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{{Английская Википедия/Панель перехода}}
{{Short description|Small ethnolinguistic group of North Luzon, Philippines}}
{{Infobox ethnic group
| group            = Gaddang
| total            = 32,538
| total_year       = 2010
| total_source     = Census
| total_ref        = <ref>{{Cite report |url=https://psa.gov.ph/sites/default/files/PHIILIPPINES_FINAL%20PDF.pdf |title=2010 Census of Population and Housing, Report No. 2A: Demographic and Housing Characteristics (Non-Sample Variables), Philippines |publisher=National Statistics Office |date=2013 |access-date=19 May 2020}}</ref>
| caption          = 
| regions          = {{flagcountry|Philippines}}:<br />([[Cagayan Valley]], [[Cordillera Administrative Region]])
| languages        = [[Gaddang language|Gaddang]], [[Ga'dang language|Ga'dang]], [[Yogad language|Yogad]], [[Cauayan, Isabela|Cauayeno]], [[Arta language|Arta]], [[Ilocano language|Ilocano]], [[English language|English]], [[Tagalog language|Tagalog]]
| religions        = [[Christianity in the Philippines|Christianity]] (Predominantly [[Roman Catholicism in the Philippines|Roman Catholic]], with a minority of [[Protestantism in the Philippines|Protestants]])
| related          = [[Ibanag people|Ibanag]], [[Itawes|Itawis]], [[Ilokano people|Ilokano]], other [[Filipino people]]
}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2022}}{{Demographics of the Philippines
}}

The '''Gaddang''' (an Indigenous Filipino people) are a linguistically identified [[ethnic groups in the Philippines|ethnic group]] resident in the watershed of the [[Cagayan River]] in [[Northern Luzon]], [[Philippines]]. [[Gaddang language|Gaddang]] speakers were recently reported to number as many as 30,000,<ref>{{Cite web | url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/gad/ | title=Gaddang | website=Ethnologue | access-date=15 July 2023 }}</ref> a number that may not include another 6,000 related [[Ga'dang language|Ga'dang]] speakers or other small linguistic-groups whose vocabularies are more than 75% identical.<ref>{{Cite web | url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/gdg/ | title=Ga'dang | website=Ethnologue | access-date=15 July 2023 }}</ref>

These proximate groups (speaking mutually intelligible dialects which include Gaddang, [[Ga'dang language|Ga'dang]], Baliwon,<ref>{{Cite web | title=Ga'dang,Baliwon in Philippines | website=Joshua Project | url=https://joshuaproject.net/people_groups/11793/RP | access-date=25 August 2023 }}</ref> [[Cauayan, Isabela|Cauayeno]], Majukayong, and [[Yogad]], as well as historically documented tongues such as that once spoken by the ''Irray'' of Tuguegarao) are depicted in cultural history and official literature today as a single people. Other distinctions are asserted between (a) [[Christianity in the Philippines|Christian]] residents of the Isabela plains and Nueva Vizcaya valleys, and (b) formerly [[Animism|non-Christian]] residents in the nearby [[Cordillera Central, Luzon|Cordillera mountains]]. Some reporters may exaggerate any of the differences, while others may completely ignore or gloss them over. The Gaddang have also in the past implemented a variety of social mechanisms that incorporate individuals born to linguistically different peoples.

The Gaddang are Indigenous to a compact geographic area; the theatre for their story is an area smaller than three-quarters of a million hectares (extreme distances: [[Bayombong]] to [[Ilagan]]=''120 Km'', [[Echague]] to [[Natonin]]=''70 Km'').  The living population collectively comprises less than one-twentieth of one percent ''(.0005)'' of inhabitants of the Philippines, sharing one-quarter percent of the nation's land with Ifugao, Ilokano and others.  As a people, Gaddang have no record of expansionism, they created no unique religion or set of beliefs, nor produced any notable government.  The Gaddang identity is their language and their place.

== Physical geography ==
{{Annotated image
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| caption = Topography of north & central Luzon: the ''Cagayan Valley'' is surrounded by mountains.
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The [[Cagayan Valley]] (and its tributary watersheds ''[[Magat River|Magat]]'', ''[[Ilagan River|Ilagan]]'', the ''Mallig'' and ''Siffu'' of the [[Mallig Plains]], and the ''[[Chico River (Philippines)|Chico]]'' that enters the Cagayan just 30 miles from the sea) is cut-off from the rest of [[Luzon]] by mile-high forested mountain ranges joined at [[Balete Pass]] near [[Baguio]]. If one travels south from the mouth of the Cagayan River and along its largest tributary (the [[Magat River|Magat]]<ref name="abs">{{cite web |date=2009-10-23 |title=The Cagayan River Basin |url=http://www.abs-cbnnews.com/research/10/23/09/cagayan-river-basin |access-date=20 March 2014 |website=ABS-CBN News |publisher=}}</ref>), the mountains become a dominant, brooding presence. The terraced [[Cordillera Central (Luzon)|Cordilleras]] close in from the west, the darker reaches of northern [[Sierra Madre (Philippines)|Sierra Madre]] arise in the east, meeting at the river sources in the [[Caraballo Mountains]].

Once covered in continuous rainforest, today the valley-floor is a patchwork of intensive agriculture and mid-size civic centers surrounded by hamlets and small villages.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Amano |first1=Noel |last2=Bankoff |first2=Greg |last3=Findley |first3=David Max |last4=Barretto-Tesoro |first4=Grace |last5=Roberts |first5=Patrick |date=February 2021 |title=Archaeological and historical insights into the ecological impacts of pre-colonial and colonial introductions into the Philippine Archipelago |journal=The Holocene |language=en |volume=31 |issue=2 |pages=313–330 |doi=10.1177/0959683620941152 |bibcode=2021Holoc..31..313A |s2cid=225586504 |issn=0959-6836|doi-access=free |hdl=21.11116/0000-0006-CB04-1 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> Even remote locations in the surrounding mountains now have permanent farm-establishments, all-weather roads, cell-phone towers, mines, and regular markets.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Prill-Brett |first=June |date=2003 |title=Changes in indigenous common property regimes and development policies in the northern Philippines |url=https://dlc.dlib.indiana.edu/dlc/bitstream/handle/10535/1934/June_Prill_brett.pdf |url-status=live |journal=RCSD International Conference. Politics of the Commons: Articulating Development and Strengthening Local Practices |pages=11–14 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211212171039/https://dlc.dlib.indiana.edu/dlc/bitstream/handle/10535/1934/June_Prill_brett.pdf |archive-date=2021-12-12}}</ref> Often, native forest-flora has vanished, and any uncultivated areas sprout invasive ''[[Imperata cylindrica|cogon]]''<ref>{{Cite web |title=Imperata cylindrica |url=https://plants.ifas.ufl.edu/plant-directory/imperata-cylindrica/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211212165435/https://plants.ifas.ufl.edu/plant-directory/imperata-cylindrica/ |archive-date=2021-12-12 |access-date=2022-12-02 |website=Center for Aquatic and Invasive Plants {{!}} University of Florida, IFAS}}</ref> or other weeds.

The International Fund for Agricultural Development in its 2012 study on Indigenous People's Issues in the Philippines identifies populations of Gaddang (including Baliwon, Majukayong, and iYogad) in Isabela, Nueva Ecija, Nueva Vizcaya, Quirino, and Mountain Provinces.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Cariño |first=Jacqueline K |date=November 2012 |title=Philippines: Country Technical Note on Indigenous Peoples' Issues |url=https://www.ifad.org/en/web/knowledge/-/publication/philippines-country-technical-note-on-indigenous-peoples-issues |access-date=2022-12-02 |website=IFAD |language=en-US}}</ref>

== A linguistic geography ==
The Cagayan Valley is physically divided from the rest of Luzon; Cagayan Valley cultures and languages are separated from other Luzon cultures and languages by social geography. The homelands of the [[Kapampangan language|Kapampangan]] (2.7 million speakers) and [[Pangasinan language|Pangasinan]] (1. 8 million) lie south of the mountains between the Cagayan and the enormous [[Tagalog language|Tagalog]]-speaking population of Central Luzon – and are themselves barred from the valley by the diverse [[Igorot]]/[[Bugkalot|Ilongot]] peoples of the Cordilleras and Caraballos. East of the valley, [[Kasiguranin language|Kasigurinanin]] farmers and various "negrito" [[Aeta people|Aeta]] hunter-gatherers inhabit a few small communities in the Sierra and along the seashore. Through the 17th and 18th centuries, many [[Ilocano people|Ilokano]] (now 8,000,000 worldwide) left their homes on the crowded northwest coast to labor on Cagayan Valley plantations; today's Ilokano-speakers in the Cagayan valley outnumber the original peoples several times over.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lewis |first1=Henry T. |title=Migration in the Northern Philippines: The Second Wave |journal=Oceania |date=1984 |volume=55 |issue=2 |pages=118–136 |doi=10.1002/j.1834-4461.1984.tb02926.x |jstor=40330799 |pmid=12313778 }}</ref>  The Gaddang language has similarities to those of the [[Itawes]] and [[Malaweg language|Malaueg]] settled at the more distant mouths of the [[Matalag River|Matalag]] and [[Chico River (Philippines)|Chico]] rivers, as well as the more numerous [[Ibanag people|Ibanag]] and [[Isneg people|Isneg]] of the valley.
[[File:Gaddang Homeland 2.jpg|thumb|left|The pink-shaded area has been occupied by Gaddang-speakers throughout recorded history.]]

Evidence<ref>{{Cite book |title=Gaddang Literature |last=Lumicao-Lora |first=Maria Luisa |date=1984 |publisher=New Day Publishers |isbn=971-10-0174-8 |location=Quezon City}}</ref> is that Gaddang occupied this vast protected valley jointly with culturally-similar neighbors for many hundred years.<ref name="cagayano.tripod">{{Cite web |url=http://cagayano.tripod.com/history.html |title=History |website=Province of Cagayan Website |access-date=2013-04-28}}</ref>   Even among this half-million indigenes, however, the Gaddang are fewer than ten percent. Today's Gaddang identity has survived invasion, colonialism, suppression, assimilation, and nationalism.

Prior to use of a Filipino "national-language" or the official use of English dating from the early 1900s (even before the 1863 decree requiring Spanish in official life), 17th century Dominicans promulgated Ibanag as the ''sole'' medium for communication and education throughout the Valley. The Provincial Chapter of the Dominicans decreed in 1607: ''"Praecipientes ut omni studio et diligentia dent operam, ut linguam de Ibanag loquantur Yndi omnes, et in illa dictis indis ministrare studeant."''{{Efn|"It is commanded: that all (Cagayan river-valley natives) must speak the language of Ibanag; and that (servants of the Church) will strive to serve the Indians in that tongue."}}<ref>{{Cite book |last=Gatan |first=Marino |url=http://name.umdl.umich.edu/ars2505.0001.001 |title=Ibanag indigenous religious beliefs: a study in culture and education |year=1981 |pages=23}}</ref>  In the area inhabited by Irraya-speakers (along the river from Tuguegaro to Ilagan<ref>{{Cite web | title=Ibanag Dialect: Potent Factor in Cagayan's Evangelization | url=https://cagayano.tripod.com/arts/ibanagpotent.html | access-date=26 August 2023}}</ref>) this policy helped Ibanag to supersede the local languages.  But most Gaddang language-variants (including Yogad and Cauayan) continued to remain vital and distinct from Ibanag,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Family: Cagayan Valley |url=https://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/caga1241 |website=[[Glottolog]] 4.6}}</ref> a situation which persists in the southern Cagayan and Magat valleys and foothills of the Cordillera. Decades of linguistic studies document considerable identity among the Gaddangic tongues,<ref>{{Cite web |date=March 1954 |title=Paper presenting three dialects (Christian Gaddang, Pagan Gaddang, Yogad) of Northern Luzon, Philippines |url=https://www.sil.org/system/files/reapdata/36/69/70/36697037601279476045406236796489216916/vwgad_yog_Gaddang_and_Yogad_Basic_Vocabulary.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220520095045/https://www.sil.org/system/files/reapdata/36/69/70/36697037601279476045406236796489216916/vwgad_yog_Gaddang_and_Yogad_Basic_Vocabulary.pdf |archive-date=2022-05-20 |website=[[SIL International]] – Philippines}}</ref> while revealing less intelligibility with Ibanag and Isneg.<ref>{{Cite thesis |last=Dita |first=Shirley |title=A Referencce Grammar og Ibanag: Phonology, Morphology, & Syntax |date=2010 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/301223082}}</ref>

== Evolving the idea of a people ==
Early depictions of Filipinos were written by conquerors to serve administrative, evangelical, or military purposes.<ref>{{cite web |date=6 December 2018 |title=Doctrine of Discovery Facts |url=https://dofdmenno.org/fact-sheet/ |website=Dismantling the Doctrine of Discovery}}</ref> Writers ignored scientific rules of evidence, and may be unreliable about conditions.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Deagan |first=Kathleen |date=2003 |title=Colonial Origins and Colonial Transformations in Spanish America |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/25617091 |journal=Historical Archaeology |volume=37 |issue=4 |pages=3–13 |doi=10.1007/BF03376619 |jstor=25617091 |s2cid=140497913 |issn=0440-9213}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Pearson |first=M. N. |date=1969 |title=The Spanish 'Impact' on the Philippines, 1565–1770 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/3596057 |journal=Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient |volume=12 |issue=2 |pages=165–186 |doi=10.2307/3596057 |jstor=3596057 |issn=0022-4995}}</ref> There are ''no'' native reporters whose work survives. Consequently, descriptions from this period are an ''overlay'' imposed by foreign invaders on indigenous cultures.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Punzalan |first=Ricardo L. |date=2007-08-02 |title=Archives of the new possession: Spanish colonial records and the American creation of a 'national' archives for the Philippines |url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s10502-007-9040-z |journal=Archival Science |language=en |volume=6 |issue=3–4 |pages=381–392 |doi=10.1007/s10502-007-9040-z |s2cid=143864777 |issn=1389-0166}}</ref> As such, they promote the interests of church, crown, and the business of the local governing apparatus,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Guillermo |first=Artemio R. |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/774293494 |title=Historical dictionary of the Philippines |date=2012 |publisher=Scarecrow Press |isbn=978-0-8108-7511-1 |edition=3rd |location=Lanham, Md. |pages=374 |oclc=774293494}}</ref> while failing to comprehend or accurately portray native concepts.

In 1902, the US Commissioner for Non-Christian Tribes wrote:{{Blockquote|''One impression that has gained a foothold in regard to tribes of the Philippines I believe to be erroneous, and that is as to the number of distinct types or races and multiplicity of tribes. Owing to the fact that nowhere in the Philippines do we encounter large political bodies or units, we have a superlative number of designations for what are practically identical people...For example, among the powerful and numerous Igorot of Northern Luzon, the sole political body is in the independent community. Under normal conditions, the town across the valley is an enemy and seeks the heads of its neighbors...Sometimes three or four different terms have been applied by different towns to identical peoples.''<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books |title=Census of the Philippine Islands: Geography, history, and population |date=1905 |publisher=U.S. Government Printing Office |section=A History of the Population: Non-Christian Tribes |author=Dr. David P. Barrows |pages=448–449 }}</ref>}}

So, there was no ''"Gaddang people"'' prior to the Spanish incursion; merely inhabitants of evanescent forest hamlets having tenuous relationships to people in similar settlements. Customs and language might be shared with neighbors, or they might not – the Spanish visitors created whole peoples from such tiny gatherings.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Alip |first=Eufronio Melo |url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/491664055 |title=The Philippines of yesteryears : the dawn of history in the Philippines |date=1964 |publisher=Alip |oclc=491664055}}</ref>  Nonetheless, we find the folk named long ago as Gaddang still residing in the same locales and using the same family names as were written down more than four hundred years ago.

