are also hinomaru rice bowls which are less common.<ref name="hinomaru-bento">{{cite news|url=https://www.japan-talk.com/jt/new/hinomaru-bento |title=Japan's Patriotic Bento Box (Hinomaru) |last=Spacey |first=John |date=24 January 2014 |work=Japan Talk |access-date= 24 October 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170807084650/https://www.japan-talk.com/jt/new/hinomaru-bento |url-status=dead |archive-date= 7 August 2017 }}</ref>

==Culture and perception==
[[File:Visit of the General Public to the Imperial Palace after the Accession to the Throne (49618033816).jpg|thumb|alt=A group of people wave Japanese flags at the Imperial Palace.|A flag-waving crowd greet the Imperial Family after [[Emperor Naruhito]]'s ascension to the throne at the Imperial Palace, 4 May 2019.]]
According to polls conducted by mainstream media, most Japanese people had perceived the flag of Japan as the national flag even before the passage of the ''[[Act on National Flag and Anthem (Japan)|Law Regarding the National Flag and National Anthem]]'' in 1999.<ref name="asahi990718">{{vcite web |url=http://www.tv-asahi.co.jp/n-station/research/990717/index.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080523125535/http://www.tv-asahi.co.jp/n-station/research/990717/index.html |archive-date=23 May 2008 |title=国旗・国歌法制化について |trans_title=About the Law of the Flag and Anthem |home=Asahi Research |publisher=TV Asahi |language={{in lang|ja}} |date=18 July 1999 |access-date=11 March 2008}}</ref> Despite this, controversies surrounding the use of the flag in school events or media still remain. For example, liberal newspapers such as ''[[Asahi Shimbun]]'' and ''[[Mainichi Shimbun]]'' often feature articles critical of the flag of Japan, reflecting their readerships' political spectrum.<ref name="hbf-ishikawa">{{vcite web |url=http://www.hbf.or.jp/grants/pdf/j%20i/14-ji-ishikawa.pdf |title=テレビニュースの多様化により、異なる番組の固定視聴者間に生じる意見の差 |trans_title=Diversity of television news, viewers differences of opinion arise between different programs |publisher=Hoso Bunka Foundation |format=PDF |year=2002 |language={{in lang|ja}} |access-date=2 February 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080228111944/http://www.hbf.or.jp/grants/pdf/j%20i/14-ji-ishikawa.pdf |archive-date=28 February 2008 |url-status=live }}</ref> To other Japanese, the flag represents the time where democracy was suppressed when [[Empire of Japan|Japan was an empire]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Khan|1998|p=190}}</ref>

The display of the national flag at homes and businesses is also debated in Japanese society. Because of its association with [[uyoku dantai]] (right wing) activists, [[Reactionary|reactionary politics]], or [[hooliganism]], most homes and businesses do not fly the flag.<ref name="defacto" /> There is no requirement to fly the flag on any national holiday or special events. The town of [[Kanazawa, Ishikawa]], has proposed plans in September 2012 to use government funds to buy flags with the purpose of encouraging citizens to fly the flag on national holidays.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.japantimes.co.jp/text/nn20120912b5.html |title=Town eyes subsidy for residents to buy flag |work=The Japan Times |access-date=27 December 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121016004950/http://www.japantimes.co.jp/text/nn20120912b5.html |archive-date=16 October 2012 |url-status=live }}</ref> The [[Japanese Communist Party]] is vocally against the flag.

Negative perceptions of the national flag exist in former colonies of Japan as well as within Japan itself, such as in [[Okinawa Prefecture|Okinawa]]. In one notable example of this, on 26 October 1987, an Okinawan supermarket owner [[flag burning|burned]] the flag before the start of the [[National Sports Festival of Japan]].<ref name="wundunn1995">{{vcite news |url=https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9C00E6D71439F932A25752C1A963958260 |title=Yomitan Journal: A Pacifist Landlord Makes War on Okinawa Bases |work=The New York Times |author=Wundunn, Sheryl |date=11 November 1995 |access-date=11 March 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081210165013/http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9C00E6D71439F932A25752C1A963958260 |archive-date=10 December 2008 |url-status=live }}</ref> The flag burner, Shōichi Chibana, burned the ''Hinomaru'' not only to show opposition to atrocities committed by the Japanese army and the continued presence of U.S. forces but also to prevent it from being displayed in public.<ref>{{vcite web|author=Smits, Gregory |url=http://www.east-asian-history.net/Ryukyu/History/Okinawa/Postwar/index.htm |title=Okinawa in Postwar Japanese Politics and the Economy |access-date=28 October 2008 |year=2000 |publisher=Penn State University |url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130530211516/http://www.east-asian-history.net/Ryukyu/History/Okinawa/Postwar/index.htm |archive-date=30 May 2013 |df= }}</ref> Other incidents in Okinawa included the flag being torn down during school ceremonies and students refusing to honor the flag as it was being raised to the sounds of "[[Kimigayo]]".<ref name="Befu 92–95" /> In the capital city of [[Naha, Okinawa]], the ''Hinomaru'' was raised for the first time since the return of Okinawa to Japan to celebrate the city's 80th anniversary in 2001.<ref>[http://www.japantimes.co.jp/text/nn20010521a3.html "Hinomaru flies at Naha for first time in 29 years"]. ''The Japan Times''. {{dead link|date=October 2021}}</ref> In the [[People's Republic of China]] and [[Republic of Korea]], both of which had been occupied by the Empire of Japan, the 1999 formal adoption of the ''Hinomaru'' was met with reactions of Japan moving towards the right and also a step towards re-militarization. The passage of the 1999 law also coincided with the debates about the status of the [[Yasukuni Shrine]], U.S.-Japan military cooperation, and the creation of a missile defense program. In other nations that Japan occupied, the 1999 law was met with mixed reactions or glossed over. In Singapore, the older generation still harbors ill feelings toward the flag while the younger generation does not hold similar views. The Philippine government not only believed that Japan was not going to revert to militarism, but the goal of the 1999 law was to formally establish two symbols (the flag and anthem) in law and every state has a right to create national symbols.<ref>{{vcite journal|title=Japan's Neo-Nationalism: The Role of the Hinomaru and Kimigayo Legislation|journal=JPRI working paper|date=2001–2007|first=Mayumi|last=Itoh|volume=79|issue=|page=16|id=|url=http://www.jpri.org/publications/workingpapers/wp79.html|access-date=17 April 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140428231227/http://www.jpri.org/publications/workingpapers/wp79.html|archive-date=28 April 2014|url-status=live}}</ref> Japan has no law criminalizing the burning of the ''Hinomaru'', but foreign flags cannot be burned in Japan.<ref>{{harvnb|Lauterpacht|2002|p=599}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Inoguchi, Jain|2000|p=228}}</ref>

