Просмотр кода страницы Английская Википедия:Gender role

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{{short description|Social role associated with gender}}
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A '''gender role''', or '''sex role''', is a set of socially accepted behaviors and attitudes deemed appropriate or desirable for individuals based on their sex. Gender roles are usually centered on conceptions of [[masculinity]] and [[femininity]], although there are [[Third gender|exceptions]] and [[Non-binary gender|variations]].

The specifics regarding these gendered expectations may vary among cultures, while other characteristics may be common throughout a range of cultures. In addition, gender roles (and perceived gender roles) vary based on a person's race or [[ethnicity]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Scott Carter |first1=J. |last2=Corra |first2=Mamadi |last3=Carter |first3=Shannon K. |date=March 2009 |title=The Interaction of Race and Gender: Changing Gender-Role Attitudes, 1974-2006 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-6237.2009.00611.x |journal=Social Science Quarterly |volume=90 |issue=1 |pages=196–211 |doi=10.1111/j.1540-6237.2009.00611.x |issn=0038-4941}}</ref>

Gender roles influence a wide range of [[human behavior]], often including the clothing a person chooses to wear, the profession a person pursues, manner of approach to things,  the personal relationships a person enters, and how they behave within those relationships. Although gender roles have evolved and expanded, they traditionally keep women in the "private" sphere, and men in the "public" sphere.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Miller |first1=Andrea L. |last2=Borgida |first2=Eugene |date=2016-01-22 |title=The Separate Spheres Model of Gendered Inequality |journal=PLOS ONE |volume=11 |issue=1 |pages=e0147315 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0147315 |issn=1932-6203 |pmc=4723260 |pmid=26800454|bibcode=2016PLoSO..1147315M |doi-access=free }}</ref>

Various groups, most notably [[Feminism|feminist]] movements, have led efforts to change aspects of prevailing gender roles that they believe are [[Oppression#Gender oppression|oppressive]], inaccurate, and [[Sexism|sexist]].

==Background==
{{See also|Gender expression}}

A '''gender role''', also known as a '''sex role''',<ref name="Sex Roles and Gender Roles">Levesque R.J.R. (2011) ''[https://link.springer.com/referenceworkentry/10.1007%2F978-1-4419-1695-2_602#howtocite Sex Roles and Gender Roles]''. In: Levesque R.J.R. (eds) Encyclopedia of Adolescence. Springer, New York, NY. {{ISBN|978-1-4419-1695-2}}. Retrieved 22 January 2018.</ref> is a [[social role]] encompassing a range of behaviors and attitudes that are generally considered acceptable, appropriate, or desirable for a person based on that person's [[sex]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Lindsey |first1=Linda L. |title=Gender Roles: A Sociological Perspective |date=14 October 2015 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-317-34808-5 |page=5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qjjbCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA5 |access-date=19 December 2022 |language=en |quote=Gender roles, therefore, are the expected attitudes and behaviors a society associates with each sex.}}</ref><ref name="Alters">{{cite book |last1=Alters |first1=Sandra |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lc-YBRQkldAC&pg=PA143 |title=Essential Concepts for Healthy Living |last2=Schiff |first2=Wendy |publisher=[[Jones & Bartlett Publishers]] |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-7637-5641-3 |page=143 |quote=gender role - patterns of behavior, attitudes, and personality attributes that are traditionally considered in a particular culture to be feminine or masculine. |access-date=3 January 2018}}</ref><ref name="Gochman">{{cite book |author=David S. Gochman |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hW_1BwAAQBAJ&pg=PA424 |title=Handbook of Health Behavior Research II: Provider Determinants |publisher=[[Springer Science & Business Media]] |year=1997 |isbn=978-1-4899-1760-7 |page=424 |quote=The social roles, behaviors, attitudes, and psychological characteristics that are more common, more expected, or more accepted for one sex or the other; includes a group of interrelated behaviors, attitudes, and psychological characteristics that influence a variety of risk and risk-taking behaviors as well as care-seeking behaviors. |access-date=3 January 2018}}</ref> Sociologists tend to use the term "gender role" instead of "sex role", because the [[sociocultural system|sociocultural]] understanding of gender is distinguished from biological conceptions of sex.<ref name="Lindsey 2015">{{cite book |last1=Lindsey |first1=Linda L. |title=Gender Roles: A Sociological Perspective |date=2015 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-317-34808-5 |pages=4–5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qjjbCgAAQBAJ |access-date=6 March 2023}}</ref>

In the [[sociology of gender]], the process whereby an individual learns and acquires a gender role in society is termed ''[[gender socialization]]''.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Adler |first1=Patricia A. |last2=Kless |first2=Steven J. |last3=Adler |first3=Peter |date=July 1992 |title=Socialization to Gender Roles: Popularity among Elementary School Boys and Girls |journal=Sociology of Education |volume=65 |issue=3 |pages=169–187 |doi=10.2307/2112807 |jstor=2112807}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Dill |first1=Karen E. |last2=Thill |first2=Kathryn P. |date=December 2007 |title=Video Game Characters and the Socialization of Gender Roles: Young People's Perceptions Mirror Sexist Media Depictions |journal=Sex Roles |volume=57 |issue=11–12 |pages=851–864 |doi=10.1007/s11199-007-9278-1 |s2cid=55706950 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1= Dietz |first1=Tracy L. |date=March 1998|title=An Examination of Violence and Gender Role Portrayals in Video Games: Implications for Gender Socialization and Aggressive Behavior |journal=Sex Roles |volume=38 |issue=5–6 |pages=425–442 |doi=10.1023/A:1018709905920 |s2cid=56032975 }}</ref>

Gender roles are culturally specific, and while most cultures distinguish only two ([[boy]]/[[man]] and [[girl]]/[[woman]]), others recognize more. Some non-Western societies have three genders: men, women, and a [[third gender]].<ref>Roscoe, Will (2000). ''Changing Ones: Third and Fourth Genders in Native North America''. Palgrave Macmillan (17 June 2000) {{ISBN|0-312-22479-6}}<br />See also: Trumbach, Randolph (1994). ''London's Sapphists: From Three Sexes to Four Genders in the Making of Modern Culture.'' In Third Sex, Third Gender: Beyond Sexual Dimorphism in Culture and History, edited by Gilbert Herdt, 111-36. New York: Zone (MIT). {{ISBN|978-0-942299-82-3}}</ref> [[Gender in Bugis society|Buginese society]] has identified five genders.<ref>{{cite book |last1= Richards |first1= Christina |last2= Bouman |first2= Walter Pierre |last3= Barker |first3= Meg-John |year= 2017 |title= Genderqueer and non-binary genders |location= United Kingdom |publisher= Macmillan |pages= 22, 306 |isbn=978-1-137-51053-2 }}</ref><ref name="Graham">Graham, Sharyn (2001), [https://web.archive.org/web/20090604031253/http://insideindonesia.org/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=982&Itemid=29%2Fedit66%2Fbissu2.htm Sulawesi's fifth gender], Inside Indonesia, April–June 2001.</ref> [[Androgyny]] has sometimes also been proposed as a third gender.<ref>{{cite book|last=Eleanor Emmons|first=Maccoby|title=The Development of Sex Differences|year=1966|publisher=Stanford University Press|location=Stanford, Calif.|isbn=978-0-8047-0308-6|pages=[https://archive.org/details/developmentofsex0000macc/page/25 25–55]|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_jumAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA27|chapter=Sex differences in intellectual functioning|url=https://archive.org/details/developmentofsex0000macc/page/25}}</ref> An androgyne or [[androgynous]] person is someone with qualities pertaining to both the male and female gender. Some individuals identify with no gender at all.<ref>"LGBTQ Needs Assessment" (PDF). Encompass Network. April 2013. pp. 52–53. Retrieved 6 March 2015. {{cite web|url=http://encompassnetwork.org.uk/uploads/LGBTQ-Needs-Assesmentabsolutelyfinal.pdf |title=Archived copy |access-date=18 October 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141024234412/http://encompassnetwork.org.uk/uploads/LGBTQ-Needs-Assesmentabsolutelyfinal.pdf |archive-date=24 October 2014}}</ref>