At the end of the Spanish period, Fr. Julian Malumbres was writing his ''Historia de Nueva-Vizcaya y Provincia Montanõsa''<ref>{{cite book | url=https://quod.lib.umich.edu/p/philamer/abx3335.0001.001/ | title=Historia de Nueva-Vizcaya y provincia montanõsa / Por Fr. Julian Malumbres | year=2005 }}</ref> (published after the American takeover), which carefully details the doings of the individual priests, administrators, and military persons throughout the several hundred years of the occupation.  He is fairly vague about actions and customs of the native population.

American businessman Frederic H. Sawyer lived in Central Luzon beginning in 1886. He compiled ''The Inhabitants of the Philippines'' from official, religious, and mercantile sources during the last years of the Spanish administration. Published in 1900,<ref>{{Cite book |url=http://www.gutenberg.org/files/38081/38081-h/38081-h.htm |title=The Inhabitants of the Philippines |last=Sawyer |first=Frederic H. |publisher=Charles Scribner's Sons |year=1900 |location=New York}}</ref> it was intended to be a resource for incoming Americans. His descriptions are meager and at best secondhand. In his section titled ''Gaddanes'' we recognize the pagan residents of the highlands. The residents of Bayombong, Bambang, Dupax, and Aritao, however, are called ''Italones'', while their like in Isabela are the ''Irayas'' and the ''Catalanganes''.  These very terms are shown on military maps used by [[Elwell Stephen Otis|General Otis]] and his staff during the [[Philippine–American War]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Locations_Important_in_Gaddang_History.png|title=File:Locations Important in Gaddang History.png - Wikipedia|date=24 February 2022|website=commons.wikimedia.org|access-date=20 May 2023}}</ref>

In 1917, respected [[University of the Philippines]] ethnologist/anthropologist [[H. Otley Beyer]] reported 21,240 ''Christian'' Gaddang ("civilized and enjoying complete self-government") and 12,480 ''Pagan'' Gaddang ("semi-sedentary agricultural groups enjoying partial self-government).<ref name="Beyer 1917 p22">{{Cite book |url=https://archive.org/stream/populationofphil00beyerich?ref=ol#page/22/mode/2up |title=Population of the Philippine Islands in 1916 (población de las islas Filipinas en 1916) |last=Beyer |first=H. Otley |publisher=Philippine Education Co., Inc. |year=1917 |location=Manila |pages=22}}</ref> In this text, Beyer specifically notes that the Gaddang language "''is divided into many dialects''", and that all groups have a "''marked intonation while speaking''".  He enumerated the Christian group as 16,240 Gaddang-speakers and 5,000 [[Yogad language|Yogad-speakers]]. Some Pagan Gaddang spoke [[Kalinga language|Maddukayang/Majukayang]] (or Kalibungan) – a group totalling 8,480 souls. There were also 2,000 whose language was Katalangan<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Llamzon |first=Teodoro |date=1966 |title=The Subgrouping of Philippine Languages |journal=Philippine Sociological Review |volume=14 |issue=3 |pages=145–150 |jstor=23892050}}</ref> (an [[Philippine Negrito languages|Aeta]] group farming the foothills of the Sierra Madre in [[San Mariano, Isabela|San Mariano]], described in 1860 by naturalist [[Carl Semper]]<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Scott |first1=William Henry |title=Semper's 'Kalingas' 120 years later |journal=Philippine Sociological Review |date=1979 |volume=27 |issue=2 |pages=93–101 |jstor=23892117 }}</ref>), and another 2,000 speaking "Iraya."<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://archive.org/stream/populationofphil00beyerich?ref=ol#page/42/mode/2up |title=Population of the Philippine Islands in 1916 (población de las islas Filipinas en 1916) |last=Beyer |first=H. Otley |publisher=Philippine Education Co., Inc. |year=1917 |location=Manila}}</ref>).

A 1959 article by Fr. Godfrey Lambrecht, CICM is prefaced:{{Blockquote|''(The Gaddang) are the ''naturales'' of the towns of Bayombong, Solano, and Bagabag, towns built near the western bank of the Magat river (a tributary of...the Cagayan River) and of the towns of Santiago (Carig), [[Alicia, Isabela|Angadanan]], Cauayan, and [[Reina Mercedes, Isabela|Reyna Mercedes]]... ''
''According to the '''census of 1939''', the pagan Gadang numbered approximately 2,000, of whom some 1,400 lived in the outskirts of Kalinga and Bontok subprovinces... and some 600 were residing in the municipal districts of [[Luna, Isabela|Antatet]], [[Aurora, Isabela|Dalig]] , and the barrios of Gamu and Tumauini. Dalig is ordinarily said to be the place of origin of the Christianized Gadang. The same census records 14,964 Christians who spoke the Gadang language. Of these 6,790 were in Nueva Vizcaya, and 8,174 in Isabela. Among these, there were certainly some 3,000 to 4,000 who were not ''naturales'' but Ilocano, Ibanag, or Yogad who, because of infiltration, intermarriage, and daily contact with the Gadang, learned the language of the aborigines.''<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Lambrecht |first=Godfrey |year=1959 |title=The Gadang of Isabela and Nueva Vizcaya: Survivals of a Primitive Animistic Religion |journal=Philippine Studies |volume=7 |issue=2 |pages=194–218 |jstor=42719440}}</ref>|author=|title=|source=}}

The 1960 Philippine Census reported 6,086 Gaddang in the province of Isabela, 1,907 in what was then Mountain Province, and 5,299 in Nueva Vizcaya.<ref>1960 Population and Housing Report, Bureau of Census</ref> Using this data, Mary Christine Abriza wrote:
{{Blockquote|''The Gaddang are found in northern Nueva Vizcaya, especially [[Bayombong, Nueva Vizcaya|Bayombong]], [[Solano, Nueva Vizcaya|Solano]], and [[Bagabag, Nueva Vizcaya|Bagabag]] on the western bank of the [[Magat River]], and [[Santiago, Isabela|Santiago]], [[Alicia, Isabela|Angadanan]], [[Cauayan, Isabela|Cauayan]], and [[Reina Mercedes, Isabela|Reina Mercedes]] on the Cagayan River for Christianed groups; and western Isabela, along the edges of Kalinga and Bontoc, in the towns of [[Luna, Isabela|Antatet]], [[Burgos, Isabela|Dalig]], and the barrios of [[Gamu, Isabela|Gamu]] and [[Tumauini, Isabela|Tumauini]] for the non-Christian communities. The 1960 census reports that there were 25,000 Gaddang and that 10% or about 2,500 of these were non-Christian.''<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://litera1no4.tripod.com/gaddang_frame.html |title=Philippine Peoples: Gaddang |access-date=2013-04-26 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130717083741/http://litera1no4.tripod.com/gaddang_frame.html |archive-date=2013-07-17 |url-status=dead }}</ref>|author=|title=|source=}}

In April 2004, the National Statistics Office published a "Special Release"<ref>ISSN 0116-2640</ref> outlining results of the ''2000 Census of Population and Housing in the Philippines''.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://psa.gov.ph/sites/default/files/SR%20086%20Indigenous%20Peoples.pdf |title=Archived copy |access-date=23 July 2021 |archive-date=23 July 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210723173639/https://psa.gov.ph/sites/default/files/SR%20086%20Indigenous%20Peoples.pdf |url-status=bot: unknown }} | page 7</ref>  In those administrative regions with the largest concentrations of indigenous residents, Region II (10.5% of the nationwide indigenous population, Cagayan Valley IPS were 23.5% of all Region II residents), and the Cordillera Autonomous Region (CAR was home to 54.5% of all Philippine IPS, who comprised 11.9% of the CAR population).  Gaddang and Yogad were among the 83 groups identified as IPs.

== History ==
Material specifically relevant to the Gaddang (even when semi-distinct groups like Cauayeno and Yogad are included) over the past millennium is meagre.  Important parts of the Gaddang story is lost today due to colonial suppression, ravages of armed conflict, careless or disinterested record-keeping and maintenance during inconstant administrations, and lack of documentary abilities and interest among the collective population.  Extant historical data are largely concerned with specific places and events (property-records, parish vital statistics, &c.), or describe critical developments that affected large areas and populations. That said, such records do provide ''context'' and ''continuity'' for understanding the sporadic appearances of Gaddang peoples in the records.

=== Pre-history ===
Archeologists working in [[Peñablanca, Cagayan|Peñablanca]] date the presence of humans in the Cagayan Valley as early as one-half million years ago.<ref>{{Cite web |last= |first= |title=Paleolithic Archaeological Sites in Cagayan Valley |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/2069/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210210112745/https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/2069/ |archive-date=2021-02-10 |access-date=2022-12-02 |website=UNESCO World Heritage Centre – Tentative List |language=en}}</ref> Around 2000 B.C., Taiwanese nephrite (jade) was being worked along the north coast of Luzon and in the [[Batanes]],<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hung |first1=Hsiao-Chun |last2=Iizuka |first2=Yoshiyuki |last3=Bellwood |first3=Peter |last4=Nguyen |first4=Kim Dung |last5=Bellina |first5=Bérénice |last6=Silapanth |first6=Praon |last7=Dizon |first7=Eusebio |last8=Santiago |first8=Rey |last9=Datan |first9=Ipoi |last10=Manton |first10=Jonathan H. |title=Ancient jades map 3,000 years of prehistoric exchange in Southeast Asia |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |date=11 December 2007 |volume=104 |issue=50 |pages=19745–19750 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0707304104 |pmid=18048347 |pmc=2148369 |doi-access=free }}</ref> particularly at the Nagsabaran site in [[Claveria, Cagayan|Claveria]],<ref>{{Cite web |date=10 October 2009 |title=Excavation at Nagsabaran: An early village settlement in the Cagayan Valley of Northern Luzon, Philippines |url=https://archanth.cass.anu.edu.au/news/excavation-nagsabaran-early-village-settlement-cagayan-valley-northern-luzon-philippines |website=School of Archaeology and Anthropology – Australian National University}}</ref> although this international industry had moved to Palawan by 500 CE.

[[File:Cagayan river watershed.png|alt=|thumb|The [[Cagayan River]] and its [[tributaries]] on [[Luzon]], [[Philippines]]. Prehistoric peoples spread along the rivers from the mouth in the north]]

Subsequent [[Prehistory of the Philippines|prehistory of Luzon]] is subject to significant disagreements on [[Models of migration to the Philippines|origins and timing]]; genetic studies were inconclusive {{As of|2021|lc=y}}.  Generally agreed, however, is that a series of colonizing parties of [[Austronesian peoples]] arrived from 200 B.C. to 300 A.D. along the northern coasts of Luzon,<ref name="Larena et al">{{cite journal |last=Larena |first=Maximilian |display-authors=et al |title=Multiple migrations to the Philippines during the last 50,000 years |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |date=30 March 2021 |volume=118 |issue=13 |doi=10.1073/pnas.2026132118 |pmid=33753512 |pmc=8020671 |bibcode=2021PNAS..11826132L |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name="cagayano.tripod" /> where the river valleys were covered with a diverse flora and fauna.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Heaney |first=Lawrence R. |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/39388937 |title=Vanishing treasures of the Philippine rain forest |date=1998 |publisher=Field Museum |others=Jacinto C. Regalado, Field Museum of Natural History |isbn=0-914868-19-5 |location=Chicago |chapter=The Causes and Effects of Deforestation |oclc=39388937}}</ref> They found the [[Cagayan River]] bottoms sparsely occupied by long-established [[Negrito]] [[Aeta people|Aeta]]/[[Arta language|Arta]] peoples, while the hills had become home to more-recently arrived [[Igorot people|Cordilleran people]] (thought to originate directly from Taiwan as late as 500 B.C.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Asia and Oceania |last=West |first=Barbara A. |date=2009 |publisher=Facts On File |isbn=978-0-8160-7109-8 |location=New York |pages=299}}</ref>) and possibly the fierce, mysterious [[Ilongot people|Ilongot]] in the Caraballos.

Unlike the Aeta [[hunter-gatherers]] or Cordilleran [[Rice Terraces of the Philippine Cordilleras|terrace-farmers]], the Indo-Malay colonists of this period practiced ''[[Shifting cultivation|swidden]] farming'', and primitive littoral/riparian economies – collective communities that favor low population-density, frequent relocation, and limited social ties.<ref>{{cite book |title=Swidden cultivation in Asia |date=1983 |publisher=UNESCO Regional Office for Education in Asia and the Pacific |oclc=644540606 |url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000058620 }}</ref> Without trade, the structure for such economies is rarely developed beyond the extended family group (according to [[Frederick Jackson Turner|Turner]]),<ref>{{Cite book |last=Turner |first=Frederick Jackson |url=https://archive.org/details/frontierinameric00turniala/page/n6/mode/1up |title=The frontier in American history |publisher=New York : H. Holt |year=1921}}</ref> and may disappear beyond the limits of a single settlement. Such societies are typically suspicious of and hostile towards outsiders, and require members to relocate in the face of population pressure.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Valdepeñas |first1=Vicente B. |last2=Bautista |first2=Germelino M. |year=1974 |title=Philippine Prehistoric Economy |journal=Philippine Studies |volume=22 |issue=3/4 |pages=280–296 |jstor=42634874}}</ref>

The Indo-Malay arrived in separate small groups during this half-millennium,<ref name="Larena et al"/> undoubtedly speaking varying dialects; time and separation have indubitably promoted further linguistic fragmentation and realignment. Over generations they moved inland into valleys along the [[Cagayan River]] and its tributaries, pushing up into the foothills. The Gaddang occupy lands remote from the mouth of the river, so they are likely to have been among the earliest to arrive. All descendent-members of this 500-year-long migration, however, share elements of language, genetics, practices, and beliefs.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/890071926 |title=The global prehistory of human migration |date=2015 |author=Peter S. Bellwood |isbn=978-1-118-97058-4 |edition=Paperback |location=Chichester, West Sussex |pages=213 |oclc=890071926}}</ref> Ethnologists have recorded versions of a shared "epic" depicting describing the arrival of the heroes Biwag and Malana<ref>{{cite web |author=Cagayan |title=Arts and Culture |url=http://www.cagayan.gov.ph/index.php/arts-and-culture |access-date=2013-04-24 |publisher=Cagayan.gov.ph |archive-date=21 March 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130321075942/http://www.cagayan.gov.ph/index.php/arts-and-culture |url-status=dead }}</ref> (in some versions from Sumatra), their adventures with magic ''[[Philippine crocodile|bukarot]],'' and depictions of riverside life, among the Cagayan Valley populations including the Gaddang. Other cultural similarities include familial [[Collectivism and individualism|collectivism]],<ref>{{Cite web |title=Filipino Cultures |url=https://www.afsusa.org/countries/philippines/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220309055404/https://www.afsusa.org/countries/philippines/ |archive-date=2022-03-09 |website=[[AFS Intercultural Programs|AFS]] – USA}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Philippines |url=https://www.hofstede-insights.com/country/the-philippines/ |access-date=2022-12-02 |website=Hofstede Insights |language=en-US}}</ref> the dearth of [[endogamy|endogamous]] practices,<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Gallego |first=Maria Kristina S. |date=2015 |title=Philippine Kinship and Social Organization from the Perspective of Historical Linguistics |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/24672408 |journal=Philippine Studies: Historical & Ethnographic Viewpoints |volume=63 |issue=4 |pages=477–506 |doi=10.1353/phs.2015.0046 |jstor=24672408 |s2cid=130771530 |issn=2244-1093}}</ref> and a marked indifference to, or failure to understand intergenerational conservation of assets.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Molintas |first=Jose Mencio |date=2004 |title=The Philippine Indigenous Peoples' Struggle for Land and Life: Challenging Legal Texts [Article] |url=https://repository.arizona.edu/handle/10150/659142 |journal=Arizona Journal of International and Comparative Law |language=en |issn=0743-6963}}</ref> These socially-flexible behaviors tend to foster immediate survival, but do relatively little to establish and maintain a strongly-differentiated continuity for each small group.