==Protocol==
[[File:Japan mourning flag.svg|thumb|alt=A diagram of a white flag with a black ring. A black ribbon and ball appear above the flag.|Diagram published with ''Regulation 1 from 1912 (Raising Mourning Flag for the Emperor)'']]
According to protocol, the flag may fly from sunrise until sunset; businesses and schools are permitted to fly the flag from opening to closing.<ref name="protocol">{{vcite web |url=http://www.sarago.co.jp/protocol.html |title=Flag Protocol |publisher=Sargo Flag Company |language={{in lang|ja}} |access-date=15 January 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071223020412/http://www.sarago.co.jp/protocol.html |archive-date=23 December 2007 |url-status=live }}</ref> When flying the flags of Japan and another country at the same time in Japan, the Japanese flag takes the position of honor and the flag of the guest country flies to its right. Both flags must be at the same height and of equal size. When more than one foreign flag is displayed, Japan's flag is arranged in the alphabetical order prescribed by the [[United Nations]].<ref>{{vcite web |url=http://www.mofa.go.jp/Mofaj/gaiko/local/database/pdfs/protocol200902.pdf |title=プロトコール |trans_title=Protocol |access-date=13 January 2010 |date=2009–2002 |format=PDF |publisher=Ministry of Foreign Affairs |language={{in lang|ja}} |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110206041142/http://www.mofa.go.jp/mofaj/gaiko/local/database/pdfs/protocol200902.pdf |archive-date=6 February 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref> When the flag becomes unsuitable to use, it is customarily burned in private.<ref name="protocol" /> The ''Law Regarding the National Flag and Anthem'' does not specify on how the flag should be used, but different prefectures came up with their own regulations to use the ''Hinomaru'' and other prefectural flags.<ref>{{Harvnb|国旗及び国歌の取扱いについて}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|国旗及び県旗の取扱いについて}}</ref>

===Mourning===
The ''Hinomaru'' flag has at least two mourning styles. One is to display the flag at {{nihongo|[[half-staff]]|半旗|Han-ki}}, as is common in many countries. The offices of the [[Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Japan)|Ministry of Foreign Affairs]] also hoist the flag at half-staff when a funeral is performed for a foreign nation's head of state.<ref name='mofa-half'>{{vcite web |url=http://www.mofa.go.jp/mofaj/Gaiko/local/database/pdfs/protocol4.pdf |title=Page 1 「グローカル通信」平成２１年５月号 プロトコール講座 |trans_title=Protocol Question and Answer (May 2009) |access-date=20 January 2010 |date=2009–2005 |format=PDF |publisher=Ministry of Foreign Affairs |language={{in lang|ja}} |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110607163857/http://www.mofa.go.jp/mofaj/Gaiko/local/database/pdfs/protocol4.pdf |archive-date=7 June 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref>

An alternative mourning style is to wrap the spherical [[finial]] with black cloth and place a black ribbon, known as a {{nihongo|mourning flag|{{ill|弔旗|ja|vertical-align=sup}}|Chō-ki}}, above the flag. This style dates back to the death of [[Emperor Meiji]] on 30 July 1912, and the Cabinet issued an ordinance stipulating that the national flag should be raised in mourning when the Emperor dies.<ref>{{Harvnb|大正元年閣令第一号}}</ref> The Cabinet has the authority to announce the half-staffing of the national flag.<ref>{{vcite web |url=http://www.ndl.go.jp/horei_jp/kakugi/txt/txt01421.htm |title=全国戦没者追悼式の実施に関する件 |access-date=26 January 2010 |date=14 May 1963 |home=Office of the Cabinet |publisher=National Diet Library |language={{in lang|ja}} |url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050310051520/http://www.ndl.go.jp/horei_jp/kakugi/txt/txt01421.htm |archive-date=10 March 2005 |df= }}</ref>
{{see also|ja:大喪中ノ国旗掲揚方}}

===Public schools===
[[File:Graduation day stage (crop).jpg|thumb|alt=A group of people facing a man and woman on a stage. Two flags are above the stage.|A graduation ceremony in [[Hokkaido Prefecture]] with both the ''Hinomaru'' and the flag of Hokkaido Prefecture. The school's own flag is on a staff to the speakers' right.]]

Since the end of World War&nbsp;II, the [[Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (Japan)|Ministry of Education]] has issued statements and regulations to promote the usage of both the ''Hinomaru'' and ''[[Kimigayo]]'' (national anthem) at schools under their jurisdiction. The first of these statements was released in 1950, stating that it was desirable, but not required, to use both symbols. This desire was later expanded to include both symbols on national holidays and during ceremonial events to encourage students on what national holidays are and to promote defense education.<ref name='Goodman' /> In a 1989 reform of the education guidelines, the LDP-controlled government first demanded that the flag must be used in school ceremonies and that proper respect must be given to it and to ''Kimigayo''.<ref>{{Harvnb|Trevor|2001|p=78}}</ref> Punishments for school officials who did not follow this order were also enacted with the 1989 reforms.<ref name='Goodman' />

The 1999 [[curriculum guideline]] issued by the Ministry of Education after the passage of the ''Law Regarding the National Flag and Anthem'' decrees that "on entrance and graduation ceremonies, schools must raise the flag of Japan and instruct students to sing the ''Kimigayo'', given the significance of the flag and the song."<ref>{{vcite web|url=http://www.pref.hiroshima.lg.jp/kyouiku/hotline/02zesei/sankou/kokkikokka.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110722112237/http://www.pref.hiroshima.lg.jp/kyouiku/hotline/02zesei/sankou/kokkikokka.htm|archive-date=22 July 2011 |title=学習指導要領における国旗及び国歌の取扱い |trans_title= Handling of the flag and anthem in the National Curriculum |access-date=8 December 2009 |date=11 September 2001 |publisher=Hiroshima Prefectural Board of Education Secretariat |language={{in lang|ja}} }}</ref> Additionally, the ministry's commentary on the 1999 curriculum guideline for elementary schools note that "given the advance of internationalization, along with fostering patriotism and awareness of being Japanese, it is important to nurture school children's respectful attitude toward the flag of Japan and ''Kimigayo'' as they grow up to be respected Japanese citizens in an internationalized society."<ref name="mext2">{{vcite web|url=http://cebc.jp/data/education/gov/jp/tsuuchi/19990917hatauta/data-02.htm |title=小学校学習指導要領解説社会編，音楽編，特別活動編 |trans_title=National Curriculum Guide: Elementary social notes, Chapter music Chapter Special Activities |publisher=Ministry of Education |language={{in lang|ja}} |year=1999 |url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060319210723/http://cebc.jp/data/education/gov/jp/tsuuchi/19990917hatauta/data-02.htm |archive-date=19 March 2006 |df= }}</ref> The ministry also stated that if Japanese students cannot respect their own symbols, then they will not be able to respect the symbols of other nations.<ref>{{Harvnb|Aspinall|2001|p=125}}</ref>