Many transgender people identify simply as men or women, and do not constitute a separate third gender.<ref name="vox-trans">{{cite web|url=https://www.vox.com/2015/4/24/8483561/transgender-gender-identity-expression|title=9 questions about gender identity and being transgender you were too embarrassed to ask|website=[[Vox (website)|Vox]]|last=Lopez|first=German|date=18 April 2016|access-date=31 July 2016|quote=Transitioning can be made much more difficult by persistent misconceptions, including the myth that transgender people belong to a third gender.}}</ref> Biological differences between (some) [[trans women]] and cisgender women have historically been treated as relevant in certain contexts, especially those where biological traits may yield an unfair advantage, such as sport.<ref name="trans-sport">{{cite journal|url=https://www.proquest.com/openview/d8691a6dcaf6f5e469538ddc3fa4a5fb/1?pq-origsite=gscholar|title=Transsexual and Transgender Policies in Sport|last=Sykes|first=Heather|journal=Women in Sport and Physical Activity Journal|volume=15|pages=3–13|number=1|year=2006|access-date=31 July 2016|doi=10.1123/wspaj.15.1.3}}</ref>

''Gender role'' is not the same thing as ''[[gender identity]]'', which refers to the internal sense of one's own gender, whether or not it aligns with categories offered by societal norms. The point at which these [[Internalization (sociology)|internalized]] gender identities become [[Externalization (psychology)|externalized]] into a set of expectations is the genesis of a gender role.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Adler | first1 = P. | last2 = Kless | first2 = S. | last3 = Adler | first3 = P | year = 1992 | title = Socialization to gender roles: Popularity among elementary school boys and girls | journal = Sociology of Education | volume = 65 | issue = 3| pages = 169–087 | doi=10.2307/2112807| jstor = 2112807 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Acker | first1 = J | year = 1992 | title = From sex roles to gendered institutions | journal = Contemporary Sociology: A Journal of Reviews | volume = 21 | issue = 5| pages = 565–569 | doi=10.2307/2075528| jstor = 2075528 }}</ref>

==Theories of gender as a social construct==
{{Main|Social construction of gender}}
[[File:Gobert - Louis XV as child, Fundación Jakober.jpg|thumb|right|upright|Changing norms of [[gender socialization]]: [[Louis XV]] in 1712, wearing the customary clothes of [[breeching (boys)|unbreeched]] boys, would be considered [[Cross-dressing|cross-dressed]] in the 21st century.]]

According to [[social constructionism]], gendered behavior is mostly due to social conventions. Theories such as ''[[evolutionary psychology]]'' disagree with that position.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Balducci |first=Marco |date=2023 |title=Linking gender differences with gender equality: A systematic-narrative literature review of basic skills and personality |journal=Frontiers in Psychology |volume=14 |doi=10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1105234 |pmid=36874846 |pmc=9978710 |issn=1664-1078|doi-access=free }}</ref>

Most children learn to categorize themselves by gender by the age of three.<ref name="Pate">{{cite web |last=Pate |first=J. s.d |title=What everyone should know about gender and sexuality |url=http://jamespatemd.com/Pubs/gendersexuality.htm|website=jamespatemd.com |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121119172004/http://jamespatemd.com/Pubs/gendersexuality.htm |archive-date=19 November 2012}}</ref> From birth, in the course of gender socialization, children learn gender stereotypes and roles from their parents and environment. Traditionally, boys learn to manipulate their physical and social environment through physical strength or dexterity, while girls learn to present themselves as objects to be viewed.<ref>Cahill, S. E. (1986) Language practices and self definition: The case of gender identity acquisition. The Sociological Quarterly vol. 27, issue 3, pp 295-311</ref> Social constructionists argue that differences between male and female behavior are better attributable to gender-segregated children's activities than to any essential, natural, physiological, or genetic predisposition.<ref name="Fenstermaker">{{cite book|last=Fenstermaker|first=Sarah|title=Doing Gender, Doing Difference: Inequality, Power, and Institutional Change|year=2002|publisher=Routledge|location=New York|isbn=978-0-415-93179-3|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7vLBpyjCFwsC&pg=PA8|page=8}}</ref>

As an aspect of [[role theory]], gender role theory "treats these differing distributions of women and men into roles as the primary origin of sex-differentiated social behavior, [and posits that] their impact on behavior is mediated by psychological and social processes."<ref>Eagly, A.H. (1997). Sex differences in social behavior: Comparing social role theory and evolutionary psychology. American Psychologist, December 1380-1383.</ref> According to [[Gilbert Herdt]], gender roles arose from correspondent inference, meaning that general labor division was extended to gender roles.<ref>{{cite book |last1= Trumbach |first1= Randolph |editor1-last= Herdt |editor1-first= Gilbert |year= 1994 |title= London's Sapphists: From Three Sexes to Four Genders in the Making of Modern Culture. In Third Sex, Third Gender: Beyond Sexual Dimorphism in Culture and History |location= New York |publisher= Zone (MIT) |pages= 111–36 |isbn=978-0-942299-82-3 }}</ref>

Social constructionists consider gender roles to be hierarchical and patriarchal.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Wood | first1 = W. | last2 = Eagly | first2 = A. H. | year = 2002 | title = A cross-cultural analysis of the behavior of women and men: Implications for the origins of sex difference | journal = Psychological Bulletin | volume = 128 | issue = 5| pages = 699–727 | doi=10.1037/0033-2909.128.5.699 | pmid=12206191| s2cid = 6751650 }}</ref> The term patriarchy, according to researcher [[Andrew Cherlin]], defines "a social order based on the domination of women by men, especially in agricultural societies".<ref>{{cite book|last=Cherlin|first=Andrew J.|title=Public and private families : an introduction|date=2010|publisher=McGraw-Hill Higher Education|location=New York|isbn=978-0-07-340435-6|page=93|edition=6th}}</ref>

According to Eagly et al., the consequences of gender roles and stereotypes are sex-typed social behavior because roles and stereotypes are both socially-shared descriptive norms and prescriptive norms.<ref>Eagly, A. H. (2004). Prejudice: Toward a more inclusive understanding. In A. H. Eagly, R. M. Baron, & V. L. Hamilton (Eds.), The social psychology of group identity and social conflict: Theory, application, and practice (pp. 45–64). Washington, DC, US: American Psychological Association. {{doi|10.1037/10683-003}}</ref>

[[Judith Butler]], in works such as ''[[Gender Trouble]]''<ref>Butler, J. (1990).''Gender trouble: Feminism and the subversion of identity.'' New York; Routledge.</ref> and ''[[Undoing Gender]]'',<ref>Butler, Judith. Undoing Gender. New York: Routledge, 2004.</ref> contends that being female is not "natural" and that it appears natural only through repeated performances of gender; these performances, in turn, reproduce and define the traditional categories of sex and/or gender.<ref>Thekla Morgenroth, Michelle K. Ryan. "[[doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01320|Gender Trouble in Social Psychology: How Can Butler's Work Inform Experimental Social Psychologists' Conceptualization of Gender?]]", ''Front. Psychol.'', 27 July 2018 Sec. Personality and Social Psychology Volume 9 - 2018, {{doi|10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01320}}.</ref>

==Major theorists==
===Talcott Parsons===
Working in the [[United States]] in 1955, [[Talcott Parsons]]<ref>[http://www.arte-tv.com Franco-German TV Station ARTE], Karambolage, August 2004.</ref> developed a model of the [[nuclear family]], which at that place and time was the prevalent family structure. The model compared a traditional contemporaneous view of gender roles with a more liberal view. The Parsons model was used to contrast and illustrate extreme positions on gender roles.{{context inline|date=December 2018}} Model A described a total separation of male and female roles, while Model B described the complete dissolution of gender roles.<ref>Brockhaus: Enzyklopädie der Psychologie, 2001.</ref>
{| class="wikitable sortable mw-collapsible" border="1" style="border-collapse: collapse;"
|
! Model A – Total role segregation !! Model B – Total integration of roles
|-
! [[Education]]
| Gender-specific education; high professional qualification is important only for the man.
| Co-educative schools, same content of classes for girls and boys, same qualification for men and women.
|-
! [[Profession]]
| The workplace is not the primary area of women; career and professional advancement is deemed unimportant for women.
| For women, career is just as important as for men; equal professional opportunities for men and women are necessary.
|-
! Housework
| Housekeeping and child care are the primary functions of the woman; participation of the man in these functions is only partially wanted.
| All housework is done by both parties to the marriage in equal shares.
|-
! [[Decision making]]
| In case of conflict, man has the last say, for example in choosing the place to live, choice of school for children, and buying decisions.
| Neither partner dominates; solutions do not always follow the principle of finding a concerted decision; [[status quo]] is maintained if disagreement occurs.
|-
! Child care and education
| Woman takes care of the largest part of these functions; she educates children and cares for them in every way.
| Man and woman share these functions equally.
|}