===Cagayan Luzon Before Magellan===
The undeveloped social organization in the Cagayan area was why the seafaring trade networks of [[Srivijaya]] and [[Majapahit]] established no permanent stations during their thousand years.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Junker |first=Laura Lee |date=1990 |title=The Organization of Intra-Regional and Long-Distance Trade in Prehispanic Philippine Complex Societies |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/42928222 |journal=Asian Perspectives |volume=29 |issue=2 |pages=167–209 |jstor=42928222 |issn=0066-8435}}</ref> Neither were merchants of [[Tang dynasty|Tang]] and [[Song dynasty|Song]] China attracted by undeveloped markets and the lack of industry in the area.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Solheim |first=Wilhelm G. |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/69680280 |title=Archaeology and culture in Southeast Asia : unraveling the Nusantao |date=2006 |publisher=University of the Philippines Press |others=David Bulbeck, Ambika Flavel |isbn=971-542-508-9 |location=Diliman, Quezon City |pages=316 |oclc=69680280}}</ref> In the 14th century the short-lived and ineffective Mongol [[Yuan dynasty]] collapsed in a series of plagues, famines, and other disasters;<ref>{{Cite book |last=Chua |first=Amy |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/818889119 |title=Day of empire : how hyperpowers rise to global dominance-- and why they fall |date=2007 |publisher=Anchor Books |isbn=978-0-307-47245-8 |location=New York |pages=123 |oclc=818889119}}</ref> it led to the [[Ming dynasty|Ming]] policy of [[Haijin]] ("isolation"), and a substantial increase in [[Wokou]] piracy in the Luzon Straits.   Unsettled conditions continued for several hundred years, putting a halt to any nascent international trade and immigration in the Cagayan watershed.<ref>General Archive of the Indies, Philippines, file 29, bunch 3, number 62. Letter from Juan Bautista Román to the Viceroy of México, 25th of June, 1582</ref>  While Central Luzon and the southern islands enjoyed the results international commerce, the isolated Cagayan peoples were sequestered until the arrival of the militarily-advanced Spanish adventurers of the 1500s.

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 |mark-title7 =[[Ilagan|Bolo]]
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 |mark-title18 =[[Alfonso Lista|Potia]]
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 |mark-coord25 ={{Coord|17.27609|121.81859}}
 |mark-title25 =[[Tumauini]]
 }}

=== Arrival of the Spanish===
The initial recorded census of Filipinos was conducted by the Spanish, based on tribute collection from Luzon to Mindanao in 1591 (26 years after [[Miguel López de Legazpi|Legazpi]] established the Spanish colonial administration); it found nearly 630,000 native individuals.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Lambrecht |first=Fr Francis |date=1964 |title=The Ethnohistory of Northern Luzon by Felix M. Keesing. Stanford University Press, Stanford, 1962. Pp. 362, maps. |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-southeast-asian-history/article/abs/ethnohistory-of-northern-luzon-by-felix-m-keesing-stanford-university-press-stanford-1962-pp-362-maps-us750/F19D771A30337006CDE589575A502242 |journal=Journal of Southeast Asian History |language=en |volume=5 |issue=1 |pages=202–205 |doi=10.1017/S0217781100002313 |issn=0217-7811}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Ember |first1=Melvin |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7QEjPVyd9YMC |title=Encyclopedia of Diasporas: Immigrant and Refugee Cultures Around the World. Volume I: Overviews and Topics; Volume II: Diaspora Communities |last2=Ember |first2=Carol R. |last3=Skoggard |first3=Ian |date=2004-11-30 |publisher=Springer Science & Business Media |isbn=978-0-306-48321-9 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite thesis |title=Between Loyalty and Disobedience: The Limits of Spanish Domination in the Seventeenth Century Pacific |url=https://ses.library.usyd.edu.au/handle/2123/11475 |date=2014-01-01 |degree=Thesis |language=en |first=Stephanie Joy |last=Mawson}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |last=García-Abásolo |first=Antonio |title=Spanish Settlers in the Philippines (1571–1599) |url=http://www.uco.es/aaf/garcia-abasolo/files/63df3.pdf |year=1998}}</ref> Prior to Legazpi, the islands had been visited by [[Ferdinand Magellan|Magellan's]] 1521 expedition and the 1543 expedition of [[Ruy López de Villalobos|Villalobos]]. Using the reports of these expeditions, augmented by archeological data, scientific estimates of the Philippines population at the time of Legazpi's arrival run from slightly more than one million<ref>{{Cite book |title=The Hispanization of the Philippines: Spanish Aims and Filipino Responses 1565–1700 |last=Phelan |first=J. L. |publisher=University of Wisconsin |year=1959 |location=Madison}}</ref> to nearly 1.7 million.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Newson |first=Linda A. |title=Disease and immunity in the pre-Spanish Philippines |url=https://www.academia.edu/26308158 |journal=Social Science & Medicine |year=1999 |volume=48 |issue=12 |pages=1833–1850|doi=10.1016/S0277-9536(99)00094-5 |pmid=10405020 }}</ref>

Even allowing for inefficiencies in early Spanish census methodology, data supports a claim that – over a mere quarter-century – military action and disease caused ''major population decline'' (40% or more) among the natives. Arrival of the Spanish (with their arms and diseases) was obviously a cataclysmic event. (Compare the dislocation modern roads and agricultural technology during the late 20th century brought to tiny highlands Gaddang communities<ref>{{Cite book |last=Wallace |first=Ben J. |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/800027025 |title=Weeds, Roads and God : a Half-Century of Culture Change among the Philippine Ga'dang |date=2013 |isbn=978-1-57766-787-2 |location=Long Grove, Illinois |oclc=800027025}}</ref>).

There is no doubt the Spanish occupation imposed an entirely incomprehensible social and economic order from that which had previously existed in the Cagayan valley. Missions and ''[[encomienda]]''-ranching introduced concepts of land tenure sophisticated beyond the native's [[usufruct]] system of barely organized ''barangay'' communities farming temporary patches in the forest.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Scott |first=William Henry |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/32930303 |title=Barangay : sixteenth-century Philippine culture and society |date=1994 |publisher=Ateneo de Manila University Press |isbn=971-550-135-4 |location=Quezon City, Manila, Philippines |oclc=32930303}}</ref> The indigenes saw church and crown demanding enormous tributes of labor and goods without any apparent recompense; the invaders considered natives to be property and their culture meaningless. Evanescent woodland hamlets and tiny, exclusive societies stood in the way of Spanish plans for economic exploitation – commercial agriculture in particular.<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Bromley |first1=Daniel W. |last2=Cernea |first2=Michael M.|title=The management of common property natural resources : some conceptual and operational fallacies |url=https://documents.worldbank.org/en/publication/documents-reports/documentdetail/548811468740174575/The-management-of-common-property-natural-resources-some-conceptual-and-operational-fallacies |access-date=2022-12-02 |website=World Bank |language=en}}</ref> Trails through the forest were replaced by roads.  Ranchos, towns, and missions sprang into existence  New skills and social distinctions suddenly appeared, while old manners and folkways got forced into disuse within a single generation.

===Colonization by Kastilya and the Church===
[[File:Itinerario legazpi.jpg|thumb|left| Mapa del itinerario de la expedición de Miguel López de Legazpi en la Islas Filipinas (1560s)]]
In the Cagayan and nearby areas most immediately affecting the Gaddang, early expeditions led by [[Juan de Salcedo]] in 1572,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Scott |first=William Henry |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/39680272 |title=The discovery of the Igorots : Spanish contacts with the pagans of northern Luzon |date=1982 |publisher=New Day Publishers |isbn=971-10-0087-3 |edition= |location=Quezon City, Republic of the Philippines |pages=9–10, 48–49 |oclc=39680272}}</ref> and [[1582 Cagayan battles|Juan Pablo de Carrión]] (who drove-away Japanese pirates infesting the Cagayan coast)<ref>{{Cite web |last= |first= |date=2017-03-29 |title=Cagayán o cuando 40 tercios españoles lucharon y vencieron a 1.000 ronin |url=https://unrinconenlahistoria.wordpress.com/tag/bogueador/ |website=Un rincón en la historia |language=es}}</ref> initiated Spanish interest in the valley. Carrión established the ''alcalderia'' of [[Lal-lo, Cagayan|Nueva Segovia]] in 1585.  The natives immediately commenced what the Spanish considered [[Philippine revolts against Spain|anti-government revolts]] which flared up from the 1580s through the 1640s.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Baumgartner |first=Joseph |date=1974 |title=Review of The Discovery of the Igorots |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/29791173 |journal=Philippine Quarterly of Culture and Society |volume=2 |issue=4 |pages=259–262 |jstor=29791173 |issn=0115-0243}}</ref> At least a dozen [[Philippine revolts against Spain|"rebellions"]] were documented in Northern and Central Luzon from the 1600s through the 1800s,<ref>The Revolts before the Revolution|Chris Antonette P. Pugay|National Historical Institute|2006|https://web.archive.org/web/20070310225152/http://www.nhi.gov.ph/index.php<nowiki/>{{Dead link|date=December 2022}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |first=Herbert |last=Corpuz |date=2013-07-26 |title=Philippine revolts against spanish colonial rule |url=https://www.slideshare.net/corpuz/philippine-revolts-against-spanish-colonial-rule}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=1962-08-26 |title=Address of President Macapagal at the ceremony for the laying of cornerstone of New Balintawak Monument |url=https://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/1962/08/26/address-of-president-macapagal-at-the-ceremony-for-the-laying-of-cornerstone-of-new-balintawak-monument/ |website=Official Gazette of the Republic of the Philippines}}</ref> actions that indicate continuing antipathy between the occupiers and native populations.

Resistance notwithstanding, Spanish religious/military force established encomienda grants as far south as [[Tuguegarao|Tubigarao]] by 1591; in the same year [[Luis Pérez Dasmariñas]] (son of then-governor [[Gómez Pérez Dasmariñas]]) led an expedition north over the Caraballo mountains into what is now Nueva Vizcaya and Isabela.<ref name="provinceofisabela.ph">{{Cite web |date=2001-03-23 |title=Historical development of the Province of Isabela |url=http://provinceofisabela.ph/images/2018/History_of_Isabela/1-History%20of%20Isabela.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190415195946/http://provinceofisabela.ph/images/2018/History_of_Isabela/1-History%20of%20Isabela.pdf |archive-date=2019-04-15 |website=Province of Isabela Tourism Office}}</ref> In 1595-6 the Diocese of Nueva Segovia was decreed, and Dominican missionaries arrived.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://cagayano.tripod.com/history.html|title=Province of Cagayan Website :: HISTORY|website=cagayano.tripod.com}}</ref> The [[Catholicism in the Philippines|Catholic Church]] forcefully proselytized the [[Cagayan Valley]] from two directions, with Dominican missionaries continuing to open new missions southward in the name of Nueva Segovia (notably assisted by troops under the command of Capitan Fernando Berramontano),<ref>{{Cite book |last=Blair |first=Emma Helen |title=The Philippine Islands, 1493–1898 |volume=IX (1593–1597) |pages=73–77 |chapter=List of Philippine villages reduced by the Spaniards [1594?] |chapter-url=https://www.gutenberg.org/files/14265/14265-h/14265-h.htm#d0e1043 |via=[[Project Gutenberg]]}}</ref> while Augustinian friars pushing north from Pangasinan following the trail of the Dasmarinas expedition founded a mission near [[Aritao|Ituy]] by 1609.<ref>{{cite web |title=Diocese of Bayombong |url=http://www.cbcponline.net/jurisdictions/bayombong.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100617163118/http://www.cbcponline.net/jurisdictions/bayombong.html |archive-date=2010-06-17 |access-date=2013-04-28 |website=Cbcponline.net |publisher=}}</ref>  The seventeenth century began with the Gaddang in the sights of the Spanish advance for land and mineral wealth.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Blair |first=Emma Helen |title=The Philippine Islands, 1493-189 |volume=XX (1621–1624) |chapter=Expedition to the Mines of the Igorrotes |chapter-url=https://www.gutenberg.org/cache/epub/16133/pg16133-images.html#d0e2608 |via=Project Gutenberg}}</ref>

The Gaddang entered written history in 1598 after the Dominicans managed to get permission from Guiab (a local headman)<ref>{{Cite web |title=History of Isabela: Early Missions |url=http://anghistorya.blogspot.com/2018/08/political-historical-of-province-of.html |date=2023-05-02 }}</ref> to found their mission of San Pablo Apostol in Pilitan (now a barangay of [[Tumauini]]),<ref>{{Cite web |title=Historical Background |url=http://tumauini-isabela.gov.ph/historical-background/ |website=Tumauini Website}}</ref> then the mission of St. Ferdinand in the Gaddang community of Abuatan, Bolo (now the rural barangay of Bangag, [[Ilagan|Ilagan City]]), in 1608 – thirty years (and thirty leagues) from the first Spanish settlements in the Cagayan region.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://biyahero.net/index.php?option=com_sobi2&sobi2Task=sobi2Details&catid=9&sobi2Id=1442&Itemid=56 |title=ILAGAN CITY|website=Biyahero |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140531123757/http://biyahero.net/index.php?option=com_sobi2&sobi2Task=sobi2Details&catid=9&sobi2Id=1442&Itemid=56 |archive-date=2014-05-31}}</ref> Missions sent south from Nueva Segovia continued to prosper and expand southward, eventually reaching the ''Diffun'' area (southern Isabela and Quirino) by 1702. Letters from the Dominican Provincial Jose Herrera to [[Ferdinand VI of Spain|Ferdinand VI]] explicitly report that military activity was financed by, and considered an integral part of, the missions.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Salgado |first=Pedro V. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qk9xAAAAMAAJ |title=Cagayan Valley and Eastern Cordillera, 1581–1898 |date=2002 |publisher=Pedro V. Salgado, O.P. |isbn=978-971-23-3307-1 |language=en}}</ref>

Forced introduction of new crops and farming practices alienated the indigenes, as did collection of tithes, shares, and tribute. 1608 saw the assassination of Pilitan ''encomediero'' Luis Enriquez for his severe treatment of the Gaddang.  In 1621, residents of Bolo led by Felipe Catabay and Gabriel Dayag commenced a Gaddang (or Irraya) Revolt<ref>{{Cite web |title=Aklasan Ng Charismatic Pinoys: 1621, Gaddang |url=http://www.elaput.org/chrm1621.htm |website=www.elaput.org |language=tl}}</ref> against the severe Church requisitions of labor and supplies, as [[Magalat Revolt|Magalat]] had rebelled against Crown tribute at Tuguegarao a generation earlier.<ref>{{Cite web |date= |title=The Philippines, 1500–1800 (from "The Encyclopedia of World History, 2001") |url=http://www.bartleby.com/67/867.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080525123026/http://www.bartleby.com/67/867.html |archive-date=2008-05-25 |access-date=2008-07-04 |website=Bartleby}}</ref> Spanish religious and military records tell us that residents burned their villages and the church, then removed to the foothills west of the [[Mallig Plains|Mallig River]] (several days' journey). A generation later, Gaddang returnees — at the invitation of Fray Pedro De Santo Tomas — reestablished communities at Bolo and Maquila, though the location was changed to the opposite side of the Cagayan from the original village. Authorities claimed the Gaddang Revolt effectively over with the first mass held by the Augustinians on 12 April 1639 in Bayombong, Nueva Vizcaya, the so-called "final-stronghold" of the Gaddangs.

