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{{Short description|Chinese poetry form}}
{{good article}}
{{DISPLAYTITLE:''Fu'' (poetry)}}
[[File:Liangyuan_Gathering.jpg|thumb|right|300px|[[Song dynasty]] (960–1279) painting of a 2nd-century BC literary gathering at the court of [[Liu Wu, Prince of Liang]]]]
{{Infobox Chinese
|title=''Fu''
|pic=
|picsize=
|piccap=
|t={{linktext|賦}}
|s={{linktext|赋}}
|p=fù
|w=fu<sup>4</sup>
|mi={{IPAc-cmn|AUD|Zh-fù.ogg|f|u|4}}
|wuu=fǔ
|y=fu
|j=fu<sup>3</sup>
|ci={{IPAc-yue|f|u|3}}
|poj=hù
|h=fu<sup>4</sup>
|mc=pjù
|oc-b92=&ast;{{IPA|p(r)jas}}<ref name="R">The parenthetical "(r)" in these reconstructions indicates that the linguist is unable to say for certain whether or not the /r/ was present.</ref>
|oc-bs=&ast;{{IPA|p(r)a-s}}<ref name="R" />
|oc-zz=&ast;{{IPA|mpas}}
}}
'''''Fu''''' ({{zh|{{audio|Zh-fù.ogg|賦|help=no}}}}), often translated "rhapsody" or "poetic exposition", is a form of Chinese [[rhymed prose]] that was the dominant literary form in China during the [[Han dynasty]] (206{{sbc}}{{snd}}AD{{nbsp}}220).  ''Fu'' are intermediary pieces between [[poetry]] and [[prose]] in which a place, object, feeling, or other subject is described and rhapsodized in exhaustive detail and from as many angles as possible.{{sfnp|Cao|Knechtges|2010|p=317}} ''Fu''{{'s}} distinguishing characteristics include alternating [[rhyme]] and [[prose]], varying line lengths, close [[alliteration]], [[onomatopoeia]], loose [[parallelism (grammar)|parallelism]], and extensive cataloging of their topics.{{sfnp|Kern|2010|p=91}} Classical ''fu'' composers often tried to use as wide a vocabulary as possible, and their compositions are usually replete with rare and archaic Chinese words.{{sfnp|Idema|Haft|1997|p=97}} ''Fu'' were not sung like songs, but were recited or chanted.{{sfnp|Kern|2010|p=88}}

The ''fu'' genre came into being around the 3rd to 2nd centuries BC and continued to be regularly used into the [[Song dynasty]] (960{{ndash}}1279). ''Fu'' were used as grand praises for the imperial courts, palaces, and cities, but were also used to write "''fu'' on things", in which any place, object, or feeling was rhapsodized in exhaustive detail. The largest collections of historical ''fu'' are the [[Wen Xuan|''Selections of Refined Literature ''(''Wen xuan'')]], the ''[[Book of Han]]'', ''[[New Songs from the Jade Terrace]]'', and official dynastic histories.

There is no counterpart or form similar to the ''fu'' genre in Western literature.{{sfnp|Gong|1997|p=3}} During a large part of the 20th century, ''fu'' poetry was harshly criticized by Chinese scholars as excessively ornate, lacking in real emotion, and ambiguous in its moral messages.{{sfnp|Gong|1997|p=5}}  Because of these historical associations, scholarship on ''fu'' poetry in China almost ceased entirely between 1949 and the end of the [[Cultural Revolution]] in 1976.{{sfnp|Gong|1997|p=5-10}}  Since then, study of ''fu'' has gradually returned to its previous level.

==History==
{{main|History of fu poetry}}

===Origins===
The term "''fu''", when applied to Chinese literature, first appears in the [[Zhou dynasty]] ({{circa}} 1046{{ndash}}221{{sbc}}), where it meant "to present", as in poetic recitations.{{sfnp|Kern|2010|p=88}}  It was also one of the three literary devices traditionally assigned to the songs of the [[Classic of Poetry|''Classic of Poetry'' (''Shijing'')]].{{sfnp|Kern|2010|p=88}}  Over the course of the late 1st millennium BC, ''fu'' became the name of poetic expositions in which an author or composer created a comprehensive exposition and performed it as a [[rhapsode|rhapsody]].{{sfnp|Kern|2010|p=88}}  Han dynasty historian [[Ban Gu]] in the [[Hanshu Yiwenzhi|"Monograph on Arts and Letters"]] defined ''fu'' as "to recite without singing" (''bù gē ér sòng'' {{lang|zh|不歌而誦}}).{{sfnp|Kern|2010|p=88}}