The model is consciously a simplification; individuals' actual behavior usually lies somewhere between these poles. According to the [[interactionist]] approach, gender roles are not fixed but are constantly renegotiated between individuals.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://ieet.org/archive/IEET-03-PostGender.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://ieet.org/archive/IEET-03-PostGender.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live|title=Postgenderism: Beyond the Gender Binary|last=Dvorsky|first=George|date=2008|work=ieet.org|access-date=3 May 2019}}</ref>

===Geert Hofstede===
[[File:Landsdowne Herakles.jpg|thumb|upright|In Greek mythology, [[Heracles]] is synonymous with [[Apollonian]] masculinity.]]
[[Geert Hofstede]], a Dutch researcher and social psychologist who dedicated himself to the study of culture, sees culture as "broad patterns of thinking, feeling and acting" in a society<ref>Hoststede, Geert. 1998. Masculinity and Femininity: The Taboo Dimension of National Cultures. p. 5</ref> In Hofstede's view, most human cultures can themselves be classified as either masculine or feminine.<ref>Hofstede, G. (1980). Culture's consequences: international differences in work-related values. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.</ref> Masculine culture clearly distinguishes between gender roles, directing men to "be assertive, tough, and focused on material success," and women to "be more modest, tender, and concerned with the quality of life."<ref name="Hof 2001" /> Feminine cultures tolerate overlapping gender roles, and instruct that "both men and women are supposed to be modest, tender, and concerned with the quality of life."<ref name="Hof 2001">Hofstede (2001), Culture's Consequences, 2nd ed. p. 297.</ref>

Hofstede's ''Feminine and Masculine Culture Dimensions'' states:<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Hofstede | first1 = G | year = 1986 | title = Cultural differences in teaching and learning | journal = International Journal of Intercultural Relations | volume = 10 | issue = 3| page = 308 | doi=10.1016/0147-1767(86)90015-5}}</ref>

<blockquote>Masculine cultures expect men to be assertive, ambitious and competitive, to strive for material success, and to respect whatever is big, strong, and fast. Masculine cultures expect women to serve and care for the non-material quality of life, for children and for the weak. Feminine cultures, on the other hand, define relatively overlapping social roles for the sexes, in which, in particular, men need not be ambitious or competitive but may go for a different quality of life than material success; men may respect whatever is small, weak, and slow.</blockquote>

In feminine cultures, modesty and relationships are important characteristics.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hofstede|first=Geert|year=2002|title=Consensus Societies with Their Own Character: National Cultures in Japan and the Netherlands.|journal=Comparative Sociology|volume=1|pages=1–16|doi=10.1163/156913202317346728}}</ref> This differs from masculine cultures, where self-enhancement leads to self-esteem. Masculine cultures are individualistic and feminine cultures are more collective because of the significance of personal relationships.

'The dominant values in a masculine society are achievement and success; the dominant values in a feminine society are caring for others and quality of life'.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hofstede|first1=Geert|last2=de Mooij|first2=Marickc|title=The Hofstede model Applications to global branding and advertising strategy and research|journal=International Journal of Advertising|date=2010|volume=29|issue=1|page=89|doi=10.2501/S026504870920104X|s2cid=17561016}}</ref>

===John Money===
"In the 1950s, [[John Money]] and his colleagues took up the study of [[intersex]] individuals, who, Money realized, 'would provide invaluable material for the comparative study for bodily form and physiology, rearing, and [[psychosexual]] orientation'."<ref name="Fausto-Sterling-2008">{{cite book |last=Fausto-Sterling |first=Anne |author-link=Anne Fausto-Sterling |title=Sexing the Body: Gender Politics and the Construction of Sexuality |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-976qhsz7A4C&pg=PA46 |date=4 August 2008 |publisher=Basic Books |location=New York |isbn=978-0-7867-2433-8 |page=46 |oclc=818855499 |orig-date=1st pub. 2000}}</ref> "Money and his colleagues used their own studies to state in the extreme what these days seems extraordinary for its complete denial of the notion of natural inclination."<ref name="Fausto-Sterling-2008" />

They concluded that [[gonads]], [[hormones]], and [[chromosomes]] did not automatically determine a child's gender role.<ref name="Fausto-Sterling, Anne 2000">Fausto-Sterling, Anne (2000). Sexing the body: gender politics and the construction of sexuality. New York: Basic Books. {{ISBN|0-465-07714-5}}.</ref> Among the many terms Money coined was ''gender role,'' which he defined in a seminal 1955 paper as "all those things that a person says or does to disclose himself or herself as having the status of boy or man, girl or woman."<ref name="Basic-Concepts">{{cite journal |last1=Money |first1=John |author-link1=John Money |last2=Hampson |first2=Joan G |last3=Hampson |first3=John |date=October 1955 |title=An Examination of Some Basic Sexual Concepts: The Evidence of Human Hermaphroditism |journal=Bull. Johns Hopkins Hosp. |volume=97 |issue=4 |pages=301–19 |quote=By the term, gender role, we mean all those things that a person says or does to disclose himself or herself as having the status of boy or man, girl or woman, respectively. It includes, but is not restricted to sexuality in the sense of eroticism. Gender role is appraised in relation to the following: general mannerisms, deportment and demeanor, play preferences and recreational interests; spontaneous topics of talk in unprompted conversation and casual comment; content of dreams, daydreams, and fantasies; replies to oblique inquiries and projective tests; evidence of erotic practices and, finally, the person's own replies to direct inquiry. |pmid=13260820}}</ref>

In recent years, the majority of Money's theories regarding the importance of socialization in the determination of gender have come under intense criticism, especially in connection with the inaccurate reporting of success in the "John/Joan" case, later revealed to be [[David Reimer]].<ref>{{cite web|last=Colapinto|first=John|author-link=John Colapinto|title=The True Story of John/Joan|work=The Rolling Stone|date=11 December 1997|pages=54–97|url=https://www.healthyplace.com/gender/inside-intersexuality/the-true-story-of-john-joan}}</ref><ref>Colapinto, J. (2000). [[As Nature Made Him: The Boy Who Was Raised as a Girl]]. NY: HarperCollins.</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Diamond | first1 = M. | last2 = Sigmundson | first2 = H. K. | year = 1997 | title = Sex reassignment at birth: Long-term review and clinical implications | journal = Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine | volume = 151 | issue = 3| pages = 298–304 | doi=10.1001/archpedi.1997.02170400084015 | pmid=9080940}}</ref>

=== West and Zimmerman ===
{{Further|Doing Gender}}
{{Primary sources section |find=Doing Gender|find2=West Zimmerman |reason=The WP:INTEXT attribution of direct quotations by W+Z below is appropriate and required; however, the section still requires secondary sources. |date=June 2021}}

Candace West and Don H. Zimmerman developed an interactionist perspective on gender beyond its construction of "roles". For them, gender is "the product of social doings of some sort undertaken by men and women whose competence as members of society is hostage to its production."<ref name="West+Zimmerman-1987">{{Cite journal|last1=West|first1=Candace|last2=Zimmerman|first2=Don H.|date=June 1987|title=Doing Gender|journal=Gender and Society|volume=1|issue=2|page=129|doi=10.1177/0891243287001002002|s2cid=220519301}}</ref> This approach is described by Elisabeth K. Kelan as an "ethnomethodological approach" which analyzes "micro interactions to reveal how the objective and given nature of the world is accomplished," suggesting that gender does not exist until it is empirically perceived and performed through interactions.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kelan |first1=Elisabeth K. |title=Gender Logic and (Un)doing Gender at Work |journal=Gender, Work and Organization |date=March 2010 |volume=17 |issue=2 |pages=178–179|doi=10.1111/j.1468-0432.2009.00459.x }}</ref> West and Zimmerman argued that the use of "role" to describe gender expectations conceals the production of gender through everyday activities. Furthermore, they stated that roles are situated identities, such as "nurse" and "student", which are developed as the situation demands, while gender is a master identity with no specific site or organizational context. For them, "conceptualizing gender as a role makes it difficult to assess its influence on other roles and reduces its explanatory usefulness in discussions of power and inequality".<ref name="West+Zimmerman-1987" /> West and Zimmerman consider gender an individual production that reflects and constructs interactional and institutional gender expectations.