This protest/revolt created a distinction between the "Christianized" and "non-Christian" Gaddang.<ref name="Weeds, Roads pages 7-15">{{Cite book |last=Wallace |first=Ben J. |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/800027025 |title=Weeds, Roads and God : a Half-Century of Culture Change among the Philippine Ga'dang |date=2013 |isbn=978-1-57766-787-2 |location=Long Grove, Illinois |pages=7–15 |oclc=800027025}}</ref> Bolo-area Gaddang sought refuge with mountain tribes who had consistently refused to abandon traditional beliefs and practices for Catholicism. The Igorots of the Cordilleras killed Father Esteban Marin in 1601; subsequently, they waged a guerrilla resistance<ref>Philippine History 1: Module Based Learning, R. & R. Ongsetto (2002 edition) {{ISBN|971-23-3449-X}}</ref> after Captain Mateo de Aranada burned their villages. The mountaineers accepted the fleeing Gaddang as allies against the Spanish. Although the Gaddang refused to grow rice in terraces (preferring to continue their swidden economy), they learned to build tree-homes and hunt in the local style. Many Gaddang eventually returned to the valley, however, accepting Spain and the Church to follow the developing lowlands-farming lifestyle, taking advantage of material benefits not available to residents of the hills.

Heading north over the mountains, the Ituy mission initially baptized Isinay and Ilongot; thirty years later services were also being held for Gaddang in Bayombong. By the 1640s, though, that mission was defunct – the Magat valley was not operated with the comprehensive encomienda organization (and the military force that accompanied it) seen in the Nueva Segovia missions. The 1747 census, however, enumerates 470 native residents (meaning adult male Christians) in Bayombong and 213 from Bagabag, all said to be Gaddang or Yogad, in a re-established mission now called Paniqui.<ref name="auto1">{{Cite book |last=Newson |first=Linda A. |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/436459184 |title=Conquest and pestilence in the early Spanish Philippines |date=2009 |publisher=University of Hawai'i Press |isbn=978-1-4416-2002-6 |location=Honolulu |oclc=436459184}}</ref> With more than 680 households (3,000–4,500 people), the substantial size of these two Magat Valley Gaddang towns (100 kilometers from what is now Ilagan City) is an argument for more than a century's existence of a major native population in the area. By 1789, the Dominican Fr. Francisco Antolin made estimates of the Cordilleran population; his numbers of Gaddang in Paniqui are ten thousand, with another four thousand in the Cauayan region.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Antolin |first1=Francisco |last2=Scott |first2=William Henry |date=1970 |title=Notices of the Pagan Igorots in 1789 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1177612 |journal=Asian Folklore Studies |volume=29 |pages=177–249 |doi=10.2307/1177612 |jstor=1177612 |issn=0385-2342}}</ref>

The Gaddang are mentioned in Spanish records again in connection with the late-1700s rebellion of Dabo against the royal [[tobacco]] monopoly; it was suppressed in 1785 by forces dispatched from Ilagan by Governor Basco, equipped with firearms.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Barrows |first=David Prescott |url=http://archive.org/details/historyofphilipp00barriala |title=A history of the Philippines |date=1905 |publisher=Indianapolis : Bobbs-Merrill Co. |others=University of California Libraries |pages=246–272}}</ref>  Ilagan City was by then the tobacco industry's financing and warehousing center for the Valley,<ref name="auto1"/> while the product was shipped from Aparri. Tobacco requires intense cultivation, and Cagayan natives were considered too few and too primitive to provide the needed labor. Workers from the western coastal provinces of Ilocos and Pangasinan were imported for the work. Today, descendants of those 18th and 19th-century immigrants (notably the [[Ilokano people|Ilokano]]) outnumber by 7:1 descendants of the aboriginal Gaddang, [[Ibanag people|Ibanag]], and other Cagayan valley peoples.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Lewis |first=Henry T. |date=1984 |title=Migration in the Northern Philippines: The Second Wave |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/40330799 |journal=Oceania |volume=55 |issue=2 |pages=118–136 |doi=10.1002/j.1834-4461.1984.tb02926.x |jstor=40330799 |pmid=12313778 |issn=0029-8077}}</ref>

In the final century of Spain's rule of the islands saw the administration of the Philippines separated from that of Spain's American possessions, opening Manila to international trade, and the 1814 resumption of royal supremacy in government. Royal reform and re-organization of the Cagayan government and economy began with the creation of [[Nueva Vizcaya]] [[provinces in the Philippines|province]] in 1839. In 1865, [[Isabela (province)|Isabela]] province was created from parts of Cagayan and Nueva Vizcaya. The new administrations further opened Cagayan Valley lands to large-scale agricultural concerns funded by Spanish, Chinese, and wealthy Central Luzon investors, attracting more workers from all over Luzon.

But the initial business of these new provincial governments was dealing with head-hunting incursions that started in the early 1830s and continued into the early years of American rule. Tribesmen from Mayoyao, Silipan, and Kiangan ambushed travellers and even attacked towns from Ilagan to Bayombong, taking nearly 300 lives. More than 100 of the victims were Gaddang residents of Bagabag, [[Solano, Nueva Vizcaya|Lumabang]], and Bayombong. After Dominican Fr. Juan Rubio was decapitated on his way to [[Echague|Camarag]], Governor Oscariz of Nueva Vizcaya led a force of more than 340 soldiers and armed civilians against the Mayoyao, burning crops and three of their villages. The Mayoyao sued for peace, and afterward, Oscariz led his troops through the hills as far as [[Alicia, Isabela|Angadanan]].<ref name="provinceofisabela.ph"/> By 1868, however, the governors of Lepanto, Bontoc, and Isabela provinces repeated the expedition through the Cordilleran highlands to suppress a new wave of headhunting.

During the Spanish period, education was entirely a function of the Church; its purpose was to convert indigenes to Catholicism.  Although the throne decreed instruction was to be in Spanish, most friars found it easier to work in local tongues. This practice had the dual effect of maintaining local dialects/languages while suppressing Spanish literacy (minimizing the acquisition of individual social and political power, and suppressing national identity) among rural natives. The Education Decree of 1863 changed this, requiring primary education (and establishment of schools in each municipality) while requiring the use of Spanish language for instruction.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Philippines – History Background |url=https://education.stateuniversity.com/pages/1197/Philippines-HISTORY-BACKGROUND.html |website=StateUniversity.com Education Encyclopedia}}</ref> Implementation in remote areas of Northern Luzon, however, had not materially begun by the revolution of 1898.

Early in the Aguinaldo revolution, the main actions of the insurgents in the Cagayan Valley area were incursions by irregular Tagalog forces led by Major (later Colonel) Simeon Villa (Aguinaldo's personal physician, appointed the military commander of [[Katipunan]] troops in Isabela), Major Delfin, Colonel Leyba, and members of the family of Gov. Dismas Guzman<ref>{{Cite book |last=Worcester |first=Dean Conant |title=The Philippines: Past and Present (Volume 1 of 2) |year=1914 |chapter=VI – Insurgent Rule in the Cagayan Valley |chapter-url=https://www.gutenberg.org/files/12077/12077-h/12077-h.htm#ch06 |via=Project Gutenberg}}</ref> who were accused of robbery, torture, and killing of Spanish government functionaries, Catholic priests and their adherents,<ref>{{Cite court|litigants=the United States vs Isidro Guzman, et al.|court=Republic of the Philippines Supreme Court|opinion=G.R. No. L-590|date=1902-10-10|url=https://www.lawphil.net/judjuris/juri1902/oct1902/gr_l-590_1902.html}}</ref> for which several officers were later tried and convicted.<ref>{{Cite book |last= |first= |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Nkw-AQAAIAAJ&pg=PA386 |title=Reports of Cases Determined in the Supreme Court of the Philippines from ... |date=1904 |publisher=Bureau of Printing |language=en}}</ref> This characterization has been disputed by the American Justice [[James Henderson Blount]], who served as U.S. District Judge in the Cagayan region 1901–1905.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Blount |first=James Henderson |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pCItAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA112 |title=The American Occupation of the Philippines, 1898–1912 |date=1913 |publisher=G. P. Putnam's sons |language=en}}</ref> Regardless of the truth of the accusations and counter-accusations we may be certain that in the area from Ilagan to Bayombong inhabited by Gaddang people violence by outsiders and local-officials for and against Spanish-government adherents inevitably affected the daily lives of those living in the area.

=== American occupation ===
[[File:Locations Important in Gaddang History.png|thumb|left|Gaddang homelands in Gen. Otis map]]

The Philippines became a United States possession with the [[Treaty of Paris (1898)|Treaty of Paris]] which ended the [[Spanish–American War]] in 1898.

The First Philippine Republic (primarily Manila-based ''illustrados'' and the ''principales'' who supported them) objected to the American claim to dispose of Philippine land-holdings throughout the islands, which voided grants made to Spain and the church by indigenes, but also eliminated communal ancestral holdings. What Filipino nationalists regarded as continuing their struggle for independence, the U.S. government considered as [[insurrection]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://history.state.gov/milestones/1899-1913/war|title=The Philippine-American War, 1899–1902|publisher=Office of the Historian, U.S. Department of State|access-date=November 19, 2017}}</ref> [[Emilio Aguinaldo|Aguinaldo's]] forces were driven out of Manila in February 1899 and retreated through Nueva Ecija, Tarlac, and eventually (in October) to Bayombong. After a month, though, Republic headquarters left Nueva Vizcaya on its final journey which would end in Palanan, Isabela, (captured by [[Philippine Scouts]] recruited from [[Pampanga]]) in March 1901. Gaddangs made few or none of the ''principales'' and none of the Manila oligarchy, but the action in Nueva Vizcaya and Isabela made them proximate to the agonies of the rebellion.

Perhaps the earliest official reference to the Gaddang during the American Occupation directs the reader to "Igorot".<ref>Index, Census of the Philippine Islands, Vol I; United States Bureau of the Census, Joseph Prentiss Sanger, Henry Gannett, Victor Hugo Olmsted, United States Philippine Commission (1899–1900)</ref> The writers said of the "non-Christian" mountain tribes: {{Blockquote|Under the Igorot, we may recognize various subgroup designations, such as Gaddang, Dadayag, or Mayoyao. These groups are not separated by tribal organization... since tribal organization does not exist among these people. but they are divided solely by slight differences of dialect.<ref>Page 456, Census of the Philippine Islands, Vol I; United States Bureau of the Census, Joseph Prentiss Sanger, Henry Gannett, Victor Hugo Olmsted, United States Philippine Commission (1899–1900)</ref>|author=|title=|source=}} Among the practices of these Igorot peoples was [[headhunting]].

The Census also catalogues populations of the Cagayan lowlands, with theories about the origins of the inhabitants, saying: {{Blockquote|[[Ilokano people|Ilokano]] have also migrated still further south into the secluded valley of the upper Magat, which constitutes the beautiful but isolated province of Nueva Vizcaya. The bulk of the population here, however, differs very decidedly from nearly all of the Christian population of the rest of the Archipelago. It is made up of converts from two of the mountain Igorot tribes, who still have numerous pagan representative in this province and Isabela. These are the Isnay and Gaddang. In 1632 the Spaniard established a mission in this valley, named ''Ituy'' and led to the establishment of [[Aritao]], [[Dupax (disambiguation)|Dupax]], and [[Bambang, Nueva Vizcaya|Bambang]], inhabited by the Christianized Isnay, and of [[Bayombong]], [[Bagabag, Nueva Vizcaya|Bagabag]], and [[Solano, Nueva Vizcaya|Ibung]], inhabited by the Christianized Gaddang. The population, however, has not greatly multiplied, the remainder of the Christianized population being made up of [[Ilokano people|Ilocano]] immigrants.<ref>Page 449, Census of the Philippine Islands, Vol I; United States Bureau of the Census, Joseph Prentiss Sanger, Henry Gannett, Victor Hugo Olmsted, United States Philippine Commission (1899–1900)</ref>}}

The problematic but influential [[Dean Conant Worcester|D. C. Worcester]] arrived in the Philippines as a zoology student in 1887, he was subsequently the only member of both the [[Schurman Commission]] and the [[Taft Commission]]. He travelled extensively in Benguet, Bontoc, Isabela, and Nueva Vizcaya, codified and reviewed early attempts to catalogue the indigenous peoples in ''The Non-Christian Tribes of Northern Luzon'';<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Worcester |first=Dean C. |date=1906 |title=The non-Christian tribes of northern Luzon |url=https://archive.org/details/cu31924023497344/page/n5 |journal=Philippine Journal of Science |volume=1 |issue=8 |pages=791–875}}</ref> he collects "Calauas, Catanganes, Dadayags, Iraya, Kalibugan, Nabayuganes, and Yogades" into a single group of non-Christian "Kalingas" (an Ibanag term for 'wild men' – not the present ethnic group) with whom the lowland ("Christian") Gaddang are also identified.

{{Quote box|left|width=600px|quote= "Members of the first governing commission were instructed ''“In all the forms of government and administrative provisions which they are authorized to prescribe, the commission should bear in mind that the government which they are establishing is designed not for our satisfaction, or for the expression of our theoretical views, but for the happiness, peace and prosperity of the people of the Philippine Islands, and the measures adopted should be made to conform to their customs, their habits, and even their prejudices, to the fullest extent consistent with the accomplishment of the indispensable requisites of just and effective government.''<ref>Worcester, 1914, Ibid. https://www.gutenberg.org/files/12077/12077-h/12077-h.htm#ch06 {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210812095740/https://www.gutenberg.org/files/12077/12077-h/12077-h.htm#ch06 |date=2021-08-12 }}</ref>}} When the U.S. took the Philippines from the Spanish in 1899, they instituted what President McKinley promised would be a "benign assimilation".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://historymatters.gmu.edu/d/5575/ |title=Manifest Destiny, Continued: McKinley Defends U.S. Expansionism |publisher=Historymatters.gmu.edu |date=1903-01-22 |access-date=2013-04-23}}</ref> Governance by the U.S. military energetically promoted physical improvements, many of which remain relevant today. The Army built roads, bridges, hospitals, and public buildings, improved irrigation and farm production, constructed and staffed schools on the U.S. model, and invited missionary organizations to establish colleges.<ref name="Reportof">Report of the Secretary of the Interior – Manila 1908, Report of the Philippine Commission to the Secretary of War 1908 Part 2, GPO</ref> Most importantly, these improvements affected the ''entire country'', not just primarily the environs of the capital. The infrastructure improvements made great changes in the lives of the "Christianized" Gaddang in Nueva Vizcaya and Isabela (although they assuredly had a much smaller effect on the Gaddang in the mountains). The [[Land reform in the Philippines|1902 Land Act]] and the government purchase of 166,000 hectares of Catholic church holdings also affected the Cagayan Valley peoples.
[[File:Gaddang & Ilokano 1904.png|thumb|right|Gaddang and Ilokano Teachers in best native dress circa 1902]]

In addition, the passage in 1916 of the [[Jones Law (Philippines)|Jones Act]] redirected almost all U.S. efforts in the Philippines, making them focus on a near-term when Filipinos would be in charge of their own destinies. This initiated promotion of social reforms from the Spanish traditions. Food safety regulations and inspection, programs to eradicate malaria and hookworm, and expanded public education were particular American projects that affected provincial Northern Luzon.<ref>{{Cite thesis |last=Kasperski |first=Kenneth F. |title=Noble colonials: Americans and Filipinos, 1901–1940 |date=2012 |degree=Ph.D. |publisher=University of Florida |url=http://ufdc.ufl.edu/UFE0043923/00001}}</ref> A practical decision was made to immediately conduct education in English, a practice finally discontinued only twenty-five years after independence.