''Fu'' poetry is often viewed as a descendant of the [[Chu Ci|''Verses of Chu'' (''Chu ci'')]] songs combined with the rhetorical expositions of the [[Zhanguo ce|''Intrigues of the Warring States'' (''Zhanguo ce'')]].{{sfnp|Idema|Haft|1997|p=97}}{{sfnp|Ho|1986|p=388}}  During the golden age of ''fu'' in the 2nd century BC, many of the greatest ''fu'' composers were from the southwestern area of [[Shu (state)|Shu]] (modern [[Sichuan Province]]).{{sfnp|Kern|2010|p=90}} A chapter of ''[[Xunzi (book)|Xunzi]]'' containing a series of riddles has been theorized to be the earliest known ''fu''.{{sfnp|Idema|Haft|1997|p=97}}  The earliest preserved and definitely datable ''fu'' is [[Jia Yi]]'s "''Fu'' on the Owl" (''Fúniǎo fù'' {{lang|zh|鵩鳥賦}}), composed about 170{{sbc}}.{{sfnp|Idema|Haft|1997|p=98}} Jia's surviving writings mention an earlier ''fu'' he wrote upon his exile to [[Changsha]] which he modeled upon [[Qu Yuan]]'s [[Li Sao|"Encountering Sorrow" (''Li Sao'')]], but it has not survived to the present.

===Han dynasty===
{{see also|Han poetry}}
====Western Han====
''Fu'' achieved its greatest prominence during the early [[Han dynasty]].  Jia Yi's "''Fu'' on the Owl", written around 170 BC, was composed following on the third year of his exile to [[Changsha]], and uses much of the style of the ''[[Li Sao]]'' and other songs of the ''Verses of Chu''.  "''Fu'' on the Owl", besides being the earliest known ''fu'', is unusual in the author's extended use of philosophical reflection upon his own situation in life.{{sfnp|Idema|Haft|1997|p=98}}

[[Emperor Wu of Han]] ascended the throne in 141 BC, and his 54-year reign is considered the golden age of "grand ''fu''" ({{zh|t=大賦|p=dàfù}}).{{sfnp|Kern|2010|p=90}} Emperor Wu summoned famous ''fu'' writers to the imperial court in [[Chang'an]], where many of them composed and presented ''fu'' to the entire court.{{sfnp|Kern|2010|p=90}}  The earliest grand ''fu'' of Emperor Wu's reign is "Seven Stimuli" (''Qī fā'' {{lang|zh|七發}}), by Mei Sheng ({{lang|zh|枚乘}}; d. 140 BC).{{sfnp|Kern|2010|p=90}} In "Seven Stimuli", Mei Sheng acts as a [[Warring States period|Warring States]]-style travelling orator who tries to cure a [[Chu (state)|Chu]] prince of an illness caused by overindulgence in sensual pleasures by pushing his senses to their limits with his ''fu'' descriptions.{{sfnp|Kern|2010|p=91}}
{{Quote
|text = <poem>{{lang|zh|純馳浩蜺，前後駱驛。
 顒顒卬卬，椐椐彊彊，莘莘將將。
壁壘重堅，沓雜似軍行。
 訇隱匈磕，軋盤涌裔，原不可當。|  size = 110% }}

Revolving and rushing, a glistening halo,
Front and rear conjoined and connected.
   Lofty and lofty, lifted and lifted,
   Roiling and roiling, raging and raging,
   Pressing and pressing, climbing and climbing,
A layered fortress of multiplied strength,
Doubled and diverse like the lines of troops.
   Rumbling and roaring, booming and crashing,
   Pushing and turning, surging and rolling –
Truly, it cannot be withstood!</poem>
|source = Description of a [[tidal bore]],<br /> "Seven Stimuli", Mei Sheng ({{circa}} 141{{sbc}}), translated by Martin Kern{{sfnp|Kern|2010|p=91}}
}}

Of all the authors from the golden age of "grand ''fu''" composition, [[Sima Xiangru]] is generally considered to be the greatest.{{sfnp|Idema|Haft|1997|p=98}}  A native of [[Chengdu]], he was traditionally said to have been summoned to the imperial court after Emperor Wu happened to personally read his "''Fu'' of Sir Vacuous" (''Zǐxū fù'' {{lang|zh|子虛賦}}), though this is almost certainly a story added later.{{sfnp|Kern|2010|p=90}}  After arriving in the capital around 136 BC, Sima Xiangru expanded his "''Fu'' of Sir Vacuous" into his ''[[Masterpiece|magnum opus]]'', "''Fu'' on the Imperial Park" (''Shànglín fù'' {{lang|zh|上林賦}}), generally considered the most famous  ''fu'' of all.{{sfnp|Kern|2010|p=91}}{{sfnp|Idema|Haft|1997|p=98}}  This work, whose original title was probably  "''Fu'' on the Excursion Hunt of the Son of Heaven" (''Tiānzǐ yóuliè fù'' {{lang|zh|天子遊獵賦}}), is a grand celebration of the Emperor's personal hunting park east of Chang'an,{{sfnp|Kern|2010|p=89}} and is famed for its rich number of rare and difficult words and characters.{{sfnp|Idema|Haft|1997|p=98}}  If not for the survival of Chinese scholar [[Guo Pu]]'s early 4th century AD annotations to "''Fu'' on the Imperial Park", much of its ancient and esoteric terminology would now be unintelligible.  The following portion of the rhymed list of names of minerals, precious stones, and flora and fauna from the first half of the "''Fu'' on the Imperial Park" exemplifies much of the cataloging and rare terminology characteristic of grand ''fu'':{{sfnp|Knechtges|2010|p=184}}

{{Quote 
|text= <poem>{{lang|zh|其土則
 丹青赭堊，
 雌黃白坿，
 錫碧金銀，
 眾色炫耀，
 照爛龍鱗。|  size = 110% }}

In the soil:
   Cinnabar, azurite, ocher, white clay,
   Orpiment, milky quartz,
   Tin, prase, gold, and silver,
   In manifold hues glisten and glitter,
   Shining and sparkling like dragon scales.