[[Education in Japan|Schools]] have been the center of controversy over both the anthem and the national flag.<ref name='Wesiman'>{{vcite news | author=Weisman, Steven R. | author.= | title=For Japanese, Flag and Anthem Sometimes Divide | date=29 April 1990 | publisher= | url=https://www.nytimes.com/1990/04/29/world/for-japanese-flag-and-anthem-sometimes-divide.html#end_copy | work=The New York Times | pages= | access-date=2 January 2010 | language= | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130524130632/http://www.nytimes.com/1990/04/29/world/for-japanese-flag-and-anthem-sometimes-divide.html#end_copy | archive-date=24 May 2013 | url-status=live }}</ref> The Tokyo Board of Education requires the use of both the anthem and flag at events under their jurisdiction. The order requires school teachers to respect both symbols or risk losing their jobs.<ref name="guardian060605">{{vcite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2006/jun/05/worlddispatch.japan |title=A touchy subject |work=Guardian Unlimited |publisher=The Guardian |author=McCurry, Justin |date=5 June 2006 |access-date=14 January 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130830051604/http://www.theguardian.com/world/2006/jun/05/worlddispatch.japan |archive-date=30 August 2013 |url-status=live }}</ref> Some have protested that such rules violate the [[Constitution of Japan]], but the Board has argued that since schools are government agencies, their employees have an obligation to teach their students how to be good Japanese citizens.<ref name="japantimes" /> As a sign of protest, schools refused to display the ''Hinomaru'' at school graduations and some parents ripped down the flag.<ref name='Wesiman' /> Teachers have unsuccessfully brought criminal complaints against Tokyo Governor [[Shintarō Ishihara]] and senior officials for ordering teachers to honor the ''Hinomaru'' and ''Kimigayo''.<ref name="ishihara">{{vcite web |url=http://search.japantimes.co.jp/cgi-bin/nn20060105b2.html |title=Ishihara's Hinomaru order called legit |home=The Japan Times |date=5 January 2006 |access-date=4 December 2007 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20121227215302/http://www.japantimes.co.jp/text/nn20060105b2.html |archive-date=27 December 2012 |url-status=live }}</ref> After earlier opposition, the [[Japan Teachers Union]] accepts the use of both the flag and anthem; the smaller All Japan Teachers and Staffs Union still opposes both symbols and their use inside the school system.<ref>{{Harvnb|Heenan|1998|p=206}}</ref>

==Related flags==
{{main|List of Japanese flags}}

===Military flags===
{{See also|Rising Sun Flag}}
[[File:The Illustration of the Siberian War, No. 9, The Japanese army occupied Habalofsk (LOC ppmsca.08212).jpg|thumb|An illustration of the Japanese army occupying [[Khabarovsk]], 1920. Both Hinomaru and the Rising Sun Flag (in background) are depicted.]]
The [[Japan Self-Defense Forces]] (JSDF) and the [[Japan Ground Self-Defense Force]] use the Rising Sun Flag with eight red rays extending outward, called {{nihongo|''Hachijō-Kyokujitsuki''|八条旭日旗}}. A gold border is situated partially around the edge.<ref name="law.e-gov">{{harvnb|自衛隊法施行令}}</ref>

A well-known variant of the sun disc design is the sun disc with 16 red rays in a [[Siemens star]] formation, which was also historically used by Japan's military, particularly the [[Imperial Japanese Army]] and the [[Imperial Japanese Navy]]. The ensign, known in Japanese as the {{nihongo|''Jyūrokujō-Kyokujitsu-ki''|十六条旭日旗}}, was first adopted as the [[war flag]] on 15 May 1870, and was used until the end of [[World War&nbsp;II]] in 1945. It was re-adopted on 30 June 1954, and is now used as the war flag and naval ensign of the Japan Ground Self-Defense Force (JGSDF) and the [[Japan Maritime Self-Defense Force]] (JMSDF).<ref name="law.e-gov" /> [[Japan Self-Defense Forces|JSDF]] Chief of Staff [[Katsutoshi Kawano]] said the Rising Sun Flag is the Maritime Self-Defense Force sailors' "pride".<ref name="msdf-flag-pride">{{Cite news|url=http://www.asahi.com/ajw/articles/AJ201810060024.html|title=Japan to skip S. Korea fleet event over 'rising sun' flag|date=6 October 2018|work=The Asahi Shimbun|access-date=7 October 2018| language=en-US| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181006141833/http://www.asahi.com/ajw/articles/AJ201810060024.html | archive-date=6 October 2018 | url-status=live}}</ref> Due to its continued use by the Imperial Japanese Army, this flag carries the negative connotation similar to the Nazi flag in China and Korea.<ref name="xinhua060811">{{vcite news |url=http://news.xinhuanet.com/society/2006-08/11/content_4949629.htm |title=赵薇欲代言抗日网游洗刷"军旗装事件"之辱(图) |trans_title=Zhao Wei wishes to endorse the anti-Japanese gaming scrubbing |work=[[Xinhua]] |author=国际, 在线 |date=11 August 2006 |access-date=25 January 2008 |language=Chinese |url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080707051134/http://news.xinhuanet.com/society/2006-08/11/content_4949629.htm |archive-date=7 July 2008 |df= }}</ref> These formerly colonised countries state that this flag is a symbol of Japanese imperialism during [[World War II]], and was an ongoing conflict event for the 2020 Tokyo Olympics. The JMSDF also employs the use of a [[masthead pennant]]. First adopted in 1914 and readopted in 1965, the masthead pennant contains a simplified version of the naval ensign at the hoist end, with the rest of the pennant colored white. The ratio of the pennant is between 1:40 and 1:90.<ref>{{Harvnb|海上自衛隊旗章規則}}</ref>

The [[Japan Air Self-Defense Force]] (JASDF), established independently in 1952, has only the plain sun disc as its emblem.<ref>{{Harvnb|〇海上自衛隊の使用する航空機の分類等及び塗粧標準等に 関する達}}</ref> This is the only branch of service with an emblem that does not invoke the rayed Imperial Standard. However, the branch does have an [[Ensign (flag)|ensign]] to fly on bases and during parades. The Japan Air Self-Defense Force flag was first adopted in 1955 after the JASDF was created in 1954. The flag is cobalt blue with a gold winged eagle on top of a combined star, the moon, the Hinomaru sun disc and clouds.<ref>{{Harvnb|自衛隊の旗に関する訓令}}</ref><ref>桜星の数はかつての陸上自衛隊と同様、階級ではなく部隊規模を示していた。</ref> The latest version of the JASDF flag was re-adopted on 19 March 2001.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.crwflags.com/FOTW/flags/jp^asdf.html |title=Air Self Defense Force (Japan) |website=CRW Flags |access-date=26 October 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160315210107/https://www.crwflags.com/FOTW/flags/jp%5Easdf.html |archive-date=15 March 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref>