==Biological factors==
{{main|Sex differences in humans}}
[[File:Dahomey-amazoner.jpg|thumb|upright|From approximately 1700 through 1900, women served as soldiers for the kingdom of [[Dahomey]].]]
Historically, gender roles have been largely attributed to biological differences in men and women. Although research indicates that biology plays a role in gendered behavior, the extent of its effects on gender roles is less clear.<ref name="Lindsey"/><ref name="Ryan">{{cite book|vauthors =Ryan MK, Branscombe NR|title =The SAGE Handbook of Gender and Psychology|isbn =978-1-4739-7128-8|publisher=[[SAGE Publications]]|year=2013|pages=149–150|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sBWUCwAAQBAJ&pg=PT149}}</ref><ref name="Sperling">{{cite book|vauthors =Sperling MA|title =Pediatric Endocrinology E-Book|isbn =978-1-4557-5973-6|publisher=[[Elsevier Health Sciences]]|year=2014|pages=141–142|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GgXnAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA141}}</ref>

One hypothesis attributes differences in gender roles to [[evolution]]. The [[sociobiology|sociobiological]] view argues that men's [[fitness (biology)|fitness]] is increased by being aggressive, allowing them to compete with other men for access to females, as well as by being sexually promiscuous and trying to father as many children as possible. Women are benefited by bonding with infants and caring for children.<ref name="Lindsey"/> Sociobiologists argue that these roles are evolutionary and led to the establishment of traditional gender roles, with women in the domestic sphere and men dominant in every other area.<ref name="Lindsey">{{cite book| last=Lindsey| first= L. L.| title= Gender Roles: A Sociological Perspective| publisher =Routledge| year=2015| isbn=978-1-317-34808-5|pages=29–34|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qjjbCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA29}}</ref> However, this view pre-assumes a view of nature that is contradicted by the fact that women engage in [[hunting]] in 79% of modern [[hunter-gatherer]] societies.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Lacy |first=Cara Ocobock, Sarah |date=2023-11-01 |title=The Theory That Men Evolved to Hunt and Women Evolved to Gather Is Wrong |url=https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/the-theory-that-men-evolved-to-hunt-and-women-evolved-to-gather-is-wrong1/ |access-date=2024-02-26 |website=Scientific American |language=en}}</ref>

Another hypothesis attributes differences in gender roles to prenatal exposure to [[hormone]]s. Early research examining the effect of biology on gender roles by [[John Money]] and [[Anke Ehrhardt]] primarily focused on girls with [[congenital adrenal hyperplasia]] (CAH), resulting in higher-than-normal prenatal exposure to [[androgen]]s. Their research found that girls with CAH exhibited [[tomboy]]-like behavior, were less interested in dolls, and were less likely to make-believe as parents.<ref name="Ryan"/><ref name="Sperling"/> A number of methodological problems with the studies have been identified.<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1007/s11199-011-9990-8|title=A Role for Biology in Gender-Related Behavior|year=2011|last1=Berenbaum|first1=Sheri A.|last2=Blakemore|first2=Judith E. Owen|last3=Beltz|first3=Adriene M.|journal=Sex Roles|volume=64|issue=11–12|pages=804–825|s2cid=145689071}}</ref>

Sociologist Linda L. Lindsey critiqued the notion that gender roles are a result of prenatal hormone exposure, saying that while hormones may explain sex differences like sexual orientation and gender identity, they "cannot account for gender differences in other roles such as nurturing, love, and criminal behavior".<ref name="Lindsey"/> By contrast, some research indicates that both [[neurobiological]] and social risk factors can interact in a way that predisposes one to engaging in criminal behavior (including [[juvenile delinquency]]).<ref name="Bishop">{{cite book|vauthors =Feld BC, Bishop DM|title =The Oxford Handbook of Juvenile Crime and Juvenile Justice|isbn =978-0-19-020883-7|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|year=2011|page=110|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ks0sAwAAQBAJ&pg=PT110}}</ref><ref name="Vaughn">{{cite book|vauthors =DeLisi M, Vaughn MG|title =The Routledge International Handbook of Biosocial Criminology|isbn =978-1-317-93674-9|publisher=[[Routledge]]|year=2014|page=13|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Bmy2BQAAQBAJ&pg=PA13}}</ref>

With regard to [[#Gender stereotypes|gender stereotypes]], the societal roles and differences in power between men and women are much more strongly indicated than is a biological component.<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1146/annurev-psych-122216-011719|title=Gender Stereotypes|year=2018|last1=Ellemers|first1=Naomi|journal=Annual Review of Psychology|volume=69|pages=275–298|pmid=28961059|doi-access=free}}</ref>

==Culture==
[[File:90Israhel van Meckenenem Verkehrte Welt.jpg|thumb|right|200px|''The world turned upside down'', by [[Israhel van Meckenem the Younger]]. The wife is holding the [[sceptre]] and the man is spinning.]]
Ideas of appropriate gendered behavior vary among cultures and era, although some aspects receive more widespread attention than others. In the ''[[World Values Survey]]'', responders were asked if they thought that wage work should be restricted to only men in the case of shortage in jobs: in Iceland the proportion that agreed with the proposition was 3.6%; while in Egypt it was 94.9%.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Fortin | first1 = Nicole |author-link1=Nicole Fortin | year = 2005 | title = Gender Role Attitudes and the Labour Market Outcomes of Women Across OECD Countries | journal = Oxford Review of Economic Policy | volume = 21 | issue = 3| pages = 416–438 | doi=10.1093/oxrep/gri024}}</ref>

Attitudes have also varied historically. For example, in Europe, during the Middle Ages, women were commonly associated with roles related to medicine and healing.<ref name="Ehrenreich">{{cite book|last=Ehrenreich|first=Barbara|title=Witches, Midwives and Nurses: A History of Women Healers|url=https://archive.org/details/witchesmidwivesn00ehrerich|url-access=registration|year=2010|publisher=The Feminist Press|isbn=978-0-912670-13-3|pages=[https://archive.org/details/witchesmidwivesn00ehrerich/page/44 44–87]|edition=2nd|author2=Deirdre English}}</ref> Because of the rise of [[witch-hunt]]s across Europe and the institutionalization of medicine, these roles became exclusively associated with men.<ref name="Ehrenreich" /> In the last few decades, these roles have become largely gender-neutral in [[Western world|Western society]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Boulis|first=Ann K.|title=The changing face of medicine: women doctors and the evolution of health care in America|year=2010|publisher=ILR|location=Ithaca, N.Y.|isbn=978-0-8014-7662-4|author2=Jacobs, Jerry A.|quote=Encouraging one's daughter to pursue a career in medicine is no longer an unusual idea… Americans are now more likely to report that they feel comfortable recommending a career in medicine for a young woman than for a young man.}}</ref>

[[Vern Bullough]] stated that homosexual communities are generally more tolerant of switching gender roles.<ref name="Bullough">{{cite book|last=Bullough |first=Vern L.|title=Crossdressing, Sex, and Gender|year=1993|publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press. 1993 |isbn=978-0-8122-1431-4|page=390|edition=1st|author2=Bonnie Bullough}}</ref> For instance, someone with a masculine voice, a five o'clock shadow (or a fuller beard), an [[Adam's apple]], wearing a woman's dress and high heels, carrying a purse would most likely draw ridicule or other unfriendly attention in ordinary social contexts.<ref>Butler, Judith, Gender Trouble: Feminism and the Subversion of Identity, Routledge, New York, 2008</ref><ref>Halberstam, Judith, Female Masculinity, Duke University Press, Durham and London, 1998</ref><ref>Epstein, Julia, Straub, Kristina; Eds, Body Guards: The Cultural Politics of Gender Ambiguity, Routledge, London, 1991</ref>

Because the dominant class sees this form of gender expression as unacceptable, inappropriate, or perhaps threatening, these individuals are significantly more likely to experience discrimination and harassment both in their personal lives and from their employers, according to a 2011 report from the [[Center for American Progress]].<ref>{{cite web |last1=Burns |first1=Crosby |last2=Krehely |first2=Jeff |title=Gay and Transgender People Face High Rates of Workplace Discrimination and Harassment |date=May 2011 |url=https://cdn.americanprogress.org/wp-content/uploads/issues/2011/06/pdf/workplace_discrimination.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://cdn.americanprogress.org/wp-content/uploads/issues/2011/06/pdf/workplace_discrimination.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live |publisher=[[Center for American Progress]] |access-date=23 March 2022}}</ref>

Gender roles may be a means through which one expresses one's [[gender identity]], but they may also be employed as a means of exerting [[social control]], and individuals may experience negative social consequences for violating them.<ref>Hackman, J.R. (1992). "Group influences on individuals in organizations". In M.D. Dunnette & L.M. Hough (Eds.), Handbook of industrial and organizational psychology (Vol. 3). Palo Alto: Consulting Psychologists Press, 234-245.</ref>

===Religion===
{{main|Gender and religion}}

Different religious and cultural groups within one country may have different norms that they attempt to "police" within their own groups, including gender norms.