During the first years of the 20th century, American administrators documented several cases throughout the islands of Filipino individuals being involved in the sale or purchase of Ifugao or Igorot women and girls to be domestic servants.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://archive.org/stream/cu31924023437878 |title=Slavery and Peonage in the Philippine Islands |last=Worcester |first=Dean C. |publisher=Bureau of Printing |year=1913 |location=Manila |pages=92–95, 104–105 }}</ref> {{Quote box|width=600px|quote=In 1903 the Senior Inspector of Constabulary for Isabela wrote to his superiors in Manila: ''"In this province a common practice to own slaves... Young boys and girls are bought at around 100 pesos, men (over) 30 years and old women cheaper. When bought (they) are generally christened and put to work on a ranch or in the house... Governor has bought three. Shall I investigate further?"''<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://archive.org/stream/cu31924023437878?ref=ol#page/n27/mode/2up |title=Slavery and Peonage in the Philippine Islands |last=Worcester |first=Dean C. |publisher=Bureau of Printing |year=1913 |location=Manila |page=21}}</ref>|author=|title=|source=}}
The regular sale of "non-Christian" Cordilleran and Negrito tribesfolk to work as farm labor in Isabela and Nueva Vizcaya was documented (a practice noted even during the Spanish administration<ref>Notices of the Pagan Igorots in 1789|Francisco Antolin, O.P.|translated by William Henry Scott|pp.  |https://asianethnology.org/downloads/ae/pdf/a227.pdf {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190807104807/https://asianethnology.org/downloads/ae/pdf/a227.pdf |date=2019-08-07 }}</ref>), and several Gaddang were listed as purchasers.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://archive.org/stream/cu31924023437878?ref=ol#page/n29/mode/2up|title=Slavery and Peonage in the Philippine Islands |last=Worcester |first=Dean C. |publisher=Bureau of Printing |year=1913 |location=Manila |pages=22–25}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://archive.org/stream/cu31924023437878?ref=ol#page/n113/mode/2up |title=Slavery and Peonage in the Philippine Islands |last=Worcester |first=Dean C. |publisher=Bureau of Printing |year=1913 |location=Manila |pages=104–105}}</ref> While household slaves often were treated as lesser members of Filipino families, problems was exacerbated by sale of slaves to Chinese residents doing business in the Philippines. When Governor George Curry arrived in Isabela in 1904, he endeavored to enforce the Congressional Act prohibiting slavery in the Philippines but complained the Commission provided no penalties. The practice — considered to be of centuries-long standing — was effectively discouraged ''de jure'' by 1920.

In 1908, the [[Mountain Province]] administrative district was formed, incorporating the municipality of [[Natonin, Mountain Province|Natonin]], and its barangay (now the municipality) of [[Paracelis, Mountain Province|Paracelis]] on the upper reaches of the Mallig River, as well the [[Ifugao province|Ifugao]] municipality of [[Alfonso Lista, Ifugao|Alfonso Lista]] uphill from San Mateo, Isabela. These areas were the home of the Ga'dang-speaking Irray and Baliwon peoples, mentioned in the early Census as "non-Christian" Gaddang. A particular charge of the new province's administration was the suppression of head-hunting.<ref name="Reportof" />

In 1901, the U. S. Army began to recruit counter-insurgency troops in the Philippines. Many Gaddang took advantage of this opportunity, and joined the [[Philippine Scouts]] as early as 1901 (more than 30 Gaddang joined the original force of 5,000 Scouts), and continued to do so through the late 1930s. The Scouts were deployed at the Battle of Bataan,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.philippine-scouts.org/history/the-philippine-scouts.html |title=PSHS |publisher=The Philippine Scouts |access-date=2013-04-26}}</ref> most were not in their homelands during the Japanese Occupation. One Gaddang 26th Cavalry private, Jose P. Tugab, claimed he fought in Bataan, escaped to China on a Japanese ship, was with Chiang Kai-shek at Chunking and US/Anzac forces in New Guinea, then returned to help free his own Philippine home.<ref>Bernard Norling|The Intrepid Guerrillas Of North Luzon|p.48|University Press of Kentucky|1999|https://www.google.com/books/edition/_/41F54XIceXcC?gbpv=1 {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221202110040/https://www.google.com/books/edition/_/41F54XIceXcC?gbpv=1 |date=2022-12-02 }}</ref>

=== Japanese incursion and WWII ===
The Japanese undertook a policy of economic penetration in the Philippines immediately after the American occupation began. It concentrated on acquiring land in agriculturally under-developed areas in Northern Luzon and Mindanao,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.mindanews.com/top-stories/2017/10/from-little-tokyo-to-tokyo-japan-historical-bond-shared-journey/|title = From 'Little Tokyo' to Tokyo, Japan: Historical bond, shared journey|date = October 2017}}</ref> while also emplacing Japanese nationals throughout the country.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Goodman |first1=Grant K. |title=Davao: A Case Study in Japanese-Philippine Relations |date=1967 |publisher=University of Kansas, Center for East Asian Studies |oclc=483509617 |hdl=1808/1195 }}</ref> Beginning in 1904, construction at Baguio attracted more than 1,000 Japanese nationals - who eventually acquired farms, retail, and transport businesses.<ref>{{Cite journal |url=https://asj.upd.edu.ph/mediabox/archive/ASJ-44-1-2008/afable.pdf |title=The Search for the Baguio Japanese Community |author=Patricia O. Afable |journal=Asian Studies, No.44}} </ref> Land ownership under the Public Land act of 1903 (P.L. 926) by Japanese nationals in the Philippines exploded to more than 200,000 hectares; the Commonwealth government became concerned enough about Japanese corporate land-ownership to initiate the Land-Act of 1919 (P.L. 2874), restricting land ownership to situations where more than 60% of ownership were Philippine or United States citizens.<ref name="auto">{{Cite web|url=https://lmb.gov.ph/index.php/about-lmb/history|title = "A Brief History", Land Management Bureau, Bureau of Lands District Land Offices, 2007}}</ref> By the late 1930s, more than 350 registered Japanese-owned businesses – 80% with ten or fewer employees, and 19,000 Japanese nationals were established in the Philippines. Prior to December 1941, most municipalities in northern Luzon housed at least one Japanese-owned business whose proprietor's primary loyalty was to his homeland. Very few were spies, but they provided a stream of vital political, economic, and logistical information to those who were.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Yu-Jose |first1=Lydia N. |title=World War II and the Japanese in the Prewar Philippines |journal=Journal of Southeast Asian Studies |date=1996 |volume=27 |issue=1 |pages=64–81 |doi=10.1017/S0022463400010687 |jstor=20071758 |s2cid=162573792 }}</ref>
[[File:General Yamashita Surrenders.jpg|thumb|left|upright]]
On December 10, 1941, elements of the Japanese 14th Army landed at [[Japanese invasion of Aparri|Aparri, Cagayan]] and marched inland to take Tuguegarao by the 12th. Hapless regular Philippine Army (PA) units of the 11th Division surrendered or fled. While [[Masaharu Homma|Gen.Homma's]] main force proceeded to Ilocos Norte along the coast, troops were deployed to administer the agriculturally rich Cagayan Valley and facilitate Japanese appropriation of food supplies (butchering of more than half of farmers' ''[[carabao]]'' for meat to feed their army<ref>[https://apps.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/b068659.pdf Article title] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210508043005/https://apps.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/b068659.pdf |date=2021-05-08 }}</ref>) and farm equipment. Retreating US military destroyed communications infrastructure to prevent use by the Japanese invaders.<ref name="main.pldt.com">{{Cite web |url=https://main.pldt.com/about-us/company-timeline |title=PLDT — Leading and inspiring Filipinos to create a better tomorrow |access-date=2022-02-01 |archive-date=2022-02-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220201174503/https://main.pldt.com/about-us/company-timeline |url-status=live }}</ref> By late 1942 reliable information, food, and other commodities for native residents of the Cagayan Valley region had become very scarce.<ref>Diary of Rammon A. Alcarez, http://philippinediaryproject.wordpress.com/1942/12/25/december-25-1942/ {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131218094031/http://philippinediaryproject.wordpress.com/1942/12/25/december-25-1942/ |date=2013-12-18 }}</ref>

Meanwhile, the Manila-based Second Philippine Republic of [[Jose P. Laurel|President Laurel]] encouraged collaboration with the Japanese. In these hard times for North Luzon, many individual Japanese soldiers established relationships with Filipino residents, married local women, and fathered children with the expectation of becoming permanent (if superior) residents.  Philippine and American military escapees hid in the mountains or valley villages; some engaged in small-scale guerrilla actions against the Japanese. In October 1942, American Colonels Martin Moses and Arthur Noble attempted a coordinated Northern Luzon guerrilla action which failed.<ref name="ReferenceA">The Intrepid Guerillas of Northern Luzon, Bernard Norling {{ISBN|978-0-8131-2118-5}}</ref> Japanese forces in the Cagayan Valley perceived a serious threat, and brought thousands of troops from Manila and Bataan to discourage possible resistance in a fierce and indiscriminate manner. ''"(Local) leaders were killed or captured, civilians were robbed, tortured, and massacred, their towns and barrios were destroyed."''<ref name="ReferenceA"/>

Surviving American Capt. [[Russell W. Volckmann|Volckmann]] re-organized guerilla operation into the [[United States Army Forces in the Philippines – Northern Luzon]] (USAFIP-NL) in 1943 with a new focus on gathering intelligence. Based in the Cordilleras, his native forces (including several Gaddang) were effective, even though they ran great risks,<ref>{{Citation |last=Ludan |first=Romulo |title=A Filipino Guerilla's Story |date=2011 |url=http://armchairgeneral.com/a-filipino-guerillas-story.htm |work=Armchair General Magazine}}</ref> providing [[United States Army Forces in the Far East|USAFFE]] information about Japanese troop dispositions. Capt. Ralph Praeger operated semi-independently in the Cagayan Valley, supported by Cagayan Governor Marcelo Adduru,<ref>Cagayan Province and Her People, E. de Rivera Castillet, 1960, p.390</ref> before his "Cagayan-Apayo Force" (Troop C, [[26th Cavalry Regiment (Philippine Scouts)|26th Cavalry]]) was destroyed in 1943. USAFIP forces also coordinated with American forces in the 1945 [[Battle of Luzon]].

The final stages of the war in the Philippines took place in the Cagayan and the Cordilleras.  After recapturing central Luzon, American forces turned to the Cordilleras and Caraballos to pursue General [[Tomoyuki Yamashita|Yamashita's]] forces.  The main Japanese force retreated into the mountains at Kiangan, seizing food and supplies from the Magat valley.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Triumph in the Philippines | author=Robert Ross Smith | date=19 October 2005 |url=https://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/USA/USA-P-Triumph/USA-P-Triumph-29.html | page=578 | access-date=31 August 2023}}</ref> Taking Baguio and [[Dalton Pass|Balete Pass]] by the end of May (with locals assisting on the flanks), U.S. infantry reached Bayombong in a week, Bagabag a day later, and Santiago on June 13; by June 26, the Americans met a U.S. force heading south to Tuguegaro.<ref>https://history.army.mil/html/books/005/5-10-1/CMH_Pub_5-10-1.pdf</ref>  Local guerillas destroyed the Bagabag-Bontoc Road bridges, stopping further supplies for Japanese in the mountains; infantry followed through Oriung Pass chasing Japanese west into the Cordilleras.  As forces from Bagabag fought uphill towards Kiangan, a USAFIP force (including guerillas) drove east from Cervantes to reduce the Japanese stronghold.<ref>Reports of General MacArthur, The Campaigns of MacArthur in the Pacific, Volume I United States Army</ref> By mid-August, the eight-month struggle for Luzon was over, it concluded with Yamashita's surrender in early September.

The effects of the war on the Filipino population were not well-documented or understood.<ref>https://leginfo.legislature.ca.gov/faces/billTextClient.xhtmlthe 1939?bill_id=199920000AJR27</ref>  Fatalities due to military action, starvation, lack of medical care, and mistreatment of civilians are merely estimates - 5% of the 1939 census is a mean.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.statista.com/statistics/1293510/second-world-war-fatalities-per-country/ | title=Second World War: Deaths per country 1939-1945 }}</ref> In Isabela and Nueva Vizcaya that fraction would come to about 15,000 dead, and as many wounded or homeless.<ref>Reported in Wikipedia articles for Isabela and Nueva Vizcaya, the 1939 census was 219,864 and 74,582, respectively.</ref> Any documented loss of infrastructure (communications, roads & buildings lost to military action, schools closed, farmlands uncultivated, animals destroyed) also remains unavailable, but it's understood there were substantial losses.  Finally, collaborators were severely resented and criticized for opportunism and oppression.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://factsanddetails.com/southeast-asia/Philippines/sub5_6b/entry-3842.html | title=INDEPENDENCE FOR THE PHILIPPINES AFTER WORLD WAR II &#124; Facts and Details }}</ref>

=== Post-WWII ===
On October 22, 1946,the [[Treaty of Manila (1946)|Treaty of Manila]] established the independent Republic of the Philippines.<ref>Philippines (1946). Treaty of General Relations and Protocol with the Republic of the Philippines: Message from the President of the United States Transmitting the Treaty of General Relations and Protocol Between the United States of America and the Republic of the Philippines, Signed at Manila on July 4, 1946 by General Godwin Hope. U.S. Government Printing Office</ref>  Quickly ratified by the U.S. Senate and signed by President [[Harry Truman]]; it left a newly-created nation that faced enormous challenges.  ''"The close of the war found the Philippines with most of its physical capital demolished or impaired. Transportation and communication facilities were severely damaged, and agricultural production seriously depleted".<ref>Foreign Aid by the United States Government 1940–1951, U.S. Department of Commerce, Office of Business Economics, Washington DC, 1952; https://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/PCAAA605.pdf {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220408165512/https://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/PCAAA605.pdf |date=2022-04-08 }}</ref>''

National political and economic developments immediately affected the Gaddang "homelands" in the Cagayan watershed.  Access to northern Luzon was compromised by [[Hukbalahap]] activity in Bulacan and Nueva Ejica from 1946 to 1955, delaying infrastructure repair and development. While the economy improved under President Quirino, it was mostly due to reconstruction grants from the U.S.,<ref>{{Cite magazine |url=http://content.time.com/time/subscriber/article/0,33009,813694,00.html|title = The Philippines: Bristling Bankrupt|magazine = Time|date = 6 November 1950}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.fef.org.ph/economics/the-nation-during-elpidio-quirinos-presidency-1948-to-1953/|title = The nation during Elpidio Quirino's presidency, 1948 to 1953 &#124; Foundation for Economic Freedom}}</ref> with benefits focused on metro Manila.<ref>{{Cite journal|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/3024510|jstor=3024510|last1=Golay|first1=Frank H.|title=The Quirino Administration in Perspective: Review Article|journal=Far Eastern Survey|year=1959|volume=28|issue=3|pages=40–43 |doi=10.2307/3024510}}</ref>  The financial situation was exacerbated when President Garcia's 1958 National Economic Council [[Filipino First policy|Resolution No. 202]] created major disincentives to foreign investment.<ref>Abinales, Patricio N.; Amoroso, Donna J. (2005). "All Politics is Local, 1946–1964". State and Society in the Philippines (illustrated ed.). Lanham, Md.: Rowman & Littlefield. pp. 182–184. {{ISBN|0742510247}}</ref>  Global recession and commodity price-inflation followed the Vietnam war. The 20-year dictatorship of [[Ferdinand Marcos|Marcos]] saw corruption and looting on an unprecedented scale,<ref>De Dios, Emmanuel S. (November 16, 2015). "The Truth About the Economy Under the Marcos Regime". Opinion. Business World. Retrieved May 14, 2018.</ref> and an Ilokano political ascendancy in Region II.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.philstar.com/headlines/2023/02/24/2247351/ | title=Martial Law survivors recount experiences under dictatorship, counter 'Solid North' narrative in new book|newspaper=Philippine Star|date=24 February 2023|access-date=1 September 2023}}</ref> By the [[1986 Philippine presidential election|1986 election]], the nation was in a debt-crisis with a very high incidence of severe poverty.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1986/02/28/world/manila-after-marcos-managing-a-frail-economy-a-daunting-task-crippled-economy.html|title=Manila After Marcos: Managing a Frail Economy; A Daunting Task: Crippled Economy|newspaper=The New York Times|date=28 February 1986|last1=Haberman|first1=Clyde}}</ref>   In following years - from 1986 to 2016 - the country has had a [[People Power Revolution|revolution]], a new [[Constitution of the Philippines|Constitution]], five presidential administrations (none of which represented an electoral majority), and a successful presidential impeachment.