Although not an official national flag, the [[Z flag|Z signal flag]] played a major role in Japanese naval history. On 27 May 1905, Admiral [[Tōgō Heihachirō|Heihachirō Tōgō]] of the ''[[Japanese battleship Mikasa|Mikasa]]'' was preparing to engage the [[Baltic Fleet|Russian Baltic Fleet]]. Before the [[Battle of Tsushima]] began, Togo raised the Z flag on the ''Mikasa'' and engaged the Russian fleet, winning the battle for Japan. The raising of the flag said to the crew the following: "The fate of Imperial Japan hangs on this one battle; all hands will exert themselves and do their best." The Z flag was also raised on the aircraft carrier ''[[Japanese aircraft carrier Akagi|Akagi]]'' on the eve of Japan's attack on [[Pearl Harbor]], [[Hawaii]], in December 1941.<ref>{{Harvnb|Carpenter|2004|p=124}}</ref>

<gallery class="8" heights="180" widths="180">
File:War flag of the Imperial Japanese Army (1868-1945).svg|{{FIAV|001000}} {{FIAV|historical}} Pre-WWII [[Rising Sun Flag|War flag]] of the [[Imperial Japanese Army]] (1868–1945) {{nihongo||十六条旭日旗}}
File:Naval ensign of the Empire of Japan.svg|{{FIAV|000001}} {{FIAV|historical}} Pre-WWII flag of the [[Imperial Japanese Navy]] (1889–1945)
File:Flag of JSDF.svg|{{FIAV|001000}} {{FIAV|normal}} Post WWII flag of the [[Japan Ground Self-Defense Force]] {{nihongo||八条旭日旗}}
File:Naval Ensign of Japan.svg|{{FIAV|000001}} {{FIAV|normal}} Post WWII flag of the [[Japan Maritime Self-Defense Force]] (1954–present) {{nihongo||十六条旭日旗}}
File:Flag of the Japan Air Self-Defense Force.svg|{{FIAV|normal}} Post WWII flag of the [[Japan Air Self-Defense Force]] (JASDF)
File:Roundel of Japan (1943).svg|Pre-WWII [[roundel]] (military aircraft insignia) of Navy and Army military aircraft
File:Roundel of Japan.svg|Post WWII roundel of the JASDF
</gallery>

===Imperial flags===
[[File:Flag of the Japanese Emperor.svg|thumb|alt=A golden flower centered on a red background|{{FIAV|normal}} The standard of the Japanese Emperor]]

Starting in 1870, flags were created for the Japanese Emperor (then [[Emperor Meiji]]), the Empress, and other members of the imperial family.<ref name="Fujitani 1996 48-49">{{Harvnb|Fujitani|1996|pp=48–49}}</ref> At first, the Emperor's flag was ornate, with a sun resting in the center of an artistic pattern. He had flags that were used on land, at sea, and when he was in a carriage. The imperial family was also granted flags to be used at sea and while on land (one for use on foot and one carriage flag). The carriage flags were a monocolored [[chrysanthemum]], with 16 petals, placed in the center of a monocolored background.<ref name="reg651" /> These flags were discarded in 1889 when the Emperor decided to use the chrysanthemum on a red background as his flag. With minor changes in the color shades and proportions, the flags adopted in 1889 are still in use by the imperial family.<ref>{{Harvnb|Matoba|1901|pp=180–181}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Takahashi|1903|pp=180–181}}</ref>

The current Emperor's flag is a 16-petal chrysanthemum (called Kikkamon, Japanese:菊花紋), colored in gold, centered on a red background with a 2:3 ratio. The Empress uses the same flag, except the shape is that of a swallow tail. The crown prince and the crown princess use the same flags, except with a smaller chrysanthemum and a white border in the middle of the flags.<ref name="impja">{{vcite web |url=http://homepage1.nifty.com/gyouseinet/kenpou/koushitsu/koushitsugiseirei.htm |title=皇室儀制令 |trans_title=Imperial System |language={{in lang|ja}} |access-date=2 December 2007 |url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081208161723/http://homepage1.nifty.com/gyouseinet/kenpou/koushitsu/koushitsugiseirei.htm |archive-date=8 December 2008 |df= }}</ref> The chrysanthemum has been associated with the Imperial throne since the rule of [[Emperor Go-Toba]] in the 12th century, but it did not become the exclusive [[Imperial Seal of Japan|symbol of the Imperial throne]] until 1868.<ref name="Fujitani 1996 48-49" />

===Subnational flags===
[[File:Japanese flags in Okinawa.jpg|thumb|alt=Three flags fly in the sky.|The national flag flying with the flags of [[Okinawa Prefecture]] and [[Urasoe, Okinawa|Urasoe City]]]]

Each of the [[Prefectures of Japan|47 prefectures]] of Japan has its [[Flags of Japanese prefectures|own flag]] which, like the national flag, consists of a symbol – called a ''[[mon (badge)|mon]]'' – charged upon a monocolored field (except for [[Ehime Prefecture]], where the background is bicolored).<ref>{{vcite web|url=http://www.pref.ehime.jp/shokai/sinboru.html |title=愛媛県のシンボル |trans_title=Symbols of Ehime Prefecture |access-date=3 January 2010 |date=2009 |publisher=Government of Ehime Prefecture |language={{in lang|ja}} |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080109163141/http://www.pref.ehime.jp/shokai/sinboru.html |archive-date=9 January 2008 }}</ref> There are several prefecture flags, such as [[Hiroshima]]'s, that match their specifications to the national flag (2:3 ratio, ''mon'' placed in the center and is {{frac|3|5}} the length of the flag).<ref>{{Harvnb|広島県県章および県旗の制定}}</ref> Some of the ''mon'' display the name of the prefecture in [[Japanese writing system|Japanese characters]]; others are stylized depictions of the location or another special feature of the prefecture. An example of a prefectural flag is that of [[Nagano Prefecture|Nagano]], where the orange ''[[katakana]]'' character ナ (''na'') appears in the center of a white disc. One interpretation of the ''mon'' is that the ''na'' symbol represents a mountain and the white disc, a lake. The orange color represents the sun while the white color represents the snow of the region.<ref name="naganogov">{{vcite web |url=http://www.pref.nagano.jp/soumu/koho/kensho/top.htm |title=長野県の県章&nbsp;– 県旗 |trans_title=Flag and Emblem of Nagano Prefecture |publisher=Government of Nagano Prefecture |language={{in lang|ja}} |year=2006 |access-date=2 December 2007 |url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070918075217/http://www.pref.nagano.jp/soumu/koho/kensho/top.htm |archive-date=18 September 2007 |df= }}</ref>

[[Municipalities of Japan|Municipalities]] can also adopt flags of their own. The designs of the city flags are similar to the prefectural flags: a ''mon'' on a monocolored background. An example is the flag of [[Amakusa, Kumamoto|Amakusa]] in [[Kumamoto Prefecture]]: the city symbol is composed of the [[Katakana]] character ア (''a'') and surrounded by waves.<ref>{{Harvnb|天草市章}}</ref> This symbol is centered on a white flag, with a ratio of 2:3.<ref name='amakusaflag'>{{Harvnb|天草市旗}}</ref> Both the city emblem and the flag were adopted in 2006.<ref name='amakusaflag' />

===Derivatives===
[[File:Japanese postal flag, 1872-1887.svg|thumb|{{FIAV|historical}} Former Japan Post flag (1872–1887)]]

[[File:Flag of Evenks.svg|thumb|The flag of the Association of [[Evenks]] in the [[Sakha Republic]] composites the Flag of Japan and other elements.]]