====Christianity====
{{Unreferenced section|date=January 2024}}{{main|Gender roles in Christianity}}
{{see also|Christian views on marriage}}
[[File:Cranach the Younger, Lucas - Christ and the adulteress.jpg|thumb|''Christ and the Woman Taken in Adultery'' [[Hermitage Museum]], Russia]]
The roles of women in Christianity can vary considerably today (as they have varied historically since the first century church). This is especially true in marriage and in formal ministry positions within certain Christian denominations, churches, and [[parachurch organizations]].

Many leadership roles in the organized church have been restricted to males. In the [[Sex, gender and the Roman Catholic Church|Roman Catholic]] and [[Eastern Orthodoxy|Eastern Orthodox]] churches, only men may serve as priests or deacons, and in senior leadership positions such as [[pope]], [[patriarch]], and [[bishop]]. Women may serve as [[abbess]]es. Most mainstream [[Protestants|Protestant]] denominations are beginning to relax their longstanding constraints on ordaining women to be ministers, though some large groups are tightening their constraints in reaction. [[Charismatic]] and [[Pentecostalism|Pentecostal]] churches have embraced the ordination of women since their founding.

Christian traditions that officially recognize "[[saint]]s", persons of exceptional holiness of life having attained the [[beatific vision]] ([[heaven]]), include female saints. Most prominent is [[Mary (mother of Jesus)|Mary, mother of Jesus]] who is highly revered throughout Christianity, particularly in the Catholic and Orthodox churches where she is considered the "[[Theotokos]]", i.e. "Mother of God". Women prominent in Christianity have included contemporaries of Jesus, subsequent theologians, abbesses, mystics, [[doctors of the church]], founders of religious orders, military leaders, monarchs and martyrs, evidencing the variety of roles played by women within the life of Christianity. [[Paul the Apostle and women|Paul the Apostle]] held women in high regard and worthy of prominent positions in the church, though he was careful not to encourage disregard for the [[New Testament household codes]], also known as New Testament Domestic Codes or ''Haustafelen'', of [[Greco-Roman world|Greco-Roman law]] in the first century.

====Islam====
{{see also|Marriage in Islam}}

According to Dhami and Sheikh, gender roles in [[Muslims|Muslim]] countries are centered on the importance of the family unit, which is viewed as the basis of a balanced and healthy society.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Dhami |first1=Sangeeta |title=The Muslim family |journal=West J Med |date=Nov 2000 |volume=173 |issue=5 |pages=352–356 |pmid=11069879 |pmc=1071164 |doi=10.1136/ewjm.173.5.352 }}</ref> Islamic views on gender roles and family are traditionally conservative.

Many Muslim-majority countries, most prominently [[Saudi Arabia]], have interpretations of religious doctrine regarding gender roles embedded in their laws.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Offenhauer |first1=P. |title=Women in Islamic Societies: A selected review of social scientific literature |website=[[Library of Congress]] |url=https://www.loc.gov/rr/frd/pdf-files/Women_Islamic_Societies.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.loc.gov/rr/frd/pdf-files/Women_Islamic_Societies.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live}}</ref> In the [[United Arab Emirates]], non-Muslim Western women can wear crop tops, whereas Muslim women are expected to dress much more [[modesty|modestly]] when in public. In some Muslim countries, these differences are sometimes even codified in law.

In some Muslim-majority countries, even non-Muslim women are expected to follow Muslim female gender norms and [[Sharia|Islamic law]] to a certain extent, such as by covering their hair. (Women visiting from other countries sometimes object to this norm and sometimes decide to comply on pragmatic grounds, in the interest of their own safety. For example, in Egypt, women who do not dress "modestly" may be perceived as akin to prostitutes.)

[[Islam]]ic prophet [[Muhammad]] described the high status of mothers in both of the major [[hadith]] collections ([[Muhammad al-Bukhari|Bukhari]] and Muslim). One famous account is:
<blockquote>"A man asked the Prophet: 'Whom should I honor most?' The Prophet replied: 'Your mother'. 'And who comes next?' asked the man. The Prophet replied: 'Your mother'. 'And who comes next?' asked the man. The Prophet replied: 'Your mother!'. 'And who comes next?' asked the man. The Prophet replied: 'Your father'"</blockquote>The Qur'an prescribes that the status of a woman should be nearly as high as that of a man.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://quran.com/2/228?translations=22,101,18,17,84,19,21,85,95,20|title=Surah Al-Baqarah [2:228]|website=Surah Al-Baqarah [2:228]|language=en-US|access-date=15 November 2018}}</ref>{{Primary source inline|date=July 2022}}

How gender roles are honored is largely cultural. While some cultures encourage men and women to take on the same roles, others promote a more traditional, less dominant role for the women.<ref>{{Cite web|title = Global Connections . Roles of Women {{!}} PBS|url = https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/globalconnections/mideast/questions/women/|website = www.pbs.org|access-date =5 February 2016}}</ref>

====Hinduism====
{{main|God and gender in Hinduism}}
Hindu deities are more ambiguously gendered than the deities of other world religions. This informs female and males relations, and informs how the differences between males and females are understood.<ref>Gopal, Madan (1990). K.S. Gautam, ed. India through the ages. Publication Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Government of India. p. 69.</ref> [[File:God marriage AS.jpg|thumb|upright|Image of [[Ardhanarishvara]]]] However, in a religious cosmology like [[Hinduism]], which prominently features female and androgynous deities, some gender transgression is allowed. This group is known as the [[Hijra (South Asia)|hijras]], and has a long tradition of performing in important rituals, such as the birth of sons and weddings. Despite this allowance for transgression, Hindu cultural traditions portray women in contradictory ways. Women's fertility is given great value, but female sexuality is depicted as potentially dangerous and destructive.<ref name="Peletz">Peletz, Michael Gates. Gender, Sexuality, and Body Politics in Modern Asia. Ann Arbor, MI: Association for Asian Studies, 2011. Print.</ref>

===Studies on marriage in the U.S.===
{{see also|Marriage}}
[[File:Weekly hours dedicated to home production in US, by gender, OWID.svg|thumb|300px|Weekly hours dedicated to home production in US, by gender]]
[[File:Hours per week spent on child care, United States, OWID.svg|thumb|300px|Hours per week spent on child care, United States]]
The institution of marriage influences gender roles, inequality, and change.<ref name=":0">{{cite journal | last1 = Jackson | first1 = C | year = 2012 | title = Introduction: Marriage, gender relations and social change | journal = Journal of Development Studies | volume = 48 | issue = 1| pages = 1–9 | doi=10.1080/00220388.2011.629653| s2cid = 144978684 }}</ref> In the United States, gender roles are communicated by the media, social interaction, and language. Through these platforms society has influenced individuals to fulfill from a young age the stereotypical gender roles in a heterosexual marriage. Roles traditionally distributed according to biological sex are increasingly negotiated by spouses on an equal footing.