{{Philippine Census
| align = right
| title= Population census of Gaddang "Homelands"
| 1948 = 402,000
| 1970 = 961,000
| 1995 = 1,821,000
| 2020 = 2,702,000 
||
| footnote= Source: [[Philippine Statistics Authority]]
}}
The population of the Philippines at independence was less than 17 million.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.statista.com/statistics/1067059/population-philippines-historical/|title=Population of the Philippines 1800–2020|website=Statista}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://web0.psa.gov.ph/sites/default/files/attachments/crd/article/SUMMARY%20OF%20PRINCIPAL%20VITAL%20STATISTICS.pdf |title=Summary of Principal Vital Statistics in the Philippines: 1903–2010 |access-date=2022-01-05 |archive-date=2018-12-21 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181221140035/http://web0.psa.gov.ph/sites/default/files/attachments/crd/article/SUMMARY%20OF%20PRINCIPAL%20VITAL%20STATISTICS.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> By 2020, the [[Census in the Philippines|Philippine Census]] passed 112 million,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://psa.gov.ph/sites/default/files/attachments/ird/pressrelease/Press%20Release%20-%202020%20CPH%20Population%20Counts%20Press%20Release.pdf|title=2020 Census of Population & Housing Declared Official|date=2021-07-21}}</ref> forecast to grow to 200 million in the next forty years,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nscb.gov.ph/secstat/d_popn.asp |title=Statistics – Population and Housing |publisher=NSCB |date=1995-02-23 |access-date=2013-04-26 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120704171010/http://www.nscb.gov.ph/secstat/d_popn.asp |archive-date=2012-07-04}}</ref> even after losing large numbers of Filipino permanent emigrants to other countries.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.migrationpolicy.org/article/philippines-culture-migration|title=The Philippines' Culture of Migration|date=January 2006}}</ref> In the essentially-rural '''Gaddang "homelands"''' (Isabela, Nueva Vizcaya, and Quirino, plus adjoining municipalities in Cagayan and Mountain provinces) the rate of increase has surpassed the national level driven by the growth of large cities.  The effects of population changes on Gaddang communities: (a) enormous numbers of people relocated to the previously-uncrowded Magat/Cagayan valleys from other parts of the country,<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://www.academia.edu/2553644 |title=Indicators Relevant for Indigenous Peoples: A Resource Book |last=Abayao |first=Leah |publisher=Tebtebba Foundation |year=2008 |isbn=978-971-93566-5-3 |location=Baguio}}</ref> overwhelming original populations and regionally available resources to accommodate and integrate them; while (b) improved school facilities and resources have enabled educated indigenes to emigrate.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://psa.gov.ph/content/total-number-ofws-estimated-23-million-results-2017-survey-overseas-filipinos | title=Total Number of OFWs Estimated at 2.3 Million (Results from the 2017 Survey on Overseas Filipinos) &#124; Philippine Statistics Authority }}</ref>  Over fifty years, this population-shift swamped the indigenous Cagayan cultures.

Growth in Northern Luzon was facilitated by infrastructure development.  In 1965, President [[Diosdado Macapagal|Macapagal]] proposed a Pan-Philippine highway;<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/1965/01/25/diosdado-macapagal-fourth-state-of-the-nation-address-january-25-1965/ | title=Diosdado Macapagal, Fourth State of the Nation Address, January 25, 1965 &#124; GOVPH | date=25 January 1965 }}</ref> the idea was adopted by his successor [[Ferdinand Marcos|Marcos]] as part of his ambitious (and self-serving) program of public works.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://countrystudies.us/philippines/27.htm|title = Philippines – Marcos and the Road to Martial Law, 1965–72}}</ref>  The "Maharlika Highway," was implemented by making improvements to and connections between existing roads previously administered by Department of Public Works, Transportation and Communications.<ref>[https://www.dpwh.gov.ph/DPWH/about/history History] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220129224906/https://www.dpwh.gov.ph/DPWH/about/history |date=2022-01-29 }}</ref>  Funding came from the [[World Bank]], the Asian Highway project of the [[United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific|United Nations]] and a loan of more than US$30 million from Japan (segments were re-named the Philippine-Japanese Friendship Highway).<ref>1972 Report on the Economy, Philippines National Economic and Development Authority, 1973,https://books.google.com/books?id=UGhCdGzTqKMC {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221202110034/https://www.google.com/books/edition/Report_on_the_Economy/UGhCdGzTqKMC |date=2022-12-02 }}</ref> In Northern Luzon an important component was National Route 5 from [[Plaridel, Bulacan|Plaridel]] to Aparri,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.geographicus.com/P/AntiqueMap/northernluzon-ams-1944|title = 1944 Army Map Service Road Map of Northern Luzon, Philippines}}</ref> built before WW2 by the US.  Improvements to pavement, roadbeds, and bridges were completed by the mid-1970s and modestly maintained for several decades.  In 1994, the Japanese provided another round of funding for improvements to accommodate significantly increased traffic in Luzon.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.jica.go.jp/english/our_work/evaluation/oda_loan/post/2007/pdf/project09_full.pdf|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20211210094619/https://www.jica.go.jp/english/our_work/evaluation/oda_loan/post/2007/pdf/project09_full.pdf|url-status=dead|title=Project evaluation|archivedate=10 December 2021}}</ref>  In 2004, the Philippines ratified the Intergovernmental Agreement on the Asian Highway Network, and the entire 3,500&nbsp;km highway became '''AH26'''.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.rappler.com/newsbreak/iq/74846-ah26-road-sign/|title = AH26: What does this road sign mean?|date = 16 November 2014}}</ref>

Other major infrastructure projects in Northern Luzon in this period include the [[Magat Dam]] power, irrigation, and flood-control project undertaken during the Marcos administration and financed by loans from the World Bank.<ref>"Magat Hydro: Environmental & Social Review Summary" – International Finance Corporation (World Bank)</ref>  The national telecommunications network originally built by American firm GTE<ref name="main.pldt.com"/> (though largely destroyed by US forces during WW2) was restored to pre-war levels by the 1950s. Japanese Overseas Economic Cooperation Fund loans were used in the 1980s for the Northern Luzon Communication Network Development Plan, providing telecommunications equipment to provide trunk cabling, microwave transmission equipment and major maintenance for extant infrastructure between 1983–1992.<ref>Philippines Regional Telecommunications Development Project in Region III Report, January 2003, https://www.jica.go.jp/english/our_work/evaluation/oda_loan/post/2002/pdf/087_full.pdf {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220123020904/https://www.jica.go.jp/english/our_work/evaluation/oda_loan/post/2002/pdf/087_full.pdf |date=2022-01-23 }}</ref>

During the American occupation, education in the Gaddang homelands was generally available for elementary grades 1-6. By the 1930s provincial ''rural high-schools'' were established providing education in forestry and market-agriculture,<ref>{{cite web | url=https://nvsu.edu.ph/about/history | title=NVSU – Nueva Vizcaya State University }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://isu.edu.ph/university-history-2/|title = University History|date = 7 March 2019}}</ref> to introduce new crops and technologies.  Catholic missionary high-schools were founded in several larger municipalities, and a private high-school was established in Santiago City a few months prior to the Japanese invasion of 1941.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.northeasterncollege.edu.ph/history/|title = History – Northeastern College}}</ref>  After the war, some of these schools were encouraged to add "college-departments", providing [[Normal school|teacher]], commerce, engineering, and nursing training and degrees. Early establishments included [[Ateneo de Tuguegarao]] (1947), [[Saint Mary's University (Philippines)|St. Mary's College]] in Bayombong (1947), Santiago City's [[Northeastern College]] (1948), and [[Saint Ferdinand College]] in Ilagan City (1950).  Additional resources were devoted to some rural schools, enabling them to provide college-level instruction in mechanics and agriculture.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://isu.edu.ph/university-history-2|title=University History|date=7 March 2019}}</ref> By the 1990's, a four-year high school education was available to every child in Isabela and Nueva Vizcaya; vocational education was being organized under the Technical Education And Skills Development Authority (TESDA);<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.tesda.gov.ph/ |title=Tesda – Technical Education and Skills Development Authority |access-date=2022-02-01 |archive-date=2022-02-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220201114830/https://www.tesda.gov.ph/ |url-status=live }}</ref> and more than forty private and public colleges and universities offered education through post-graduate levels.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://chedregion2.com/index.php/higher-education-institutions-in-region-2/|title = Higher Education Institutions in Region 2 – CHED Regional Office 2|date = 19 September 2021}}</ref>

===Indigenous rights period===
US occupation of the Philippines engendered massive re-evaluation of land-tenure based on grants to the Crown of Spain and the Church during the Spanish period; this introduced an early framework for concepts of collective indigene rights.<ref>{{Cite journal| url=https://www.hurights.or.jp/archives/focus/section2/2010/12/indigenous-peoples-in-the-philippines-continuing-struggle.html | title=Indigenous Peoples in the Philippines: Continuing Struggle | journal=Focus, Vol 62, December 2010 | author=Rey Ty| publisher=Asia-Pacific Human Rights Information Center |access-date=2023-09-02}}</ref>  By 1919, P.L. 2874 incorporated recognition of advantages indigenous people accrued over Japanese, Chinese, and (non-US) foreign nationals.<ref name="auto"/>

The [[World Council of Churches]] began in 1948, introducing a world-wide focus on the situation of threatened indigenous cultures; The [[World Council of Indigenous Peoples]] was founded in 1975.  By the 1980s, a concern for activity addressing the rights of indigenous peoples around the world was being built into organizational missions of the United Nations, the World Bank, and the International Labor Organization.<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.2307/2997916 |jstor=2997916 |last1=Kingsbury |first1=Benedict |title="Indigenous Peoples" in International Law: A Constructivist Approach to the Asian Controversy |journal=The American Journal of International Law |year=1998 |volume=92 |issue=3 |pages=414–457 |s2cid=143738122 }}</ref> The [[Constitution of the Philippines|1987 Constitution]] provides "an unprecedented recognition of indigenous rights to their ancestral domain" (Art.II,sec.22; Art XII,sec.5; Art.XIV,sec.17).<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.eumed.net/libros-gratis/2015/1458/indigenous-peoples.htm|title = Indigenous Peoples and Their Right to Ancestral Domain – Libro Gratis}}</ref>

In October 1997, the national legislature passed the [[Indigenous Peoples' Rights Act of 1997|Indigenous Peoples' Rights Act]]; the National Commission on Indigenous Peoples (NCIP) recognizes the Gaddang as one of the protected groups.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.opapp.gov.ph/resources/indigenous-peoples%E2%80%99-rights-act-1997 |title=The Indigenous Peoples' Rights Act of 1997 |publisher=Opapp.Gov.Ph |date=2011-10-24 |access-date=2013-04-23 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121229172618/http://opapp.gov.ph/resources/indigenous-peoples%E2%80%99-rights-act-1997 |archive-date=2012-12-29}}</ref> Initially, there was uncertainty about which peoples were to be recognized; the 2000 Census identified 85 groups<ref>https://psa.gov.ph/sites/default/files/SR%20086%20Indigenous%20Peoples.pdf {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210723173639/https://psa.gov.ph/sites/default/files/SR%20086%20Indigenous%20Peoples.pdf |date=2021-07-23 }} | page 7</ref> among which the Gaddang were included. Developments of political and administrative nature took several decades<ref>{{cite web |url=http://indigenouspeoplesissues.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=13025:philippines-gaddang-tribe-eyes-awarding-of-ancestral-domain-claims&catid=32&Itemid=65 |title=Philippines: Gaddang Tribe Eyes Awarding Of Ancestral Domain Claims – Indigenous Peoples Issues and Resources |publisher=Indigenouspeoplesissues.com |date=2011-11-11 |access-date=2013-04-23 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130605200547/http://www.indigenouspeoplesissues.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=13025%3Aphilippines-gaddang-tribe-eyes-awarding-of-ancestral-domain-claims&catid=32&Itemid=65 |archive-date=2013-06-05}}</ref> and in May 2014 the Gaddang were recognized as "an indigenous people with political structure" with a certification of "Ancestral Domain Title" presented by NCIP commissioner Leonor Quintayo.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.philstar.com/good-news/2014/06/09/1332522/nueva-vizcaya-gaddang-tribe-cited-governance | title=Nueva Vizcaya Gaddang tribe cited for governance | website=[[The Philippine STAR]] }}</ref> Starting in 2014 the process of 'delineation and titling the ancestral domains" was begun; the claims are expected to "cover parts of the municipalities of Bambang, Bayombong, Bagabag, Solano, Diadi, Quezon and Villaverde".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.pia.gov.ph/index.php?article=491394450066|title=Nueva Vizcaya NCIP starts ancestral boundary project for Gaddang tribe|date=11 March 2014|website=Philippine Intelligence Agency|access-date=2014-05-30|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140531124255/http://news.pia.gov.ph/index.php?article=491394450066|archive-date=2014-05-31|url-status=dead}}</ref> In addition, under the Indigenous Peoples Rights Act, certified indigenous peoples have a right to education in their ''mother-tongue''; this education is as yet unimplemented by any organization with significant funding.

At present, a Nueva Vizcaya Gaddang Indigenous People's Organization has been formed, and by 2019 this group has been involved with coming to an agreement with agencies developing irrigation projects in Bayombong and Solano.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://manilastandard.net/lgu/luzon/290952/gaddang-in-nueva-vizcaya-discuss-projects-within-ip-domain.html|title = Gaddang in Nueva Vizcaya discuss projects within IP domain|newspaper = Manila Standard}}</ref> The organization is also actively pursuing cultural expositions.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://manilastandard.net/lgu/luzon/280012/gaddang-tribe-push-cultural-festival-in-nv.html|title = Gaddang tribe push cultural festival in NV|newspaper = Manila Standard}}</ref>  There will inevitably be conflicts between the assertion of Gaddang rights and growth-driven development;<ref>Renée V. Hagen & Tessa Minter (2020) Displacement in the Name of Development. How Indigenous Rights Legislation Fails to Protect Philippine Hunter-Gatherers, Society & Natural Resources, 33:1, 65-82, DOI: 10.1080/08941920.2019.1677970</ref> in Nueva Vizcaya the attempts of [[OceanaGold]] to continue mining despite the expiration of their permit and active legal opposition directly affects the Gaddang homelands.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.manilatimes.net/2020/04/08/news/regions/police-dismantle-human-barricade/711197/|title = Police dismantle human barricade| website=[[The Manila Times]] |date = 8 April 2020}}</ref> With a population today not significantly larger than estimated by Fr. Antolin in the 1780s, the future of the Gaddang people remains a question.