In addition to the flags used by the military, several other flag designs were inspired by the national flag. The former [[Japan Post]] flag consisted of the ''Hinomaru'' with a red horizontal bar placed in the center of the flag. There was also a thin white ring around the red sun. It was later replaced by a flag that consisted of the [[Japan postal mark|〒 postal mark]] in red on a white background.<ref>{{vcite web |url=http://www.teipark.jp/display/museum_shozou/museum_shozou_20.html |title=郵便のマーク |access-date=6 February 2010 |publisher=Communications Museum "Tei Park" |language={{in lang|ja}} |url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130102195822/http://www.teipark.jp/display/museum_shozou/museum_shozou_20.html |archive-date=2 January 2013 |df= }}</ref>

Two recently designed national flags resemble the Japanese flag. In 1971, [[Bangladesh]] gained independence from [[Pakistan]], and [[Flag of Bangladesh|it adopted a national flag]] that had a green background, charged with an off-centered red disc that contained a golden map of Bangladesh. The current flag, adopted in 1972, dropped the golden map and kept everything else. The Government of Bangladesh officially calls the red disc a circle;<ref>{{vcite web |url=http://www.pmo.gov.bd/pmolib/legalms/pdf/national-flag-rules.pdf |title=People's Republic of Bangladesh Flag Rules (1972) |access-date=13 January 2010 |date=2005–2007 |format=PDF |publisher=Prime Minister's Office, People's Republic of Bangladesh |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100714115242/http://www.pmo.gov.bd/pmolib/legalms/pdf/national-flag-rules.pdf |archive-date=14 July 2010 |url-status=dead|df= }}</ref> the red color symbolizes the blood that was shed to create their country.<ref name='bdembassy'>{{vcite web |url=http://www.bangladeshembassy.nl/page.php?page_id=3 |title=Facts and Figures |access-date=13 January 2010 |publisher=Embassy of Bangladesh in the Netherlands |url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110724145237/http://www.bangladeshembassy.nl/page.php?page_id=3 |archive-date=24 July 2011 |df= }}</ref> The island nation of [[Palau]] uses a flag of similar design, but the color scheme is completely different. While the Government of Palau does not cite the Japanese flag as an influence on their national flag, Japan did administer Palau from 1914 until 1944.<ref>{{vcite journal|title=The International Political Economy of Pacific Islands Flags of Convenience|journal=Australia-Asia|date=|author=Van Fossen, Anthony B.; Centre for the Study of Australia-Asia Relations, Faculty of Asian and International Studies, Griffith University|volume=66|issue=69|page=53|id=|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jWYTAAAAYAAJ&q=Palau+flag|format=|access-date=30 December 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111214183030/http://books.google.com/books?id=jWYTAAAAYAAJ&q=Palau+flag&dq=Palau+flag&client=firefox-a&cd=3|archive-date=14 December 2011|url-status=live}}</ref> The [[flag of Palau]] is an off-centered golden-yellow [[full moon]] on a sky blue background.<ref>{{vcite web |url=http://www.palaugov.net/PalauGov/AboutPalau/Flag.htm |title=Palau Flag |access-date=13 January 2010 |date=18 July 2008 |publisher=Republic of Palau National Government |url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091113161634/http://www.palaugov.net/PalauGov/AboutPalau/Flag.htm |archive-date=13 November 2009 |df= }}</ref> The moon stands for peace and a young nation while the blue background represents Palau's transition to self-government from 1981 to 1994, when it achieved full independence.<ref>{{Harvnb|Smith|2001|p=73}}</ref>

The Japanese naval ensign also influenced other flag designs. One such flag design is used by the ''[[Asahi Shimbun]]''. At the bottom hoist of the flag, one quarter of the sun is displayed. The [[kanji]] character [[:wiktionary:朝|朝]] is displayed on the flag, colored white, covering most of the sun. The rays extend from the sun, occurring in a red and white alternating order, culminating in 13 total stripes.<ref>{{Harvnb|Saito|1987|p=53}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Tazagi|2004|p=11}}</ref> The flag is commonly seen at the [[Japanese High School Baseball Championship|National High School Baseball Championship]], as the ''Asahi Shimbun'' is a main sponsor of the tournament.<ref>{{harvnb|Mangan|2000|p=213}}</ref> The rank flags and ensigns of the Imperial Japanese Navy also based their designs on the naval ensign.<ref>{{harvnb|Gordon|1915|pp=217–218}}</ref>
{{clear}}

==Gallery==
<gallery class="8" heights="180" widths="180">
File:National flag of Japan at Meiji Memorial Picture Gallery 20141030.jpg|Japanese flag at the Meiji Memorial
File:Vice President Pence's Trip to Asia (39425260534).jpg|[[Japan Self-Defense Forces]] honor guards holding the national flag during [[Mike Pence]]'s visit.
File:G7 flags, Toronto.jpg|Flags of Japan and other G7 states flying in [[Toronto]]
File:Undokai-schoolgates-may2012.jpg|A series of Japanese flags in a school entrance
File:Yokohama harbor.jpg|Yokohama City (left) and the Hinomaru (center) flying on Yokohama Harbor
File:2013 Tokyo Fire Department Dezome Ceremony 01.JPG|Firefighters in Tokyo holding the Japanese national flag during a ceremony
File:Hinomaru estadio.jpg|Large flags of Japan at the [[National Stadium (Tokyo)|Tokyo Olympic Stadium]] during the final match of the East Asian Football Championship (14 February 2010)
File:Totenko-Rooster Crows with hinomaru and lady by Takeuchi Keishu 1909 MET DP143126.jpg|Totenko-Rooster Crows with hinomaru and lady, 1909
</gallery>

==See also==
{{Portal|Japan}}
* [[List of Japanese flags]]
* [[National symbols of Japan]]
* [[Nobori]]
* [[Sashimono]]
* [[Uma-jirushi]]
* [[Flag of Bangladesh]]