{{lang|zh|其石則
 赤玉玫瑰，
 琳瑉昆吾，
 瑊玏玄厲，
 碝石碔砆。|  size = 110% }}

Of stones there are:
  Red jade, rose stone,
  Orbed jades, vulcan stone,
  Aculith, dark polishing stone,
  Quartz, and the warrior rock.

[...]

{{lang|zh|其北則有陰林巨樹，
 楩柟豫樟，
 桂椒木蘭，
 蘗離朱楊，
 樝棃梬栗，
 橘柚芬芳。|  size = 110% }}

To the north there is a shady grove,
  Its trees are elm, ''nanmu'', camphor,
  Cinnamon, pepper, magnolia,
  Cork, wild pear, vermilion willow,
  Hawthorn, pear, date plum, chestnut,
  Tangerine and pomelo sweet and fragrant.

{{lang|zh|其上則有
 鵷鶵孔鸞，
 騰遠射干。
其下則有
 白虎玄豹，
 蟃蜒貙犴。|  size = 110% }}

In the treetops there are:
  The phoenix, peacock, simurgh,
  Leaping gibbon, and tree-jackal.
Beneath them there are:
  The white tiger, black panther,
  The ''manyan'' and leopard cat.</poem>
|source = Excerpt from "''Fu'' of Sir Vacuous", Sima Xiangru ({{circa}} 137 BC), translated by David Knechtges{{sfnp|Gong|1997|p=11}}
}}

The grand ''fu'' of the Western Han dynasty were read and recited as celebrations of pure poetic delight, and were the first pieces of Chinese literature to fuse both unrestrained entertainment and moral admonitions together in single works.{{sfnp|Kern|2010|pp=92–93}}  However, after the reign of Emperor Wu, his court culture began to be criticized as having placed undue emphasis on the grandiose language in ''fu'' and therefore having missed opportunities to encourage moral restraint.{{sfnp|Kern|2010|p=93}}  The most prominent critic of "grand ''fu''" was the other great ''fu'' writer of the Han dynasty: [[Yang Xiong (author)|Yang Xiong]].{{sfnp|Kern|2010|p=93}}  As a youth, Yang was an admirer and imitator of Sima Xiangru's ''fu'', but later came to disapprove of grand ''fu''.{{sfnp|Kern|2010|p=93}}  Yang believed that the original purpose of ''fu'' was to "indirectly admonish" (''fèng'' {{lang|zh|諷}}), but that the extended rhetorical arguments and complex vocabulary used in grand ''fu'' caused their hearers and readers to marvel at their aesthetic beauty while missing their moral messages.{{sfnp|Kern|2010|p=93}}  Yang juxtaposed early Han dynasty ''fu'' with the ''fu''-like expositions in the ''Classic of Poetry'', saying that while those in the ''Poetry'' provided moral standards, the ''fu'' of the Han poets "led to excess".{{sfnp|Kern|2010|p=93}}  While known as one of the ''fu'' masters of the Han dynasty, Yang's ''fu'' are generally known for their focus on admonishing readers and listeners to uphold moral values.{{sfnp|Kern|2010|p=89}}

{{Quote
|text = <poem>{{lang|zh|皇家赫而天居兮，萬方徂而星集。
貴寵煽以彌熾兮，僉守利而不戢。
前車覆而未遠兮，後乘驅而競及。
窮變巧於台榭兮，民露處而寢洷。
消嘉榖於禽獸兮，下糠粃而無粒。
弘寬裕於便辟兮，糾忠諫其駸急。|  size = 110% }}

The august house is resplendent, as if dwelling in Heaven;
&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;From a myriad directions they come, gathering like stars.
The honored and favored fan their fires of lust even hotter;
&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;All guard profit without cease.
When a front coach overturns not far ahead,
&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;The rear teams dash forward, racing to catch up.
They exhaust their multifarious craft on terraces and towers,
&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;While the people dwell in the open, sleep in the wet.
They waste fine grain on birds and beasts,
&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;While those below eat chaff and husks without the kernels.
They grandly bestow liberal generosity on fawning flatterers,
&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;But in impeaching loyal protest, they are swift and sure.</poem>
|source = Criticizing corrupt eunuchs and officials,<br />
"''Fu'' on Recounting a Journey", Cai Yong (AD 159), translated by David Knechtges{{sfnp|Knechtges|2010|p=157}}
}}