==Culture==
[[File:Hat from Gaddang in northern Luzon, Honolulu Museum of Art 8393.1.JPG|thumb|right|upright|A hat from the Gaddang people, on display at the [[Honolulu Museum of Art]]]]

=== Language ===
The Philippines National Commission for Culture and the Arts speaks of ''"five recognized dialects of [[Gaddang language|Gaddang]] (Gaddang proper, Yogad, Maddukayang, Katalangan, and Iraya)"'',<ref>{{cite web | url=https://ncca.gov.ph/about-culture-and-arts/culture-profile/glimpses-peoples-of-the-philippines/yogad/ | title=Peoples of the Philippines: Yogad }}</ref> more distantly-related to Ibanag, Itawis, Malaueg, and others.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.ethnologue.com/subgroups/ibanagic |title=Gaddangic |website=Ethnologue |language=en}}</ref> Gaddang is distinct because it features phonemes (the "F", "V", "Z", and "J" sounds) not often present in many neighboring Philippine languages.<ref>Philippine Minor Languages: Word Lists and Phonologies | pg. 22 | | Lawrence A. Reid | Oceanic Linguistics Special Publications No.8, University of Hawai'i Press (1971)</ref> There are also notable differences from other languages in the distinction between "R" and "L", and the "F" sound is a voiceless bilabial fricative, and not the fortified "P" sound common in many Philippine languages (but not much closer to the English voiceless labiodental fricative, either). The Spanish-derived "J" sound (not the "j") has become a plosive. Gaddang is noteworthy for the common use of doubled consonants (e.g.: pronounced Gad-'''dang''' instead of '''Ga'''-dang).

Gaddang is declensionally, conjugationally, and morphologically [[agglutination|agglutinative]], and is characterized by a dearth of positional/directional [[preposition and postposition|adpositional]] adjunct words. Temporal references are usually accomplished using context surrounding these agglutinated nouns or verbs.<ref>{{Cite conference |last=Kodachi |first=Kota |date=2005 |title=A study of Prototype Formation of the Meanings of Prepositions by Japanese and Filipino Learners of English from the Perspective of Cognitive Linguistics |url=http://www.paaljapan.org/resources/proceedings/PAAL10/pdfs/kodachi.pdf |conference=Proceedings of the 10th Conference of Pan-Pacific Association of Applied Linguistics |pages=105–128}}</ref>

The Gaddang language is identified in ''Ethnologue'',<ref name=ethnogad>{{Ethnologue21|gad|Gaddang}}{{subscription required}}</ref> ''Glottolog'',<ref>{{glottolog|gadd1244}}</ref> and is incorporated into the Cagayan language group in the system of linguistic ethnologist [[Philippine languages#Reid (2018)|Lawrence Reid]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www2.hawaii.edu/~reid/philippine_language_data.html |title=Philippine Language Data |website=Lawrence A. Reid's Homepage}}</ref> The Dominican fathers assigned to Nueva Viscaya parishes produced a vocabulary in 1850 (transcribed by Pedro Sierra) and copied in 1919 for the library of the [[University of Santo Tomas]] by [[H. Otley Beyer]].<ref>{{Cite book|first=Pedro|last=Sierra|date=1850|title=A vocabulary of the Gaddang language|language=es|publisher=Bayombong|oclc=63864491}}</ref> In 1965 Estrella de Lara Calimag interviewed elders in the US and the Philippines to produce a word-list of more than 3,200 Gaddang words included in her dissertation at Columbia.<ref name="Calimag 1965" /> The Austronesian Basic Vocabulary Database lists translations of more than two hundred English terms on its Gaddang page.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://abvd.shh.mpg.de/austronesian/language.php?id=418 |title=ABVD: Gaddang |website=Austronesian Basic Vocabulary Database}}</ref>

Daily use of Gaddang as a primary language has been declining during the last seventy years.<ref>"Language Attitudes of the Gaddang Speakers towards Gaddang,
Ilocano, Tagalog and English" | Zayda S. Asuncion & Marilu Rañosa-Madrunio | Studies in English Language Teaching ({{ISSN|2329-311X}}) Vol. 5, No. 4, 2017</ref> During the first years of the American occupation, residents of Nueva Vizcaya towns used to schedule community events (eg: plays or meetings) to be held in Gaddang and the next day in Ilokano, in order to ensure everyone could participate and enjoy them.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://archive.org/stream/philippineexperi00free?ref=ol#page/80/mode/2up |title=The Philippine experiences of an American teacher; a narrative of work and travel in the Philippine Islands |last=Freer |first=William B. |publisher=Charles Scribner's Sons |year=1906 |location=New York }}</ref> Teachers in the new American schools had to develop a curriculum for pupils who spoke entirely different languages: {{Blockquote|''Ilocanos, Gaddanesaa'' (sic), ''and Isanays; the latter coming from the Dupax section. There was no one language that all could understand. A few spoke, read, and wrote Spanish fluently...to the others Spanish was as strange a tongue as English.''<ref>{{harvnb|Freer|1906|page=103}}</ref>|author=|title=|source=}} The use of English in the schools of Isabela and Nueva Vizcaya, as well as in community functions, was only discouraged with the adoption of the [[Constitution of the Philippines#1973 constitution|1973 Constitution]] and its 1976 amendments.<ref>{{cite web |title=1973 Constitution of the Republic of the Philippines {{!}} GOVPH |url=https://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/constitutions/1973-constitution-of-the-republic-of-the-philippines-2/ |website=Official Gazette of the Republic of the Philippines |access-date=8 April 2023 |archive-date=25 June 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170625191553/https://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/constitutions/1973-constitution-of-the-republic-of-the-philippines-2/ |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=The Amended 1973 Constitution {{!}} GOVPH |url=https://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/constitutions/the-amended-1973-constitution-2/ |website=Official Gazette of the Republic of the Philippines |access-date=8 April 2023 |archive-date=8 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308154627/https://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/constitutions/the-amended-1973-constitution-2/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> A more urgent push to nationalize language was made in the [[1987 Constitution of the Philippines|1987 Constitution]], which had the unanticipated effect of marginalizing local languages even further. Television and official communications have almost entirely used the national ''Filipino'' language for nearly a generation.

=== Highlands culture ===
Many writers on tourism and cultural artifacts appear enamoured of the more-exotic cultural appurtenances of the highlands Gaddang (Ga'dang), and pay little attention to the more-numerous "assimilated" Christianized families.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.ethnicgroupsphilippines.com/people/ethnic-groups-in-the-philippines/gaddang/ |title=Gaddang |website=Ethnic Groups of the Philippines}}</ref> Their narrative follows from the initial American assumption that lowland Gaddang originated with the highlands groups who subsequently became Christianized, then settled in established valley communities, acquiring the culture and customs of the Spanish, Chinese, and the other lowlands peoples. Many of them also distinguish the Gaddang residents of Ifugao and Apayo from other mountain tribes primarily by dress customs without considering linguistic or economic issues.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://class.csueastbay.edu/anthropologymuseum/virtmus/Philippines/Peoples/Gaddang.htm|title = C. E. Smith Anthropology Museum}}</ref>  It is undeniable, however, that the "transactional" daily life of ordinary highlands Gaddang is enough different from that of their lowlands relations to identify them as culturally-distinct.<ref>Monica L. Smith|A Prehistory of Ordinary People|University of Arizona
Press|2010| {{ISBN|978-0-8165-2695-6}}</ref>

Dedman College (Southern Methodist University) Professor of Anthropology Ben J. Wallace has lived among and written extensively about highland Gaddang since the 1960s.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Wallace |first=Ben J. |year=1967 |title=Gaddang Rice Cultivation: A Ligature Between Man and Nature |journal=Philippine Sociological Review |volume=15 |issue=3/4 |pages=114–122 |jstor=23892149}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |isbn = 978-1577667872|title = Weeds, Roads and God: A Half Century of Culture Change Among the Philippine Ga'dang|last1 = Wallace|first1 = Ben J.|year = 2013| publisher=Waveland Press }}</ref> His recent book (''Weeds, Roads, and God'', 2013) explores the ''transition'' these traditional peoples are making into the modern rural Philippines, taking on more customs and habits of the lowlands Gaddang, and discarding some colorful former behaviors.

Through the end of the 20th century, some traditional highlands Gaddang practiced ''kannyaw'' – a ritual including feasting, gift-giving, music/dance, ancestral recollections and stories – similar to [[potlatch]] – which was intended to bring prestige to their family.<ref name="Calimag 1965 p38">{{cite thesis |last=Calimag |first=Estrella de Lara |title=A Gaddang word list with English equivalents, page 38|date=1965 |publisher=Columbia University |url=https://pk.tc.columbia.edu/item/A-Gaddang-Word-List-With-English-Equivalents-12123}}</ref>

The tradition of taking heads for status and/or redressing a wrong appears to have ended after WWII, when taking heads from the Japanese seems to have been less satisfactory than from a personal enemy. Both men and women lead and participate in religious and social rituals.<ref name="seameo.org">{{cite web|url=http://www.seameo.org/_ld2008/doucments/Presentation_document/MicrosoftPowerPointYOGAD_AND_GADDANG_RITUALSI.pdf |title=The Yogad and Gaddang Rituals of Isabela: Meaning and Significance |access-date=2016-03-07 |url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161020222404/http://www.seameo.org/_ld2008/doucments/Presentation_document/MicrosoftPowerPointYOGAD_AND_GADDANG_RITUALSI.pdf |archive-date=2016-10-20}}</ref>

=== Class and economy ===
Interviews in the mid-20th century identified a pair of Gaddang hereditary social classes: ''kammeranan'' and ''aripan''.<ref name="Calimag 1965">{{cite thesis |last=Calimag |first=Estrella de Lara |title=A Gaddang word list with English equivalents, page 34 |date=1965 |publisher=Columbia University |url=https://pk.tc.columbia.edu/item/A-Gaddang-Word-List-With-English-Equivalents-12123}}</ref> These terms have long fallen into disuse, but comparing old parish records with landholdings in desirable locations in Bagabag, Bayombobg, and Solano indicates that some real effects of class distinctions remain active. The writer's Gaddang correspondents inform him that ''aripan'' is similar in meaning to the Tagalog word ''[[alipin]]'' ("slave" or "serf"); [[Edilberto K. Tiempo]] addressed issues surrounding the ''aripan'' heritage in his 1962 short story ''To Be Free''.<ref>''Upon Our Own Ground – Filipino Short Stories In English (vol. 1)''; Gemino H. Abad, editor; U. Philippines Press; 2008; {{ISBN|978-971-542-584-1}}</ref>

During the first decades of the American occupation, a major effort to eradicate slavery terminated the widespread practice of purchasing Igorot and other uplands children and youths for household and farm labor. Many of the individuals so acquired were accepted as members of the owner-families (although often with lesser status) among all the Cagayan Valley peoples. Present-day Gaddang do not continue to regularly import highland people as a dependent-class as they did until a generation ago. There still remains the strong tradition of bringing any unfortunate relatives into a household, which frequently includes a reciprocal geas on beneficiaries to "earn their keep".

There does not seem to have been a Cagayan Valley analogue of the wealthy Central Luzon landowner class until the agricultural expansion of the very late nineteenth century; most of those wealthy Filipinos were of [[Ilokano people|Ilokano]] or [[Chinese Filipino|Chinese]] ancestry.

Records over the last two centuries do show many Gaddang names as land and business owners, as well as in positions of civic leadership.<ref>Journals of Northern Luzon, St. Mary's University, Bayombong, 1972</ref> The Catholic church also offered career opportunities. Gaddang residents of [[Bayombong]], [[Santiago, Isabela|Siudad ng Santiago]], and [[Bagabag, Nueva Vizcaya|Bagabag]] enthusiastically availed themselves of the expanded education opportunities available since the early 20th century (initially in Manila, but more recently in Northern Luzon), producing a number of doctors, lawyers, teachers, engineers, and other professionals by the mid-1930s. A number also enlisted in the U.S. military service as a career (the [[U.S. Army]] [[Philippine Scouts]] being considered far superior to the [[Philippine Army]]).

=== Status of women and minor children ===
Lowlands Gaddang women regularly own and inherit property, they run businesses, pursue educational attainment, and often serve in public elected leadership roles. Well-known and celebrated<ref>{{cite web | url=http://ncca.gov.ph/about-culture-and-arts/culture-profile/national-artists-of-the-philippines/ | title=Order of National Artists }}</ref> writer [[Edith Tiempo|Edith Lopez Tiempo]] was born in Bayombong of Gaddang descent.  There appear to be no prevailing rules of exogamy or endogamy which affect women's status or treatment. Both men and women acquire status by marriage, but there are acceptable pathways to prestige for single women in the Church, government, and business.<ref>{{cite tech report |last1=Buendia |first1=Rizal |last2=Mendoza |first2=Lorelei |last3=Guiam |first3=Rufa |last4=Sambeli |first4=Luisa |title=Mapping and Analysis of Indigenous Governance Practices in the Philippines and Proposal for Establishing an Indicative Framework for Indigenous People's Governance: Towards a Broader and Inclusive Process of Governance in the Philippines |date=16 May 2006 |url=https://eprints.soas.ac.uk/4465/ }}</ref>

The Philippines has enacted significant gender-equality legislation since the 1986 [[People Power Revolution]], including Republic Acts 7192 (establishing the Gender and Development Budget), and 7877 (criminalizing sexual harassment).  Women were beneficiaries of the 1988 Agrarian Reform and the 1989 Labor Code.  Republic Act 6972 also specifies parental and state responsibilities for minor children.  The Constitution includes this statement (Article II, section 14): {{Blockquote|''the State recognizes the role of women in nation-building and shall ensure the fundamental equality before the law of women and men.''<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/constitutions/the-1987-constitution-of-the-republic-of-the-philippines/the-1987-constitution-of-the-republic-of-the-philippines-article-ii/|title=THE 1987 CONSTITUTION OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES – ARTICLE II &#124; GOVPH|website=Official Gazette of the Republic of the Philippines|access-date=20 May 2023}}</ref>}}

Such legislation directly affects education, workforce practices, land ownership. and politics.  At the same time, a heritage of patriarchal colonialism, traditional practices, war and poverty has engendered traditional practices which have subjected women in Northern Luzon to exploitation, discrimination, and violence.  Progress has indubitably been made, but more remains to be done.<ref>{{cite web
|url=https://library.fes.de/pdf-files/bueros/philippinen/50067.pdf|date=March 2003|website=fes.de|access-date=26 June 2023|title=Participation of Women in Philippine Politics and Society: A Situationer}}</ref>

=== Kinship ===
The Gaddang as a people have lacked a defined and organized political apparatus; in consequence, their shared-kinship is the means of ordering their social world.<ref>http://nlpdl.nlp.gov.ph:81/CC01/NLP00VM052mcd/v1/v15.pdf {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190215060250/http://nlpdl.nlp.gov.ph:81/CC01/NLP00VM052mcd/v1/v15.pdf |date=2019-02-15 }}, page 6</ref>  During their pre-Conquest days, their ''swidden'' economy forced a small population to be dispersed in a fairly large area.  In a period where hostilities were a recurring phenomenon, expressed in head-taking and revenge, kinship obligations were the linkage between settlements; such kin-links include several (like ''solyad'' – or temporary marriage) which have no counterparts in modern law.<ref>{{cite journal|jstor=3772979 |title=Pagan Gaddang Spouse Exchange |last1=Wallace |first1=Ben J. |journal=Ethnology |year=1969 |volume=8 |issue=2 |pages=183–188 |doi=10.2307/3772979 }}</ref>

As has been documented with other Indo-Malay peoples,<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://archive.unu.edu/unupress/unupbooks/uu13se/uu13se09.htm |title=The Javanese family |publisher=United Nations University |access-date=2013-04-26}}</ref> Gaddang kin relationships are highly ramified and recognize a variety of prestige markers based on both personal accomplishment and personal or social obligations that frequently transcend generations.<ref>{{cite web|author=geripit |url=http://abanteka.blogspot.com/2010/04/who-is-romulo-lumauig-family-background.html |title=Abante Ka – No. 28 PartyList: Who is Romulo Lumauig – Family background |publisher=Abanteka.blogspot.com |date=2010-04-30 |access-date=2013-05-03}}</ref>  While linguistically there appear to be no distinctions beyond the second degree of consanguinity, tracing common lineal descent is important, and the ability to do so is traditionally admired and encouraged.<ref name="Weeds, Roads pages 7-15" />  Relationships are traced through both patrilineal and matrilineal descent,<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Igorot | title=Igorot &#124; people &#124; Britannica }}</ref> but may also include ''compadre/co-madre'' links (often repeated across several generations),<ref>CORTEZ, OLIMPIO C., SR. The compadre system. CC 5, no. 6 (Nov./Dec. 1965), 19–22.</ref><ref>HOLLNSTEINER, MARY R. Modernization and the challenge to the Filipino family. (In: The Filipino Christian Family in a Changing Society. Manila: Christian Family Movement, 1965. 10–20)</ref> and even mentorship relationships.