==References==
===Footnotes===
{{notelist}}

===Notes===
{{reflist}}

===Bibliography===<!-- These are organized by author's last name. -->
{{refbegin|colwidth=60em}}
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* {{vcite book|author=Befu, Harumi|title=Hegemony of Homogeneity: An Anthropological Analysis of Nihonjinron|publisher=Trans Pacific Press|year=2001|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=91s4n07d4p4C&dq=Japanese+flag+homes&pg=PA92|isbn=978-1-876843-05-2|ref={{Harvid|Befu|2001}}}} 
* {{vcite book|author=Borneman, John|title=Death of the Father: An Anthropology of the End in Political Authority|publisher=Berghahn Books|year=2003–2011|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5tRkseowkKkC&dq=japan+flag+hirohito&pg=PA112|isbn=1-57181-111-7|ref={{harvid|Borneman|2003}}}}
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* {{vcite book|author=Carpenter, Ronald H|year=2004|title=Rhetoric In Martial Deliberations And Decision Making: Cases And Consequences|publisher=University of South Carolina Press|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9P6OfUw822oC&dq=Akagi+flag&pg=PA124|isbn=978-1-57003-555-5|ref={{harvid|Carpenter|2004}}}} 
* {{vcite book|author=Carr, Harold Gresham; [[Frederick Edward Hulme]]|title=Flags of the world|publisher=Warne|year=1956|location=London; New York|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=P58KAQAAIAAJ&q=1945+flag+SCAJAP|ref={{Harvid|Carr, Hulme|1956}}}} 
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* {{vcite book|author=Cwiertka, Katarzyna Joanna|title=Modern Japanese Cuisine: Food, Power and National Identity|publisher=Reaktion Books|year=2007|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oK-7LOlWNpEC&dq=Japanese+flag+homes&pg=PA117|isbn=1-86189-298-5|ref={{harvid|Cwiertka|2007}}}}
* {{vcite book|title=Japan in World Politics: A Study in International Dynamics|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oXxCAAAAIAAJ&dq=japan+rising+sun+607&pg=PA24|author=Dyer, Henry|year=1909|publisher=Blackie & Son Limited|ref={{harvid|Dyer|1909}}}}
* {{vcite book|author=Edgington, David William|title=Japan at the Millennium: Joining Past and Future|publisher=UCB Press|year=2003|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=El9Lj_EKzBAC&dq=rising+sun+Japan+flag&pg=PA124|isbn=0-7748-0899-3|ref={{harvid|Edgington|2003}}}} 
* {{vcite book|author=Ebrey, Patricia Buckley; Anne Walthall; James Palais|title=East Asia: A Cultural, Social, and Political History|publisher=Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing|year=2004|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XtmzFZS_SX0C&dq=japanese+flag+loyalty+Emperor&pg=PA443|isbn=0-547-00534-2|ref={{harvid|Ebrey|2004}}}} 
* {{vcite book|author=Feiler, Bruce|title=Learning to Bow: Inside the Heart of Japan|publisher=Harper Perennial|year=2004|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Nu5WcLQfS7QC&dq=flag+japan+Emperor&pg=PA214|isbn=0-06-057720-7|ref={{Harvid|Feiler|2004}}}}
* {{vcite book|author=Feldman, David|title=Do Elephants Jump?|publisher=HarperCollins|year=2004|isbn=0-06-053913-5|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gUHw7HKfYPgC&dq=flag+burning+Japan&pg=PA151|ref={{harvid|Feldman|2004}}}}
* {{vcite book|author=Fujitani, Takashi|year=1996|title=Splendid Monarchy: Power and Pageantry in Modern Japan|publisher=University of California Press|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rX8HlYCd7_gC&dq=chrysanthemum+flag&pg=PA48|isbn=978-0-520-21371-5|ref={{harvid|Fujitani|1996}}}}
* {{vcite book|author=Goodman, Roger; Ian Neary|title=Case Studies on Human Rights in Japan|publisher=Routledge|year=1996|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=73sE6NkXPbAC&dq=Japanese+flag+homes&pg=PA81|isbn=978-1-873410-35-6|ref={{harvid|Goodman, Neary|1996}}}}
* {{vcite book|author=Gordon, William|year=1915|title=Flags of the World, Past and Present|publisher=Frederick Warne & Co.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=voUBuwLj0l4C&dq=Witu+flag+Gordon&pg=PA110|ref={{harvid|Gordon|1915}}}}
* {{vcite book|author=Hall, James|title=Illustrated Dictionary of Symbols in Eastern and Western Art|publisher=Westview Press|year=1996|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZO-cuysr83MC&dq=sun+symbol+japan&pg=PA110|isbn=0-06-430982-7|ref={{harvid|Hall|1996}}|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160423222316/https://books.google.com/books?id=ZO-cuysr83MC&pg=PA110&dq=sun+symbol+japan&lr=&client=firefox-a&cd=18#v=onepage&q=sun%20symbol%20japan&f=false|archive-date=23 April 2016|df=}}
* {{vcite book|author=Heenan, Patrick|title=The Japan Handbook|publisher=Routledge|year=1998|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qNawsKPltbwC&dq=Japan+flag+schools&pg=PA206|isbn=1-57958-055-6|ref={{harvid|Heenan|1998}}}}
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* {{vcite book|author=Inoguchi, Takashi; Purnendra Jain|title=Japanese Foreign Policy Today|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan Ltd|year=2000|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ciH7OSSZ95YC&dq=Japanese+flag+foreign&pg=PA228|isbn=0-312-22707-8|ref={{Harvid|Inoguchi, Jain|2000}}}}
* {{vcite book|author=Itoh, Mayumi|year=2003|title=The Hatoyama Dynasty: Japanese Political Leadership Through the Generations|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|isbn=1-4039-6331-2|ref={{harvid|Itoh|2003}}}}
* {{vcite book|author=Kataoka, Tetsuya|title=Creating Single-Party Democracy: Japan's Postwar Political System|publisher=Hoover Institution Press|year=1991|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FtBmAAAAMAAJ&q=hinomaru+funeral|isbn=0-8179-9111-5|ref={{harvid|Kataoka|1991}}}}
* {{vcite book|author=Khan, Yoshimitsu|title=Japanese Moral Education: Past and Present|publisher=Fairleigh Dickinson University Press|year=1998|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pKmt85w7atsC&dq=Japan+flag+loyalty&pg=PA190|isbn=0-8386-3693-4|ref={{harvid|Khan|1998}}}} 
* {{vcite book|author=Large, Stephen|title=Emperor Hirohito and Showa Japan: A Political Biography|publisher=Routledge|year=1992|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2IkOAAAAQAAJ&dq=japan+flag+hirohito&pg=PA184|isbn=0-415-03203-2|ref={{harvid|Large|1992}}}}