====Eastern Han====
Two of the most famous ''fu'' writers of the Eastern Han period were the polymaths [[Zhang Heng]] and [[Cai Yong]]. Among Zhang Heng's large corpus of writings are a significant number of ''fu'' poems, which are the first to have been written in the shorter style that became typical of post-Han ''fu''.{{sfnp|Knechtges|2010|p=143}}  Zhang's earliest known ''fu'' is "''Fu'' on the Hot Springs" (''Wēnquán fù'' {{lang|zh|溫泉賦}}), which describes the [[hot springs]] at Mount Li (modern [[Huaqing Pool]]) which famously later became a favorite of [[Yang Guifei|Imperial Concubine Yang]] during the [[Tang dynasty]].{{sfnp|Knechtges|2010|p=143}}  "''Fu'' on the Two Metropolises" (''Èr jīng fù'' {{lang|zh|二京賦}}) is considered Zhang's masterpiece.{{sfnp|Knechtges|2010|p=144}}  Zhang spent ten years gathering material for the ''fu'', a response to an earlier ''fu'' by [[Ban Gu]] that is a poetic comparison between the two capitals of the Han dynasty: Luoyang and Chang'an.{{sfnp|Knechtges|2010|p=144}}  Zhang's ''fu'' is highly [[satire|satirical]] and cleverly mocks many aspects of the Western Han period, including Emperor Wu himself{{sfnp|Knechtges|2010|p=144-145}} The piece contains long passages colorfully describing life in the two capitals in great detail, including the entertainment areas.{{sfnp|Knechtges|2010|p=145}}

Cai Yong, like Zhang Heng, was a prolific writer in addition to his mathematical, astronomical, and musical interests.{{sfnp|Knechtges|2010|p=156}}  In 159 CE, Cai was summoned to Chang'an to perform on the [[guqin]] for the imperial court, but became ill shortly before arriving and returned to his home.{{sfnp|Knechtges|2010|p=156}}  Cai composed a poetic record of his journey in "''Fu'' on Recounting a Journey" (''Shù xíng fù'' {{lang|zh|述行賦}}), his most well-known ''fu''.{{sfnp|Knechtges|2010|p=156}}  In "''Fu'' on Recounting a Journey", Cai cites examples of treacherous and dishonest rulers and officials from Chinese history, then criticizes the [[eunuch]]s of the capital for similar crimes.{{sfnp|Knechtges|2010|p=157}}

A number of ''fu'' writers from the late 2nd and early 3rd centuries CE became considered great ''fu'' poets, and were noted for their descriptions of the chaos and destruction following the [[End of the Han dynasty|collapse of the Han dynasty]].  [[Wang Can]], who lived as a refugee in Chu following the assassination of [[Dong Zhuo]] in 192 CE, wrote a famous ''fu'' entitled "''Fu'' on Climbing the Tower" (''Dènglóu fù'' {{lang|zh|登樓賦}}) in which Wang movingly describes climbing a tower near [[Jingzhou]] and gazing longingly in the direction of his home in [[Luoyang]].{{sfnp|Idema|Haft|1997|p=109}}  Poets often used subjects of descriptive ''fu'' poems to symbolize themselves, as in "''Fu'' on the Parrot" (''Yīngwǔ fù'' {{lang|zh|鸚鵡賦}}), by [[Mi Heng]], in which Mi uses a caged [[parrot]] as an allegory for a scholar whose talents go unrecognized and whose inability to control his tongue results in his captivity.{{sfnp|Idema|Haft|1997|p=109}}  During the [[Three Kingdoms period]], the court of the warlord [[Cao Cao]] and his sons [[Cao Pi]] and [[Cao Zhi]] became a famous literary salon, and a number of ''fu'' poems from their court have survived to modern times.
{{Quote
|quote = <poem>{{lang|zh|惟西域之靈鳥兮，挺自然之奇姿。
體金精之妙質兮，合火德之明輝。
性辯慧而能言兮，才聰明以識機。
故其嬉游高峻，棲跱幽深。
飛不妄集，翔必擇林。
紺趾丹嘴，綠衣翠矜。
采采麗容，咬咬好音。|  size = 110% }}

A marvelous bird from the Western Regions,
&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Manifests a wondrous natural beauty.
It embodies the sublime substance of the metal essence,
&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Embodies the shining brilliance of fire's power.
Gifted with wit and acuity, it is able to speak;
&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Intelligent and bright, it can perceive the imperceptible.
Thus, it plays and sports on lofty peaks,
&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Nests and perches in secluded vales.
Whenever it flies, it does not land at random;
&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Wherever it soars, it is sure to choose a good grove.
It has reddish-black feet, a vermilion beak,
&nbsp;&nbsp;Green coat, azure mantle.
Bright and colorful, lovely in appearance,
&nbsp;&nbsp;It chitters and chatters in a lovely voice.</poem>
|source = Opening lines, "''Fu'' on the Parrot", Mi Heng ({{circa}} AD 198), translated by David Knechtges{{sfnp|Knechtges|1996|p=51}}
}}