====Communication of gender roles in the United States====
In the U.S., marriage roles are generally decided based on gender. For approximately the past seven decades, heterosexual marriage roles have been defined for men and women based on society's expectations and [[Media and gender|the influence of the media]].<ref name=":1">Gauntlett, D. (2008). ''Media, gender and identity: An introduction''. Routledge.</ref> Men and women are typically associated with certain social roles, dependent upon the personality traits associated with those roles.<ref name="Gerber, G. L. 1988">{{cite journal | last1 = Gerber | first1 = G. L. | year = 1988 | title = Leadership roles and the gender stereotype traits | doi = 10.1007/BF00288051 | journal = Sex Roles | volume = 18 | issue = 11–12| pages = 649–668| s2cid = 143607687 }}</ref> Traditionally, the role of the homemaker is associated with a woman and the role of a breadwinner is associated with a male.<ref name="Gerber, G. L. 1988"/>

In the U.S., single men are outnumbered by single women at a ratio of 100 single women to 86 single men,<ref>{{cite news|last=Pritchard|first=Justin|title=Men hold the edge on gender gap odds|url=http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P2-6970963.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130510202548/http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P2-6970963.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=10 May 2013|newspaper=Oakland Tribune|date=21 October 2003}}</ref> though never-married men over the age of 15 outnumber women by a 5:4 ratio (33.9% to 27.3%) according to the 2006 U.S. Census American Community Survey. The results are varied between age groups, with 118 single men per 100 single women in their 20s, versus 33 single men to 100 single women over 65.<ref>Facts for features: Valentine's Day U.S. Census Bureau Report 7 February 2006</ref>

The numbers also vary between countries. For example, China has many more young men than young women, and this disparity is expected to increase.<ref>{{cite news |last=McCurry |first=Justin |author2=Allison, Rebecca |date=8 March 2004 |title=40m bachelors and no women. the birth of a new problem for China |newspaper=The Guardian |location=London |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2004/mar/09/china.justinmccurry |url-access=registration}}</ref> In regions with recent conflict, such as Chechnya, women greatly outnumber men.<ref>{{cite news|title=Polygamy proposal for Chechen men|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/4610396.stm|newspaper=BBC News|date=13 January 2006}}</ref>

In a cross-cultural study by [[David Buss]], men and women were asked to rank the importance of certain traits in a long-term partner. Both men and women ranked "kindness" and "intelligence" as the two most important factors. Men valued beauty and youth more highly than women, while women valued financial and social status more highly than men.

====Social Interaction====
Gendered roles in heterosexual marriages are learned through imitation. People learn what society views as appropriate gender behaviors from imitating the repetition of actions by one's role-model or parent of the same biological sex.<ref name=":2" /> Imitation in the physical world that impacts one's gendered roles often comes from role-modeling parents, peers, teachers, and other significant figures in one's life. In a marriage, oftentimes each person's gendered roles are determined by his or her parents. If the wife grew up imitating the actions of traditional parents, and the husband non-traditional parents, their views on marital roles would be different.<ref name=":2" /> One way people can acquire these stereotypical roles through a reward and punishment system. When a little girl imitates her mother by performing the traditional domestic duties she is often rewarded by being told she is doing a good job. Nontraditionally, if a little boy was performing the same tasks he would more likely be punished due to acting feminine.<ref name=":2" /> Because society holds these expected roles for men and women within a marriage, it creates a mold for children to follow.<ref>Lindsey, L. L. (2015). ''Gender roles: A sociological perspective''. Routledge.</ref>

====Changing gender roles in marriage====
Over the years, gender roles have continued to change and have a significant impact on the institution of marriage.<ref name=":0"/> Traditionally, men and women had completely opposing roles, men were seen as the provider for the family and women were seen as the caretakers of both the home and the family.<ref name=":0"/> However, in today's society the division of roles is starting to blur. More and more individuals are adapting non-traditional gender roles into their marriages in order to share responsibilities. This view on gender roles seeks out equality between sexes. In today's society, it is more likely that a husband and wife are both providers for their family. More and more women are entering the workforce while more men are contributing to household duties.<ref name=":0"/>

After around the year 1980, divorce rates in the United States stabilized.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Greenstein | first1 = Theodore N | year = 1995| title = Gender Ideology, Marital Disruption, and the Employment of Married Women | journal = Journal of Marriage and Family | volume = 57 | issue = 1| pages = 31–42 | doi = 10.2307/353814 | jstor = 353814 }}</ref> Scholars in the area of sociology explain that this stabilization was due to several factors including, but not limited to, the shift in gender roles. The attitude concerning the shift in gender roles can be classified into two perspectives: traditional and egalitarian. Traditional attitudes uphold designated responsibilities for the sexes - wives raise the children and keep the home nice, and husbands are the breadwinners. Egalitarian attitudes uphold responsibilities being carried out equally by both sexes - wives and husbands are both breadwinners and they both take part in raising the children and keeping the home nice.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Lucier-Greer | first1 = M. | last2 = Adler-Baeder | first2 = F. | year = 2016 | title = Gender role attitude malleability in the context of divorce and remarriage: A longitudinal growth curve perspective | journal = Journal of Adult Development | volume = 23 | issue = 3| pages = 150–162 | doi = 10.1007/s10804-016-9231-z | s2cid = 146939829 }}</ref> Over the past 40 years, attitudes in marriages have become more egalitarian.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Davis | first1 = Shannon N | last2 = Greenstein | first2 = Theodore N | year = 2004| title = Interactive Effects of Gender Ideology and Age at First Marriage on Women's Marital Disruption | journal = Journal of Family Issues | volume = 25 | issue = 5| pages = 658–682 | doi = 10.1177/0192513x03257795 | s2cid = 6912666 }}</ref> Two studies carried out in the early 2000s have shown strong correlation between egalitarian attitudes and happiness and satisfaction in marriage, which scholars believe lead to stabilization in divorce rates. The results of a 2006 study performed by Gayle Kaufman, a professor of sociology, indicated that those who hold egalitarian attitudes report significantly higher levels of marital happiness than those with more traditional attitudes.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Kaufman | first1 = G. | last2 = Taniguchi | first2 = H. | year = 2006 | title = Gender and marital happiness in later life | journal = Journal of Family Issues | volume = 27 | issue = 6| pages = 735–757 | doi = 10.1177/0192513x05285293 | s2cid = 146362115 }}</ref> Another study executed by Will Marshall in 2008 had results showing that relationships with better quality involve people with more egalitarian beliefs.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Perry | first1 = Samuel L | last2 = Whitehead | first2 = Andrew L | year = 2016| title = For Better or for Worse? Gender Ideology, Religious Commitment, and Relationship Quality | journal = Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion | volume = 55 | issue = 4| pages = 737–755 | doi = 10.1111/jssr.12308 }}</ref> It has been assumed by Danielle J. Lindemann, a sociologist who studies gender, sexuality, the family, and culture, that the shift in gender roles and egalitarian attitudes have resulted in marriage stability due to tasks being carried out by both partners, such as working late-nights and picking up ill children from school.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Lindemann | first1 = D | year = 2018 | title = Doing and undoing gender in commuter marriages | journal = Sex Roles | volume = 79 | issue = 1–2| pages = 36–49 | doi = 10.1007/s11199-017-0852-x | s2cid = 149096803 }}</ref> Although the gap in gender roles still exists, roles have become less gendered and more equal in marriages compared to how they were traditionally.

===Changing roles===
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| footer            = Men and women in non-traditional gendered occupations clockwise from top left: a male [[midwife]] in [[Oslo, Norway]]; women being sworn into the [[Afghan National Police]]; a male [[kindergarten]] teacher in [[Colorado Springs, Colorado|Colorado Springs]], [[U.S.]] playing the [[ukulele]]; a woman doing [[Construction|construction work]] in the [[Solomon Islands]]|a woman doing [[Construction|construction work]] in the [[Solomon Islands]], a male [[kindergarten]] teacher in [[Colorado Springs, Colorado|Colorado Springs, U.S.]] playing the [[ukulele]].
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[[File:AssemblyOfQuakers.jpg|thumb|right|A woman publicly witnessing at a [[Quaker]] meeting seemed an extraordinary feature of the Religious Society of Friends, worth recording for a wider public. Engraving by Bernard Picart, ''ca'' 1723.]]
Throughout history spouses have been charged with certain societal functions.<ref>{{Cite journal|title = Marriage Trends in America: Estimates, Implications, and Underlying Causes|journal = Population and Development Review |date=1 January 1985 |pages = 193–245|volume = 11|issue = 2|doi = 10.2307/1973487|first = Thomas J.|last = Espenshade|jstor=1973487}}</ref> With the rise of the New World came the expected roles that each spouse was to carry out specifically. Husbands were typically working farmers - the providers. Wives were caregivers for children and the home. However, the roles are now changing, and even reversing.<ref>{{Cite journal|url = http://dc.cod.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1023&context=essai|title = Gender Roles Within the American Marriage: Are They Really Changing?|last = Hawke|first = Lucy|date = 2007|journal = ESSAI}}</ref>

Societies can change such that the gender roles rapidly change. The 21st century has seen a shift in gender roles due to multiple factors such as new family structures, education, media, and several others. A 2003 survey by the Bureau of Labor Statistics indicated that about 1/3 of wives may earn more than their husbands.<ref>{{cite news| url=https://www.nytimes.com/2007/01/27/business/27instincts.html | work=The New York Times | first=M.P. | last=Dunleavey | title=A Breadwinner Rethinks Gender Roles | date=27 January 2007}}</ref>

With the importance of education emphasized nationwide, and the access of college degrees (online, for example), women have begun furthering their educations. Women have also started to get more involved in recreation activities such as sports, which in the past were regarded to be for men.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=7 November 2012|title=Women and the Wild: Gender Socialization in Wilderness Recreation Advertising|journal= Gender Issues|volume=29|issue=1–4|pages=39–55|doi=10.1007/s12147-012-9111-1 | last1 = McNiel | first1 = Jamie N. | last2 = Harris | first2 = Deborah A. | last3 = Fondren | first3 = Kristi M.|s2cid=143305053}}</ref> Family dynamic structures are changing, and the number of single-mother or single-father households is increasing. Fathers are also becoming more involved with raising their children, instead of the responsibility resting solely with the mother.