* {{vcite book|author=Lauterpacht, Elihu|editor=C. J. Greenwood and A. G. Oppenheimer|title=International Law Reports|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2002|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZFeCQQ0siS8C&dq=flag+burning+Norway+Japan&pg=PA599|isbn=978-0-521-80775-3|ref={{harvid|Lauterpacht|2002}}}}
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* {{vcite book|author=Mangan, J.A.; Finn, Gerry; Giulianotti, Richard and Majumdar, Boria|title=Football Culture Local Conflicts, Global Visions|publisher=Routledge|year=2000|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Vg-WWyxRxn0C&dq=Asahi+Shinbun+baseball&pg=PA213|isbn=978-0-7146-5041-8|ref={{harvid|Mangan|2000}}}}
* {{vcite book|author=Matoba, Seinosuke|year=1901|language={{in lang|ja}}|title=陸軍と海軍|trans_title=Army and Navy|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WTQuAAAAYAAJ&dq=%E5%A4%A9%E7%9A%87%E6%97%97&pg=PT76|ref={{harvid|Matoba|1901}}}}
* {{vcite book|author=Meyer, Milton|title=Japan: A Concise History|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield Publishing Group|year=2009|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ccnWvoK2AIQC&dq=Japanese+flag+homes&pg=PA266|isbn=0-7425-4117-7|ref={{harvid|Meyer|2009}}}}
* {{vcite book|author=Newell, William|title=Japan in Asia: 1942–1945|publisher=Singapore University Press|year=1982|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JlaPq_C2l6EC&dq=Japan+flag+homes+Emperor&pg=PA28|isbn=9971-69-014-4|ref={{harvid|Newell|1982}}}}
* {{vcite book|author=Nornes, Abe Mark|title=Japanese Documentary Film The Meiji Era through Hiroshima|publisher=University of Minnesota Press|year=2003|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=11D14NIwKaYC&dq=European+flags+Japan&pg=PA81|isbn=0-8166-4046-7|ref={{Harvid|Nornes|2003}}}}
* {{vcite book|author=Ohnuki-Tierney, Emiko|title=Kamikaze, Cherry Blossoms, and Nationalisms|publisher=University of Chicago Press|year=2002|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=K62e5Mk3Kd8C&dq=flag+japan+Emperor&pg=PA68|isbn=978-0-226-62091-6|ref={{Harvid| Ohnuki-Tierney|2002}}}}
* {{citation|author1=Okano, Kaori|author2=Motonori Tsuchiya|title=Education in Contemporary Japan|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1999|isbn=978-0-521-62686-6|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SpZqnFHPBzMC&q=kimigayo+Kakuei&pg=PA237|ref={{harvid|Okano|1999}}|access-date=17 October 2020}}
* {{vcite book|author=Partner, Simon|title=Toshié A Story of Village Life in Twentieth-Century Japan|publisher=University of California Press|year=2004|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SciqAStNYLYC&dq=hinomaru+homes+war&pg=PA55|isbn=978-0-520-24097-1|ref={{Harvid|Partner|2004}}}}
* {{vcite book|author=Röhl, Wilhelm|title=History of law in Japan since 1868, Part 5, Volume 12|publisher=Brill|year=2005|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=47yhjgB-XhgC&dq=1885+Japan+laws+cabinet&pg=PT28|isbn=978-90-04-13164-4|ref={{Harvid|Rohl|2005}}}}
* {{vcite book|author=Saito, Shinya|year=1987|language={{in lang|ja}}|title=記者四十年|trans_title=Fourteen Years As A Reporter|publisher=Asahi Shimbun Publishing|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vvIuAAAAMAAJ&q=%E6%9C%9D%E6%97%A5%E6%96%B0%E8%81%9E%E3%80%80%E7%A4%BE%E6%97%97|isbn=978-4-02-260421-7|ref={{harvid|Saito|1987}}}}
* {{vcite book|author=Smith, Whitney|title=Flags Through the Ages and Across the World|publisher=McGraw-Hill|year=1975|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=O3UYAAAAIAAJ&q=European+flags+Japan|isbn=0-07-059093-1|ref={{harvid|Smith|1975}}}} 
* {{vcite book|author=[[Whitney Smith|Smith, Whitney]]|year=2001|title=Flag Lore Of All Nations|publisher=Millbrook Press|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EFhAUbH6ra0C&dq=Palau+flag&pg=PA73|isbn=0-7613-1753-8|ref={{harvid|Smith|2001}}}}
* {{vcite book|author=Takahashi, Yuuichi|year=1903|title=海軍問答|trans_title=Navy Dialogue|language={{in lang|ja}}|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=unkuAAAAYAAJ&dq=%E5%A4%A9%E7%9A%87%E6%97%97&pg=PT7|ref={{harvid|Takahashi|1903}}}} 
* {{vcite book|author=Takenaka, Yoshiharu|year=2003|title=知っておきたい国旗・旗の基礎知識|trans_title=Flag basics you should know|language={{in lang|ja}}|publisher=Gifu Shimbun|isbn=4-87797-054-1|ref={{harvid|Takenaka|2003}}}}
* {{vcite book|author=Taylor, Jean Gelman|title=Indonesia: Peoples and Histories|publisher=Yale University Press|year=2004|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OMnt1iIEzdAC&dq=Indonesian+flag+Japan&pg=PA321|isbn=0-300-10518-5|ref={{harvid|Taylor|2004}}}}
* {{vcite book|author=Tazagi, Shirou|year=2004|title=梶山静六: 死に顔に笑みをたたえて|trans_title=Seiroku Kajiyama: Praising the smile in the dying face|language={{in lang|ja}}|publisher=Kodansha|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mF66AAAAIAAJ&q=%E6%9C%9D%E6%97%A5%E6%96%B0%E8%81%9E%E3%80%80%E7%A4%BE%E6%97%97|isbn=4-06-212592-7|ref={{harvid|Tazagi|2004}}}}
* {{vcite book|author=Tipton, Elise|title=Modern Japan A Social and Political History|publisher=Routledge|year=2002|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jdGG3U3KhnEC&dq=Japanese+flag+homes&pg=PA137|isbn=978-0-415-18538-7|ref={{harvid|Tipton|2002}}}}
* {{vcite book|author=Trevor, Malcolm|title=Japan&nbsp;– Restless Competitor The Pursuit of Economic Nationalism|publisher=Routledge|year=2001|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PrAoHzoP1QkC&dq=flag+japan+Emperor&pg=PA78|isbn=978-1-903350-02-7|ref={{harvid|Trevor|2001}}}}
* {{vcite book|author=Turnbull, Stephen; Howard Gerrard|title=Ashigaru 1467–1649 |publisher=Osprey Publishing|year=2001|isbn=1-84176-149-4|ref={{harvid|Turnbull|2001}}}}
* {{citation|author1=Williams, David|author2=Rikki Kersten|title=The Left in the Shaping of Japanese Democracy|publisher=Routledge|year=2006|isbn=978-0-415-33435-8|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0inRvBykKqcC&q=kimigayo+definition&pg=PA91|ref={{harvid|Williams|2006}}|access-date=17 October 2020 }}
* {{vcite book|author=Yamazumi, Masami|title=日の丸・君が代問題とは何か|language={{in lang|ja}}|publisher=Otsuki Shoten|year=1988|isbn=4-272-41032-6|ref={{harvid|Yamazumi|1988}}}}
{{refend}}