===Six Dynasties===
{{Further|Six Dynasties poetry}}

During the [[Six Dynasties]] period (220{{ndash}}589), ''fu'' remained a major part of [[Six dynasties poetry|contemporary poetry]], although [[Shi (poetry)|''shi'' poetry]] was gradually increasing in popularity.{{sfnp|Idema|Haft|1997|p=109}}  Six Dynasties ''fu'' are generally much shorter and less extravagant than Han dynasty ''fu'', likely due to a tradition of composing works entirely in parallel couplets that arose during the period.{{sfnp|Idema|Haft|1997|p=109}} While lyrical ''fu'' and "''fu'' on things" had been starkly different forms in the Han dynasty, after the 2nd century CE the distinction mostly disappeared.{{sfnp|Idema|Haft|1997|p=109}}  Although the extravagant ''fu'' style of the Han mostly disappeared, "''fu'' on things" continued to be widely written.

[[Xie Lingyun]] is one of the best-known poets of the entire Six Dynasties period, second only to [[Tao Yuanming]]. In contrast to his older contemporary Tao, Xie is known for the difficult language, dense allusions, and frequent parallelisms of his poetry.{{sfnp|Tian|2010|p=235}}  Xie's greatest ''fu'' is "''Fu'' on Dwelling in the Mountains" (''Shān jū fù'' {{lang|zh|山居賦}}), a Han-style "grand ''fu''" describing Xie's personal estate that borrows its style from the famous "''Fu'' on the Imperial Park" by Sima Xiangru.{{sfnp|Tian|2010|p=232}}  Like classical Han ''fu'', the poem uses a large number of obscure and rare characters, but "''Fu'' on Dwelling in the Mountains" is unique in that Xie included his own annotations to the poem,{{sfnp|Tian|2010|p=232}} without which the poem would be nearly incomprehensible.

During the [[Liang dynasty]] (502{{ndash}}587), ''fu'' continued to be a popular form of literature, though it began to merge with the popular five- and seven-syllable poetry forms, which completely eclipsed ''fu'' during the [[Tang dynasty]].{{sfnp|Tian|2010|p=264}} Some ''fu'' pieces, such as [[Shen Yue]]'s "''Fu'' on Dwelling in the Suburbs" (''Jiāo jū fù'' {{lang|zh|郊居賦}}){{mdash}}an homage to Xie Lingyun's "''Fu'' on Dwelling in the Mountains"{{mdash}}followed the traditional forms and subjects of classical ''fu'', but an increasing number did not.{{sfnp|Tian|2010|p=264}} "''Fu'' on [[Lotus flower|Lotus]]-picking" (''Cǎi lián fù'' {{lang|zh|採蓮賦}}), by Xiao Gang (later [[Emperor Jianwen of Liang]]), is a short, lyrical ''fu'' that mixes freely with popular lyric poetry,{{sfnp|Tian|2010|p=264}} and portrayed southern China as a romantic land of pleasure and sensuality.{{sfnp|Tian|2010|p=267}} Lotus-picking was an activity traditionally associated with peasant women, but in the early 5th century became a popular topic in ''fu'' and poetry.{{sfnp|Tian|2010|p=267}}

[[Yu Xin]] is generally considered the last great ''fu'' poet of Chinese history.{{sfnp|Idema|Haft|1997|p=110}}  Yu, like Yan Zhitui, was born in the south but forced to relocate to northern China after the south's defeat, and spent the rest of his career writing of the loss of the south as a loss of an entire culture and way of life.{{sfnp|Tian|2010|p=270}} Yu's most famous piece is "''Fu'' on Lamenting the South" (''Āi Jiāngnán fù'' {{lang|zh|哀江南賦}}), in which he describes his life's experiences in the context of the larger context of the destruction of the south and its culture.{{sfnp|Tian|2010|p=270}}

===Tang and Song dynasties===
The ''fu'' genre changed rapidly during the [[Tang dynasty]] (618{{ndash}}907). During the early Tang, a new form of ''fu'' called "regulated ''fu''" (''lǜfù'' {{lang|zh|律賦}}) supplanted the original form.{{sfnp|Owen|2010|p=289}}  "Regulated ''fu''" had strict rules of form and expression, and required the use of consistent rhymes throughout each piece.{{sfnp|Owen|2010|p=289}} Additionally, rules were created to govern the arrangement of tones in each poem, as the introduction of Buddhist texts written in [[Sanskrit]] and [[Pali]] had stimulated the Chinese to methodical study of their own language and the identification of the [[Four tones (Middle Chinese)|four tones of Middle Chinese]]. Beginning in the [[Tang dynasty]], these "regulated ''fu''" were required for the composition sections of the [[imperial examinations]].{{sfnp|Owen|2010|p=289}}  Tang writers added new topics to the traditional subjects of ''fu'', such as purely moral topics or scenes from Chinese antiquity.{{sfnp|Owen|2010|p=289}}  The "parallel ''fu''" (''piānfù'' {{lang|zh|駢賦}}) was another variant of the ''fu'' developed in the Tang, and was only used for [[rhetorical]] compositions.{{sfnp|Owen|2010|p=350}}