According to the Pew Research Center, the number of stay-at-home fathers in the US nearly doubled in the period from 1989 to 2012, from 1.1 million to 2.0 million.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pewsocialtrends.org/2014/06/05/growing-number-of-dads-home-with-the-kids/|title=Growing Number of Stay-at-Home Dads - Pew Research Center|date=5 June 2014|work=Pew Research Center's Social & Demographic Trends Project|access-date=14 June 2015}}</ref> This trend appears to be mirrored in a number of countries including the UK, Canada and Sweden.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/women/9822271/Rise-in-stay-at-home-fathers-fuelled-by-growing-numbers-of-female-breadwinners.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220111/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/women/9822271/Rise-in-stay-at-home-fathers-fuelled-by-growing-numbers-of-female-breadwinners.html |archive-date=11 January 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live|title=Rise in stay-at-home fathers fuelled by growing numbers of female breadwinners|author1=Louisa Peacock |author2=Sam Marsden |date=23 January 2013|work=Telegraph.co.uk|access-date=14 June 2015|location=London}}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.theglobeandmail.com/life/parenting/stay-at-home-dads-on-the-rise-increasingly-because-they-want-to-be/article19014624/|title=Stay-at-home dads on the rise – increasingly because they want to be|work=The Globe and Mail|access-date=14 June 2015|location=Toronto|date=5 June 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|accessdate=6 June 2021|title=Sweden: Land of the Stay-At-Home Dad|url=https://abcnews.go.com/Nightline/sweden-land-stay-home-dad/story?id=11918278|website=ABC News}}</ref> However, Pew also found that, at least in the US, public opinion in general appears to show a substantial bias toward favoring a mother as a care-taker versus a father, regardless of any shift in actual roles each plays.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pewsocialtrends.org/2013/05/29/breadwinner-moms/|title=Breadwinner Moms|date=29 May 2013|work=Pew Research Center's Social & Demographic Trends Project|access-date=14 June 2015}}</ref>

[[Gender equality]] allows gender roles to become less distinct and according to Donnalyn Pompper, is the reason "men no longer own breadwinning identities and, like women, their bodies are objectified in mass media images."<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Pompper | first1 = Donnalyn | year = 2010 | title = Masculinities, The Metrosexual, And Media Images: Across Dimensions Of Age And Ethnicity | journal = Sex Roles | volume = 63 | issue = 9/10| pages = 682–696 | doi=10.1007/s11199-010-9870-7| s2cid = 144577635 }}</ref> The [[LGBT rights movement]] has played a role increasing pro-gay attitudes, which according to Brian McNair, are expressed by many metrosexual men.<ref>McNair, Brian. Striptease culture: Sex, media and the democratization of desire. London: Routledge, 2002.Print.</ref>

Besides North America and Europe, there are other regions whose gender roles are also changing. In Asia, Hong Kong is very close to the USA because the female surgeons in these societies are focused heavily on home life, whereas Japan is focused more on work life. After a female surgeon gives birth in Hong Kong, she wants to cut her work schedule down, but keeps working full time (60–80 hours per week).<ref name=":4">{{cite journal | last1 = Kawase | first1 = Kazumi | display-authors = etal | year = 2013| title = ''The Attitude and Perceptions of Work-Life Balance: A Comparison Among Women Surgeons in Japan, USA, and Hong Kong China.'' | journal = World Journal of Surgery | volume = 37 | issue = 1| pages = 2–11 | doi = 10.1007/s00268-012-1784-9 | pmid = 22955955 | s2cid = 30292858 }}</ref> Similar to Hong Kong, Japanese surgeons still work long hours, but they try to rearrange their schedules so they can be at home more (end up working less than 60 hours).<ref name=":4" /> Although all three places have women working advanced jobs, the female surgeons in the US and Hong Kong feel more gender equality at home where they have equal, if not more control of their families, and Japanese surgeons feel the men are still in control.<ref name=":4" />

A big change was seen in Hong Kong because the wives used to deal with unhappy marriage. Now, Chinese wives have been divorcing their husbands when they feel unhappy with their marriages, and are stable financially. This makes the wife seem more in control of her own life, instead of letting her husband control her.<ref name=":5" /> Other places, such as Singapore and Taipei are also seeing changes in gender roles. In many societies, but especially Singapore and Taipei, women have more jobs that have a leadership position (i.e. A doctor or manager), and fewer jobs as a regular worker (i.e. A clerk or salesperson).<ref name=":5">{{cite journal | last1 = Tai | first1 = Po-Fen | year = 2013| title = Gender Matters in Social Polarisation: Comparing Singapore, Hong Kong and Taipei | journal = Urban Studies | volume = 50 | issue = 6| pages = 1148–1164 | doi = 10.1177/0042098012460734 | bibcode = 2013UrbSt..50.1148T }}</ref> The males in Singapore also have more leadership roles, but they have more lower level jobs too. In the past, the women would get the lower level jobs, and the men would get all the leadership positions.<ref name=":5" /> There is an increase of male unemployment in Singapore, Taipei, and Hong Kong, so the women are having to work more in order to support their families.<ref name=":5" /> In the past, the males were usually the ones supporting the family.

In India, the women are married young, and are expected to run the household, even if they did not finish school.<ref name=":6" /> It is seen as shameful if a woman has to work outside of the house in order to help support the family.<ref name=":6" /> Many women are starting jewelry businesses inside their houses and have their own bank accounts because of it. Middle aged women are now able to work without being shameful because they are no longer childbearing.<ref name=":6">{{cite journal | last1 = Rao | first1 = Nitya | year = 2012| title = ''Male 'Providers' and Female 'Housewives': A Gendered Co-Performance in Rural North India.'' | journal = Development and Change | volume = 43 | issue = 5| pages = 1025–1048 | doi = 10.1111/j.1467-7660.2012.01789.x }}</ref>

=== Gender stereotype differences in cultures: East and West ===
{{See also|Gender Studies}}

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According to Professor Lei Chang, gender attitudes within the domains of work and domestic roles, can be measured using a cross-cultural gender role attitudes test. Psychological processes of the East have historically been analysed using Western models (or ''instruments'') that have been translated, which potentially, is a more far-reaching process than linguistic translation. Some North American instruments for assessing gender role attitudes include:
* Attitudes Towards Women Scale,
* Sex-Role Egalitarian Scale, and
* Sex-Role Ideology Scale.
Through such tests, it is known that American southerners exhibit less egalitarian gender views than their northern counterparts, demonstrating that gender views are inevitably affected by an individual's culture. This also may differ among compatriots whose 'cultures' are a few hundred miles apart.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Chang | first1 = Lei | year = 1999 | title = Gender Role Egalitarian Attitudes in Beijing, Hong Kong, Florida, and Michigan | journal = Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology | volume = 30 | issue = 6| pages = 722–41 | doi=10.1177/0022022199030006004| s2cid = 145646892 }}</ref>

Although existing studies have generally focused on gender views or attitudes that are work-related, there has so far not been a study on specific domestic roles. Supporting Hofstede's 1980 findings, that "high masculinity cultures are associated with low percentages of women holding professional and technical employment", test values for work-related egalitarianism were lower for Chinese than for Americans.<ref>Hofstede</ref>{{Specify|date=July 2016}} This is supported by the proportion of women that held professional jobs in China (far less than that of America), the data clearly indicating the limitations on opportunities open to women in contemporary Eastern society. In contrast, there was no difference between the viewpoint of Chinese and Americans regarding domestic gender roles.