===Legislation===<!-- These are organized by the year of adoption. -->
{{refbegin|colwidth=60em}}
* {{vcite web|title=明治3年太政官布告第57号|trans_title=Prime Minister's Proclamation No.&nbsp;57|url=http://ja.wikisource.org/wiki/%E9%83%B5%E8%88%B9%E5%95%86%E8%88%B9%E8%A6%8F%E5%89%87|date=27 February 1870|publisher=Government of Japan|language={{in lang|ja}}|ref={{harvid|明治3年太政官布告第57号}}|access-date=29 November 2012|archive-date=23 May 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130523164319/http://ja.wikisource.org/wiki/%E9%83%B5%E8%88%B9%E5%95%86%E8%88%B9%E8%A6%8F%E5%89%87}}
* {{vcite web|title=明治3年太政官布告第651号|trans_title=Prime Minister's Proclamation No.&nbsp;651|url=http://kindai.ndl.go.jp/BIImgFrame.php?JP_NUM=40022968&VOL_NUM=00005&KOMA=220&ITYPE=0|access-date=6 February 2010|date=3 October 1870|publisher=National Diet Library|format=PDF|language={{in lang|ja}}|ref={{harvid|明治3年太政官布告第651号}}|archive-date=20 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211020014113/https://dl.ndl.go.jp/info:ndljp/pid/787950/220}}
* {{vcite web|title=大正元年閣令第一号 （大喪中ノ国旗掲揚方）|trans_title=Regulation 1 from 1912 (Raising Mourning Flag For the Emperor)|url=http://law.e-gov.go.jp/htmldata/T01/T01F01801000001.html|access-date=6 February 2010|date=30 July 1912|publisher=Government of Japan|language={{in lang|ja}}|ref={{harvid|大正元年閣令第一号}}|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100818111937/http://law.e-gov.go.jp/htmldata/T01/T01F01801000001.html#|archive-date=18 August 2010}}
* {{vcite web |url=http://law.e-gov.go.jp/htmldata/S29/S29SE179.html |title=自衛隊法施行令 |trans_title=Self-Defense Forces Law Enforcement Order |publisher=Government of Japan |language={{in lang|ja}} |date=30 June 1954 |access-date=25 January 2008 |ref={{harvid|自衛隊法施行令}} |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080407050124/http://law.e-gov.go.jp/htmldata/S29/S29SE179.html# |archive-date=7 April 2008 }}
* {{vcite web |url=http://www.clearing.mod.go.jp/kunrei_data/e_fd/1962/ey19621224_00119_000.pdf |title=〇海上自衛隊の使用する航空機の分類等及び塗粧標準等に 関する達 |trans_title=Standard Sizes, Markings and Paint Used On Aircraft |date=24 December 1962 |format=PDF |publisher=Ministry of Defense |language={{in lang|ja}} |ref={{harvid|〇海上自衛隊の使用する航空機の分類等及び塗粧標準等に 関する達}} |access-date=15 December 2009 |archive-date=22 July 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110722105856/http://www.clearing.mod.go.jp/kunrei_data/e_fd/1962/ey19621224_00119_000.pdf }}
* {{vcite web|title=広島県県章および県旗の制定|trans_title=Law About the Flag and Emblem of Hiroshima Prefecture|url=http://www.pref.hiroshima.lg.jp/soumu/bunsyo/kenhouki/reiki_honbun/ar20000231.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110719225247/http://www.pref.hiroshima.lg.jp/soumu/bunsyo/kenhouki/reiki_honbun/ar20000231.html|archive-date=19 July 2011|access-date=6 February 2010|date=16 July 1968|publisher=Government of Hiroshima Prefecture|language={{in lang|ja}}|ref={{harvid|広島県県章および県旗の制定}}}}
* {{vcite web|title=国旗及び国歌に関する法律 (法律第百二十七号)|trans_title=Law Regarding the National Flag and National Anthem, Act No.&nbsp;127|url=http://law.e-gov.go.jp/htmldata/H11/H11HO127.html|access-date=6 February 2010|date=13 August 1999|publisher=Government of Japan|language={{in lang|ja}}|ref={{harvid|国旗及び国歌に関する法律}}|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100521050156/http://law.e-gov.go.jp/htmldata/H11/H11HO127.html#|archive-date=21 May 2010}}
* {{vcite web |url=http://www.police.pref.hokkaido.jp/koukai/tuutatu/keimu/keimu-105.html |title=国旗及び国歌の取扱いについて |trans_title=Law Regarding Use of the National Flag and Anthem |access-date=14 January 2010 |date=18 November 1999 |publisher=Police of the Hokkaido Prefecture |language={{in lang|ja}} |ref={{harvid|国旗及び国歌の取扱いについて}} |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080506115241/http://www.police.pref.hokkaido.jp/koukai/tuutatu/keimu/keimu-105.html |archive-date=6 May 2008 |df= }}
* {{vcite web |url=http://www.police.pref.kanagawa.jp/notice/pdf/a00002.pdf |title=国旗及び県旗の取扱いについて |trans_title=Law Regarding the Use of the National and Prefectural Flag |date=29 March 2003 |format=PDF |publisher=Police of Kanagawa Prefecture |language={{in lang|ja}} |ref={{harvid|国旗及び県旗の取扱いについて}} |access-date=22 October 2010 |archive-date=4 October 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111004041219/http://www.police.pref.kanagawa.jp/notice/pdf/a00002.pdf }}
* {{vcite web|title=天草市章|trans_title=Emblem of Amakusa|url=http://www.city.amakusa.kumamoto.jp/reiki/reiki_honbun/r351RG00000002.html|date=27 March 2003|publisher=Government of Amakusa City|language={{in lang|ja}}|ref={{harvid|天草市章}}|access-date=29 November 2012|archive-date=30 September 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130930101026/https://www.city.amakusa.kumamoto.jp/reiki/reiki_honbun/r351RG00000002.html}}
* {{vcite web|title=天草市旗|trans_title=Flag of Amakusa|url=http://www.city.amakusa.kumamoto.jp/reiki/reiki_honbun/r351RG00000003.html|date=27 March 2003|publisher=Government of Amakusa City|language={{in lang|ja}}|ref={{harvid|天草市旗}}|access-date=29 November 2012|archive-date=28 September 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130928015328/https://www.city.amakusa.kumamoto.jp/reiki/reiki_honbun/r351RG00000003.html}}
* {{vcite web |url=http://www.clearing.mod.go.jp/kunrei_data/a_fd/1971/ax19720314_00003_000.pdf |title=自衛隊の旗に関する訓令 |trans_title=Flag Rules of the JASDF |date=25 March 2008 |format=PDF |publisher=Ministry of Defense |language={{in lang|ja}} |ref={{harvid|自衛隊の旗に関する訓令}} |access-date=25 September 2009 |archive-date=22 July 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110722105740/http://www.clearing.mod.go.jp/kunrei_data/a_fd/1971/ax19720314_00003_000.pdf }}
* {{vcite web |url=http://www.clearing.mod.go.jp/kunrei_data/a_fd/1955/ax19551227_00044_000.pdf |title=海上自衛隊旗章規則 |trans_title=JMSDF Flag and Emblem Rules |date=25 March 2008 |format=PDF |publisher=Ministry of Defense |language={{in lang|ja}} |ref={{harvid|海上自衛隊旗章規則}} |access-date=25 September 2009 |archive-date=22 July 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110722105930/http://www.clearing.mod.go.jp/kunrei_data/a_fd/1955/ax19551227_00044_000.pdf }}
{{refend}}

==External links==
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* [https://web.archive.org/web/20081208161723/http://homepage1.nifty.com/gyouseinet/kenpou/koushitsu/koushitsugiseirei.htm Website on the standards of the Imperial family] {{in lang|ja}}

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