In 826, Tang poet [[Du Mu]]'s poem "''Fu'' on E-pang Palace" (''Ēpáng gōng fù'' {{lang|zh|阿房宫賦}}){{refn|group=n|Although ''[[The Cambridge History of Chinese Literature]]'', vol. 1, p. 350, gives the name of the palace as "Apang", most scholarly dictionaries read the first character 阿 as ''ē'', not ''ā'', in this case.}} laid the foundation for a new form of ''fu'' called "prose ''fu''" (''wénfù'' {{lang|zh|文賦}}), in which prose is freely rhymed.{{sfnp|Owen|2010|p=350}}  This form of ''fu'' became the dominant ''fu'' form during the late Tang and the [[Song dynasty]] (960{{ndash}}1279).{{sfnp|Owen|2010|p=350}} By the 9th and 10th centuries, traditional ''fu'' had become mainly historical pursuits, and were largely read and copied because of their inclusion on the imperial examinations.{{sfnp|Owen|2010|p=361}}

==Topics==

==="''Fu'' on things"===
Between 130 and 100 BC, Emperor Wu greatly expanded China's territory into Central Asia, [[Jiaozhi|northern Vietnam]], and the [[Korean Peninsula]] through a series of military campaigns and invasions.{{sfnp|Kern|2010|p=95}}  As the expansion progressed, many foreign plants, animals, goods, and rarities were brought to the imperial capital at Chang'an.{{sfnp|Kern|2010|p=95}}  Throughout the Han dynasty, court officials and poets often composed special ''fu'' called "''fu'' on things" (''yǒngwù fù'' {{lang|zh|詠物賦}}) on these new and unusual things, in which they described and catalogued extensively.{{sfnp|Knechtges|2010|p=118}}  These "''fu'' on things" became a major genre in ''fu'' poetry, and cover a vast number of instruments, objects, and phenomena.

{{Quote
|text = <poem>{{lang|zh|若迺玄律窮，嚴氣升。
焦溪涸，湯谷凝。
火井滅，溫泉冰。
沸潭無湧，炎風不興。
北戶墐扉，裸壤垂繒。
於是河海生雲，朔漠飛沙。
連氛累䨠，揜日韜霞。
霰淅瀝而先集，雪粉糅而遂多。|  size = 110% }}

Now, as the time of darkness reaches its peak, and harsh air is ascendant,
Scorching Creek dries up, Scalding Vale freezes,
Fire wells are extinguished, hot springs ice over,
Frothing pools no longer bubble, fiery winds do not rise.
On north-facing doors, panels are plastered;
In the land of the naked, men drape themselves in silk.
And then, clouds rise on river and sea; sand flies on northern deserts.
Unbroken vapors, piled up haze, shroud the Sun, veil the clouds.
First sleet comes pattering down; then snow, copiously cluttered, falls harder and harder.</poem>
|source = Excerpt from "''Fu'' on Snow", Xie Huilian ({{zh|t=謝惠連}}; {{circa}} 407–433) (Knechtges translation){{sfnp|Knechtges|1996|p=23-25}}
}}

[[Ban Zhao]], one of the most famous female poets of Chinese history, wrote a well-known ''fu'' during the reign of [[Emperor He of Han]] entitled "''Fu'' on the Great Bird" (''Dà què fù'' {{lang|zh|大雀賦}}), believed to be a description of an [[ostrich]] brought to the Han court from [[Parthia]] around AD 110.{{sfnp|Kern|2010|p=129}}  Scholar [[Ma Rong]] wrote two well-known ''fu'' on ancient [[board game]]s: "''Fu'' on [[Chaupar]]" (''Chūpú fù'' {{lang|zh|樗蒲賦}}), which the Chinese believed to actually have been invented by [[Laozi]] after he departed west out of China, and "''Fu'' on Encirclement Chess" (''Wěiqí fù'' {{lang|zh|圍棋賦}}),  one of the earliest known descriptions of the game [[Go (game)|Go]].{{sfnp|Knechtges|2010|p=149}}  Han dynasty librarian [[Wang Yi (librarian)|Wang Yi]], best known as the compiler of the received version of the ''[[Chu Ci|Verses of Chu]]'', wrote several object-description ''fu'' in the early 2nd century AD, such as "''Fu'' on the Lychee" (''Lìzhī fù'' {{lang|zh|荔枝賦}}), the earliest known poetic description of the [[lychee]] fruit.{{sfnp|Knechtges|2010|p=150}}