It is unclear to what degree kinship-systems include ''mailan'' and other remnants of the slavery-system.

=== Funerary practices ===
Modern Christian Gaddang funerals are most commonly entombed in a public or private cemetery, following a Mass celebration and a procession (with a band if possible). A wake is held for several days before the services, allowing family members and friends travel-time to view the deceased in the coffin. Mummification is not usually practiced, but cremation – followed by entombment of the ashes – has been observed.

=== Supernatural traditions ===
Retelling stories of ghosts, witchcraft, and supernatural monsters (eg: the ''Giant Snake of Bayombong''<ref name="Kristopher R. Lopez 2021">Kristopher R. Lopez & Augusto Antonio A. Aguila, The Gaddang Legends in the Lens of Structuralist View, International Journal of  Science  and  Research, Volume 10 #4, April  2021, {{ISSN|2319-7064}}</ref>) are a popular pastime, with the tellers most often relating them as if these were events in which they (or close friends/family) had participated. Various "superstitions" have been catalogued.<ref>{{cite thesis |last1=Alindada |first1=Maria Rita |title=Gaddang's beliefs and practices: their implications to education |publisher=Isabela State University, Echague|date=October 1997 |url=http://www.elib.gov.ph/downloadfile.php?uid=32d16de7dded2a7f574b02e72df5a8a4}}</ref>

While assertively Christian, lowland Gaddangs retain strong traditions of impairment and illness with a supernatural cause; some families continue to practice healing traditions which were documented by Father Godfrey Lambrecht, CICM, in Santiago during the 1950s.<ref name="lambrecht1960">{{Cite journal |last=Lambrecht |first=Godfrey |year=1960 |title=Anitu Rites Among the Gaddang |journal=Philippine Studies |volume=8 |issue=3 |pages=584–602 |jstor=42719586 }}</ref> These include the shamanistic practices of the ''[[Babaylan|mailan]]'', both ''mahimunu'' (who function as augurs and intermediaries), and the ''maingal'' ("sacrificers" or community leaders–whom Lambrecht identifies with ancestral head-hunters).<ref>Godfrey Lambrecht, The Gadang of Isabela and Nueva Vizcaya: Survivals of a Primitive Animistic Religion, Philippine Studies: Historical and Ethnographic Viewpoints (Ateneo de Manila), Vol 7 #2, {{ISSN|2244-1093}} http://www.philippinestudies.net/ojs/index.php/ps/article/view/3033/5653# {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220129213305/http://www.philippinestudies.net/ojs/index.php/ps/article/view/3033/5653 |date=2022-01-29 }}</ref> The spirits that cause such diseases are ''karangat'' (cognates of which term are found among the Yogad, the Ibanag ''karango'', and the Ifugao ''calanget''); each being is associated with a physical locality and is considered the "owner" of the land;<ref>Maximo Ramos | "The Creatures of Philippine Lower Mythology" | 1990 | Quezon City, Philippines | {{ISBN|1530389992}} |</ref> they are not revenants; they are believed to cause fevers, but not abdominal distress. It is believed as well that ''Caralua na pinatay'' (ghosts) may cause illness to punish Gaddang who diverge from custom or can visit those facing their impending demise.

The upland "Pagan" Gaddang share these traditions, and in their ''animistic'' view, both the physical and the spiritual world are uncertain and likely hostile.<ref name="Pagan Gaddang Mediums">{{cite journal|jstor=40315816 |title=Pagan Gaddang Mediums |last1=Wallace |first1=Ben J. |journal=Arctic Anthropology |year=1974 |volume=11 |pages=204–212 }}</ref>  Any hurts which cannot be immediately attributed to a physical cause (''eg:'' insect/animal bites, broken limbs, falls, and other accidents) are thought to be the work of ''karangat''  in many forms not shared with the lowlanders.  They may include the deadly (but never-seen) ''agakokang'' which makes the sound of a yapping dog; ''aled'' who disguise themselves a pigs, birds, or even humans, infecting those they touch with a fatal illness; the vaporous ''aran'' which enters a person's brain and causes rapidly-progressing idiocy and death; or the shining-eyed ''bingil'' ghouls.<ref name="Pagan Gaddang Mediums"/>  To assist their journey through such a dangerous world, the Gaddang rely on mediums they term ''mabayan'' (male mediums) or ''makamong'' (female), who can perform curative ceremonies.

=== Other folk-art traditions ===
[[File:Solano 1904.png|thumb|left|Main street of Solano, NV – circa 1904]]
Three hundred years of Spanish/Catholic cultural dominion – followed by a nearly effective revolution – have almost completely diluted or even eradicated any useful pre-colonial literary, artistic or musical heritage of the lowland Cagayan peoples, including the Gaddang.<ref name="Kristopher R. Lopez 2021"/> Although the less-affected arts of the Cordillerans and some of the islanders south of Luzon are well-researched, even sixty years of strong national and academic interest has failed to uncover much tangible knowledge about pre-Spanish Cagayan valley traditions in music, plastic, or performing arts.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.ncca.gov.ph/about_cultarts/comarticles.php?artcl_Id=151 |title=Folk Traditions |last=Canave-Dioquino |first=Corazon |website=National Commission for Culture and the Arts |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060117204556/http://www.ncca.gov.ph/about_cultarts/comarticles.php?artcl_Id=151 |archive-date=2006-01-17}}</ref> A review of Maria Lumicao-Lorca's 1984 book ''Gaddang Literature'' states that ''"documentation and research on minority languages and literature of the Philippines are meager"''<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Aguila |first=Reuel Molina |year=1988 |title=Reviewed work: Gaddang Literature, Maria Luisa Lumicao-Lora |journal=Asian Folklore Studies |volume=47 |issue=1 |pages=173–175 |doi=10.2307/1178263 |jstor=1178263}}</ref> That understood, however, there does exist a considerable record of Gaddang interest and participation in Luzon-wide colonial traditions, examples being ''[[Pandanggo|Pandanggo sa ilaw]], [[Rondalla|cumparsasa]]'', and ''[[Pasyon]]'';<ref name="seameo.org"/> while the rise of interest in a cultural patrimony has manifested in an annual Nueva Vizcaya ''Ammungan'' (Gaddang for 'gather') festival adopted in 2014 to replace the Ilokano-derived ''Panagyaman'' rice-festival.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://lifestyle.inquirer.net/165843/nueva-vizcaya-mounts-ammungan-fest-celebrates-diversity/|title = Nueva Vizcaya mounts Ammungan fest, celebrates diversity|date = 13 July 2014}}</ref> The festival has included an Indigenous Peoples Summer Workshop, which has provincial recognition and status.
<ref>{{cite web|last=Ebreo|first=Benjamin Moses|url=https://pia.gov.ph/features/2023/05/09/ammungan-festival-a-gift-to-nv-ips|     title=Ammungan Festival a gift to NV IPs|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231204185026/https://pia.gov.ph/features/2023/05/09/ammungan-festival-a-gift-to-nv-ips|archive-date=4 December 2023}}</ref>


Some early 20th-century travelers report the use of ''[[gangsa]]''<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.slideshare.net/elmerllames/music-of-cordillera-grade7-1st-quarter|title = Music of Cordillera Grade-7 1st Quarter|date = 23 July 2015}}</ref> in Isabela as well as among Paracelis Gaddang. This instrument was likely adopted from Cordilleran peoples, but provenance has not been established. The highlands Gaddang are also associated with the ''Turayen'' dance which is typically accompanied by [[gangsa]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.seasite.niu.edu/tagalog/cynthia/philippine_dances_cordillera.htm|title=Philippine Dances Cordillera|website=www.seasite.niu.edu}}</ref>

Most Gaddang seem fond of riddles, proverbs, and puns (refer to Lumicao-Lorca); they also keep their tongue alive with traditional songs (including many ''[[Music of the Philippines|harana]]'' composed in the early parts of the 20th century).  A well-known Gaddang language harana, revived in the 1970s and retaining its popularity today:<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ndf6OgUra54 | title=Ope Manque Wayi – performed by Leo Aguilar | website=[[YouTube]] }}</ref>
{{col-begin}}
{{col-break}}
{{Poemquote|Ope manke wayi 
Yo netambam siin sicuac 
Innac la inanawan 
Matayac si raddam 
Gumafu se nacaita can wayi si mas mappia 
On se tata ak lamang a madiat 
Innac la inanawan

Araon-araon lamang 
Yo angngiyeyut nu to taggang 
Malaw inque nad 
Yo futuc a mebattang 
Se ammec ingke caffuadan 
Yo annuruturut na luac to taggang 
Se antuengque ipatec 
Yo raddam cu gumafu sicuam<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://paxy.bandcamp.com/releases|title = Natalofu/Ope Manke Wayi, by pax}}</ref>}}
{{col-break}}
{{Poemquote|''Where are you my brother?''
''What about your promises?''
''You left me to die of misery.''
''You found someone better.''
''Because I am poor, ''
''you had to leave me''


''This keeps on hurting.''
''Breath leaves my chest,''
''aching since my heart was cast aside.''
''I try to think of it no more,''
''yet my tears keep falling.''
''So I die of sorrow because of you...''}}
{{col-end}}

=== Indigenous mythology ===
The Gaddang mythology includes a variety of deities:
*Nanolay – Is both creator of all things and a cultural hero. In the latter role, he is a beneficent deity. Nanolay is described in myth as a fully benevolent deity, never inflicting pain or punishment on the people. He is responsible for the origin and development of the world.
*Ofag – Nanolay's cousin.
*Dasal – To whom the epic warriors Biwag and Malana prayed for strength and courage before going off to their final battle.
*Bunag – The god of the earth.
*Limat – The god of the sea.<ref name="lambrecht1960"/>

== Ethnography and linguistic research ==
While consistently identifying the Gaddang as a distinct group, historic sources have done a poor job of recording specific cultural practices, and material available on the language has been difficult to access.

Early Spanish records made little mention of customs of the Ibanagic and Igaddangic peoples, being almost entirely concerned by economic events, and Government/Church efforts at replacing the chthonic cultures with a colonial model.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Barangay: Sixteenth Century Philippines Culture and Society |last=Scott |first=William Henry |publisher=Ateneo de Manila University Press |year=1994 |location=Quezon City |pages=3}}</ref> The 1901 Philippine Commission Report states: ''"From Nueva Vizcaya, the towns make the common statement that there are no papers preserved which relate to the period of the Spanish government, as they were all destroyed by the revolutionary government."''<ref>Report of the Philippine Commission to the Secretary of War, 1901 Part 2, page 510</ref> American occupation records, while often more descriptive and more readily available, perform only cursory discovery of existing behaviors and historic customs, since most correspondents were pursuing an agenda for change.

Records maintained by churches and towns have been lost; in Bagabag they disappeared during or after the 1945 defense of the area by the Japanese 105th division under Gen. Konuma;<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://history.army.mil/books/wwii/MacArthur%20Reports/MacArthur%20V2%20P2/ch15.htm |title=Chapter 15: Battle on Luzon |access-date=2021-06-15 |archive-date=2021-06-15 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210615045144/https://history.army.mil/books/wwii/MacArthur%20Reports/MacArthur%20V2%20P2/ch15.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> a similar claim has been made for losses during Japanese occupation of Santiago beginning in 1942, and the USA-FIP liberation efforts of 1945.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://provinceofisabela.ph/index.php/general-info/history-culture|title=&#124; Official Website of the Province of Isabela – History & Culture|website=provinceofisabela.ph}}</ref> In Bayombong, St. Dominic's Catholic church (built in 1780) – a traditional repository for vital records – was destroyed by fire in 1892, and again in 1987.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://outoftownblog.com/st-dominic-cathedral-in-bayombong-nueva-viscaya/|title = St Dominic Cathedral in Bayombong Nueva Viscaya|date = 17 February 2015}}</ref>

In 1917 the Methodist Publishing House published ''Himno onnu canciones a naespirituan si sapit na "Gaddang'' (a set of hymns translated into Gaddang).  In 1919, H. Otley Beyer had the Dominican Gaddang-Spanish vocabulary<ref>A vocabulary of the Gaddang language revised and amplified by Fathers of the Dominican order, resident in the province of Nueva Vizcaya, and copied out in its present form for the use of Bishop Francisco Gainza, about the middle of the 19th century|Pedro Sierra, H.O.Beyer|Philippines (n.p.)|1919</ref> copied for the library at University of Santo Tomas; the offices at St. Dominic's, Bayombong are presently unable to locate the original document.   In 1959, Madeline Troyer published an 8-page article on ''Gaddang Phonology'',<ref>Philippine Journal of Science #88|pp.95-102|</ref> documenting work she had done with Wycliffe Bible Translators.

Father Godfrey Lambrecht, the rector of [[Saint Mary's University (Philippines)|St. Mary's High School & College]] 1934–56, documented a number of linguistic and cultural behaviors in published articles.<ref>Anitu Rites Among the Gaddang | Godfrey Lambrecht | Philippine Studies, Vol. 8, No. 3 (JULY 1960), pp. 584-602 (19 pages) | Ateneo de Manila University</ref><ref>Lambrecht|"The Old Custome of the Gaddang People"|unpublished Master of Science thesis – University of Santo Tomas|1948|Manila|</ref><ref>Lambrecht|Survivals of the Gaddang Animistic Religion|Journal of Northern Luzon #1|July 1970</ref> Several Gaddang have been pursuing family and Gaddang genealogy, including Harold Liban, Virgilio Lumicao, and Craig Balunsat.

During the late 1990s, a UST student attempted an "[[Ethnobotany|ethnobotanical]]" study, interviewing Isabela-area Gaddang about economically useful flora;<ref>{{Cite thesis |last=Casaman |first=Reny A. |title=Ethnobotany of the Gaddang in Isabela province, Philippines |date=1997 |degree=Master's |publisher=University of Santo Tomas |url=http://digitallibrary.ust.edu.ph/cdm/ref/collection/section6/id/260}}</ref> this included notes on etymologic history and folk-beliefs.

==Notes==
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== References ==
{{Reflist}}

{{Ethnic groups in the Philippines}}
{{Philippines topics}}

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