The literary salon of [[Cao Pi]]'s court produced a number of notable "''fu'' on things" in which a group of poets known as the [[Seven Scholars of Jian'an|Seven Masters of the Jian'an period]] each composed their own version of the ''fu''. During this period, Cao Pi was once presented with a large [[agate]] of unusual quality which Cao had made into a [[bridle]].{{sfnp|Knechtges|2010|p=170}} Each of the men composed their own "''Fu'' on the Agate Bridle" (''Mǎnǎo lè fù'' {{lang|zh|瑪瑙勒賦}}) for the occasion.{{sfnp|Knechtges|2010|p=170}}  Another object-description ''fu'' from the Cao court is "''Fu'' on the ''Musāragalva'' Bowl" (''Chēqú wǎn fù'' {{lang|zh|硨磲碗賦}}),{{refn|group=n|''[[The Cambridge History of Chinese Literature]]'', vol 1, p. 170, gives the pinyin transliteration of "''Fu'' on the ''Musāragalva'' Bowl" as ''Jūqú wǎn fù'', using an alternate reading of the character 車/硨. The ''[[Guangyun]]'' and most modern scholarly dictionaries give ''chē'', not ''jū''.}} which was a bowl made of a coral- or shell-like substance from somewhere near India, which was then known as the "Western Regions".{{sfnp|Knechtges|2010|p=170}}

One of the poet Shu Xi's ({{lang|zh|束皙}}; AD 263–302) ''fu'' has become well known in the history of [[Chinese cuisine]]: his "''Fu'' on Pasta" (''Bǐng fù'' {{lang|zh|餅賦}}) is an encyclopedic description of a wide variety of [[dough]]-based foods, including [[noodles]], [[steamed bun]]s, and [[dumplings]],{{sfnp|Knechtges|2010|p=194}} which had not yet become the traditional Chinese foods they are in modern times. [[Western Jin]] poet Fu Xian's "''Fu'' on Paper" (''Zhǐ fù'' {{lang|zh|紙賦}}) is well known as an early description of writing paper, which had only [[History of paper|been invented]] about 150 years earlier.{{sfnp|Knechtges|2010|p=193}}

===Sociopolitical protest===
Part of the legacy associated with the ''fu'' is its use as a form of sociopolitical protest, such as the theme of the loyal minister who has been unjustly exiled by the ruler or those in power at the court, rather than receiving the promotion and respect which he truly deserves. In the ''[[Chuci|Verses of Chu]]'', one of the works attributed to Qu Yuan is the "[[Li Sao]]", which is one of the earliest known works in this tradition, both as ancestral<ref>At least according to some Chinese literary historians. See: Hawkes (2011 [1985]): 221.</ref> to the ''fu'' as well as its incorporation of political criticism as a theme of poetry.{{sfnp|Davis|1990|p=xlvi–xlvii}}  The theme of unjust exile is related to the development of ''[[Xiaoxiang poetry]]'', or the  poetry stylistically or thematically based upon lamenting the unjust exile of the poet, either directly, or allegorically through the use of the persona of a friend or historical figure (a safer course in the case of a poet-official who might be punished for any too blatant criticism of the current emperor).<ref>Davis (1990): xlviii</ref> During the Han dynasty, along with the development of the ''fu'' stylistically, the idea that it incorporate political criticism through indirection and allegory also developed. Han dynasty historian and author [[Ban Gu]] in his ''[[Book of Han]]'' pointedly refers to a ''fu'' by [[Qu Yuan]] as a literary example of the use of the theme of the loyal minister who has been unjustly exiled, rather than receiving the promotion and respect which he truly deserves. As Hellmut Wilhelm puts it: "...the Han ''fu'' can easily be classified into a limited number of types. All types have one feature in common: almost without exception they can be and have been interpreted as voicing criticism—either of the ruler, the ruler's behavior, or certain political acts or plans of the ruler; or of the court officials or the ruler's favorites; or, generally, of the lack of discrimination in the employment of officials. The few examples that are positive in tone recommend the authors or their peers for employment, or even contain specific political suggestions. In short, almost all ''fu'' have a political purport, and, in addition, almost all of them deal with the relationship between the ruler and his officials."<ref>Wilhelm (1967 [1957]): 311.</ref> Seen in context, Ban Gu's discussion of Qu Yuan and the [[Li Sao|Chu ''sao'']] style is less to the point of the actual evolutionary path of the ''fu'' and more to the point that the main purpose of the ''fu'' is political and social criticism through poetic indirection: thus, in ''fu'', paradoxically, the "fantastic descriptions and an overflowing rhetoric...can be reduced to...restraint", as the sociopolitical criticism which was key to the ''fu'' was constrained within a very subtle, elaborately indirect, occasional, and allusive mode.<ref>Wilhelm (1967 [1957]): 312–314, quoting Sima Qian on Sima Xiangru.</ref>

==Collections==
''Fu'' pieces comprise the first main category in the ''[[Wen Xuan|Wen Xuan (Selections of Refined Literature)]]'', an early Chinese literary anthology which is still extant.{{sfnp|Tian|2010|p=255}}  The ''Selections'' collects all known ''fu'' pieces from the early [[Han dynasty]] to its compilation in the 6th century CE, during the [[Liang dynasty]]; it has since been the traditional source for studying classical ''fu''.

In the late 17th and early 18th centuries, during the reign of the [[Kangxi Emperor]], scholar Chen Yuanlong (1652{{ndash}}1736) compiled a collection of all known ''fu'' extant in his day, publishing his collection in 1706 as ''Collection of Fu Through the Ages'' (''Lìdài fù huì'' {{lang|zh|歷代賦彙}}). Chen's ''Collection'' in total contains 4,155 ''fu''.

==See also==
*[[Classical Chinese poetry forms]]
*[[Dong Zhongshu]]
*[[Han poetry]]

==Notes==
{{reflist|group=n}}

==References==

===Footnotes===
{{Reflist|20em}}

===Works cited===
* {{cite book | first1=Daoheng | last1=Cao | first2=David R. | last2=Knechtges | chapter=Han ''Fu'' 賦 (''Fu'' of the Han) | editor-first=David R. | editor-last=Knechtges | editor-first2=Taiping | editor-last2=Chang | title=Ancient and Early Medieval Chinese Literature: A Reference Guide, Part One | year=2010 | location=Leiden | publisher=Brill | isbn=978-90-04-19127-3 | pages=317–333 }}
* {{cite book | last=Davis | first=A. R. | year=1990 | title=The Penguin Book of Chinese Verse | location=Baltimore | publisher=Penguin Books }}
* {{cite book | last = Gong |first = Kechang | translator=David R. Knechtges | year =1997 |trans-title=Studies on the Han Fu |title=Han fu yanjiu |script-title=zh:漢賦研究 |location =New Haven |publisher = American Oriental Society|isbn=0940490145}}
* {{cite book | first=David | last=Hawkes | author-link=David Hawkes (sinologist) | title=The Songs of the South | location=London | publisher=Penguin Books | year=1985 | isbn=978-0-14-044375-2 | url-access=registration | url=https://archive.org/details/songsofsouthanci0000unse }}
* {{cite book | first=Kenneth Pui-hung | last=Ho | chapter=Fu 賦 | editor-first=William | editor-last=Nienhauser | title=The Indiana Companion to Traditional Chinese Literature | edition = 2nd revised | year=1986 | location=Bloomington | publisher=Indiana University Press | pages=388–391 | isbn=0-253-32983-3 }}
* {{cite book | first1=Wilt | last1=Idema | author-link=Wilt Idema | first2=Lloyd | last2=Haft | title=A Guide to Chinese Literature | year=1997 | location=Ann Arbor | publisher=Center for Chinese Studies, University of Michigan | isbn=0-89264-123-1|doi=10.3998/mpub.22826 }}
* {{cite book | first=Martin | last=Kern | chapter=Early Chinese literature, Beginnings through Western Han | pages=1–115 | editor-first=Stephen | editor-last=Owen | title=[[The Cambridge History of Chinese Literature, Volume 1: To 1375]] | year=2010 | location=Cambridge | publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] | isbn=978-0-521-11677-0|doi=10.1017/CHOL9780521855587.003 }}
* {{cite book | first=David R. | last=Knechtges | author-link=David R. Knechtges | year=1996 | title=Wen Xuan, or Selections of Refined Literature, Volume Three: Rhapsodies on Natural Phenomena, Birds and Animals, Aspirations and Feelings, Sorrowful Laments, Literature, Music, and Passions | location=Princeton | publisher=Princeton University Press | isbn=0691021260 }}
* {{cite book | first=David R. | last=Knechtges | chapter=From the Eastern Han through the Western Jin (AD 25–317) | pages=116–198 | editor-first=Stephen | editor-last=Owen | title=The Cambridge History of Chinese Literature, Volume 1: To 1375 | year=2010 | location=Cambridge | publisher=Cambridge University Press | isbn=978-0-521-11677-0|doi=10.1017/CHOL9780521855587.004 }}
* {{cite book | first=Stephen | last=Owen | chapter=The Cultural Tang (650–1020) | pages=286–380 | editor-first=Stephen | editor-last=Owen | title=The Cambridge History of Chinese Literature, Volume 1: To 1375 | year=2010 | location=Cambridge | publisher=Cambridge University Press | isbn=978-0-521-11677-0|doi=10.1017/CHOL9780521855587.006 }}
* {{cite book | first=Xiaofei | last=Tian | chapter=From the Eastern Jin through the early Tang (317–649) | pages=199–285 | editor-first=Stephen | editor-last=Owen | title=The Cambridge History of Chinese Literature, Volume 1: To 1375 | year=2010 | location=Cambridge | publisher=Cambridge University Press | isbn=978-0-521-11677-0|doi=10.1017/CHOL9780521855587.005 }}
*{{cite book|author-link1=Hellmut Wilhelm|last1=Wilhelm|first1= Hellmut|date=1967 |orig-date=1957|chapter=The Scholar's Frustration: Notes on a Type of ''Fu''|title=Chinese Thought and Institutions|editor-first1=John K. |editor-last1=Fairbank|location= Chicago and London|publisher= University of Chicago Press}}

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