A study by Richard Bagozzi, Nancy Wong and Youjae Yi, examines the interaction between culture and gender that produces distinct patterns of association between positive and negative emotions.<ref name="Bag"/> The United States was considered a more 'independence-based culture', while China was considered ''''''inter'''''dependence-based'. In the US people tend to experience emotions in terms of opposition whereas in China, they do so in dialectical terms (i.e., those of logical argumentation and contradictory forces). The study continued with sets of psychological tests among university students in Beijing and in Michigan. The fundamental goals of the research were to show that "gender differences in emotions are adaptive for the differing roles that males and females play in the culture". The evidence for differences in gender role was found during the [[socialization]] in work experiment, proving that "women are socialized to be more expressive of their feelings and to show this to a greater extent in facial expressions and gestures, as well as by verbal means".<ref name="Bag">{{cite journal | last1 = Bagozzi | first1 = Richard P. | last2 = Wong | first2 = Nancy | last3 = Yi | first3 = Youjae | year = 1999 | title = The Role of Culture and Gender in the Relationship between Positive and Negative Affect | journal = Cognition & Emotion | volume = 13 | issue = 6| pages = 641–72 | doi=10.1080/026999399379023}}</ref> The study extended to the biological characteristics of both gender groups — for a higher association between PA and NA hormones in memory for women, the cultural patterns became more evident for women than for men.

==Communication==
{{See also|Language and gender|Gender differences in social network service use|Sexuality and gender identity-based cultures}}
Gender communication is viewed as a form of intercultural communication; and gender is both an influence on and a product of communication.

Communication plays a large role in the process in which people become male or female because each gender is taught different linguistic practices. Gender is dictated by society through expectations of behavior and appearances, and then is shared from one person to another, by the process of communication.<ref>{{Cite book|title = Gender in Communication, A Critical Introduction|publisher = SAGE Publications|year = 2014|isbn = 978-1-4522-2009-3|page = 3}}</ref> Gender does not create communication, communication creates gender.<ref>DeFrancisco, Victoria L., Catherine Helen Palczewski, and Danielle Dick McGeough. ''Gender in communication a critical introduction''. Los Angeles: Sage, 2014. Print.</ref>

For example, females are often more expressive and intuitive in their communication, but males tend to be instrumental and competitive. In addition, there are differences in accepted communication behaviors for males and females. To improve communication between genders, people who identify as either male or female must understand the differences between each gender.<ref>"Gender Differences in Communication." Intercultural Communication: A Global Reader. Ed. Fred E. Jandt. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, 2004. 221–29. Print.</ref>

As found by Cara Tigue (McMaster University in Hamilton, Canada) the importance of powerful vocal delivery for women in leadership<ref>{{Cite journal|date=1 May 2012|title=Voice pitch influences voting behavior|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1090513811001024|journal=Evolution and Human Behavior|language=en|volume=33|issue=3|pages=210–216|doi=10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2011.09.004|issn=1090-5138|last1=Tigue|first1=Cara C.|last2=Borak|first2=Diana J.|last3=O'Connor|first3=Jillian J.M.|last4=Schandl|first4=Charles|last5=Feinberg|first5=David R.|s2cid=146720126 }}</ref> could not be underestimated, as famously described in accounts of Margaret Thatcher's years in power.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Martinson|first=Jane|date=15 November 2011|title=Must a woman lower the tone of her voice to be successful?|url=http://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/the-womens-blog-with-jane-martinson/2011/nov/15/woman-lower-tone-voice-successful|access-date=8 June 2021|website=The Guardian|language=en}}</ref>

===Nonverbal communication===
Hall published an observational study on nonverbal gender differences and discussed the cultural reasons for these differences.<ref>Hall, J. A. (1990). Nonverbal sex differences: Accuracy of communication and expressive style. Baltimore, MD, US: Johns Hopkins University Press.</ref> In her study, she noted women smile and laugh more and have a better understanding of nonverbal cues. She believed women were encouraged to be more emotionally expressive in their language, causing them to be more developed in nonverbal communication.

Men, on the other hand, were taught to be less expressive, to suppress their emotions, and to be less nonverbally active in communication and more sporadic in their use of nonverbal cues. Most studies researching nonverbal communication described women as being more expressively and judgmentally accurate in nonverbal communication when it was linked to emotional expression; other nonverbal expressions were similar or the same for both genders.<ref>Fischer, A. H. (2000). Gender and emotion: Social psychological perspectives. Cambridge, United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press.</ref>

McQuiston and Morris also noted a major difference in men and women's nonverbal communication. They found that men tend to show body language linked to dominance, like eye contact and interpersonal distance, more than women.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = McQuiston | first1 = D. | last2 = Morris | first2 = K. A. | year = 2009 | title = Gender differences in communication: Implications for salespeople | journal = Journal of Selling & Major Account Management | volume = 9 | issue = 4| pages = 54–64}}</ref>

===Communication and gender cultures===
[[File:Personality and gender word cloud for social media.png|thumb|upright|Words, phrases, and topics most highly distinguishing English-speaking females and males in social media in 2013]]
According to author [[Julia T. Wood|Julia Wood]], there are distinct communication 'cultures' for women and men in the US.<ref>Wood, J (2010) Gendered lives: Communication, gender and culture. Cengage Learning.</ref> She believes that in addition to female and male communication cultures, there are also specific communication cultures for African Americans, older people, [[Native Americans in the United States|Native Americans]], gay men, lesbians, and people with disabilities. According to Wood, it is generally thought that biological sex is behind the distinct ways of communicating, but in her opinion the root of these differences is gender.<ref>Wood, J (2010) Gendered lives: Communication, gender and culture. Cengage Learning. p. 37</ref>

Maltz and Broker's research suggested that the games children play may contribute to socializing children into [[Masculinity|masculine]] and [[Femininity|feminine]] gender roles:<ref name="maltz">Maltz, D., & Borker, R. (1982). A cultural approach to male-female miscommunication. In J. Gumperz (Ed.), Language and social identity (pp. 196–216). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.</ref> for example, girls being encouraged to play "house" may promote stereotypically feminine traits, and may promote interpersonal relationships as playing house does not necessarily have fixed rules or objectives; boys tended to play more competitive and adversarial team sports with structured, predetermined goals and a range of confined strategies.

===Communication and sexual desire===
Metts, et al.<ref name="metts">Metts, S., Sprecher, S., & Regan, P. C. (1998). Communication and sexual desire. In P. A. Andersen & L. K. Guerrero (Eds.) Handbook of communication and emotion. (pp. 354–377). San Diego: Academic Press.</ref> explain that [[Libido|sexual desire]] is linked to emotions and communicative expression. Communication is central in expressing sexual desire and "complicated emotional states", and is also the "mechanism for negotiating the relationship implications of [[Human sexual behavior|sexual activity]] and emotional meanings".

Gender differences appear to exist in communicating sexual desire, for example, masculine people are generally perceived to be more interested in sex than feminine people, and research suggests that masculine people are more likely than feminine people to express sexual interest.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Baumeister | first1 = R | last2 = Catanese | first2 = K | last3 = Vohs | first3 = K | year = 2001 | title = Is there a gender difference in strength of sex drive? Theoretical views, conceptual distinctions, and a review of relevant evidence | journal = Personality and Social Psychology Review | volume = 5 | issue = 3| pages = 242–273 | doi=10.1207/s15327957pspr0503_5| citeseerx = 10.1.1.186.5369 | s2cid = 13336463 }}</ref>

This may be greatly affected by masculine people being less inhibited by [[Norm (sociology)|social norms]] for expressing their desire, being more aware of their sexual desire or succumbing to the expectations of their cultures.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Seal | first1 = D | last2 = Ehrhardt | first2 = A | year = 2003 | title = Masculinity and urban men: Perceived scripts for courtship, romantic, and sexual interactions with women | journal = Culture, Health & Sexuality | volume = 5 | issue = 4| pages = 295–319 | doi=10.1080/136910501171698| s2cid = 144924015 }}</ref> When feminine people employ tactics to show their sexual desire, they are typically more indirect in nature. On the other hand, it is known masculinity is associated with aggressive behavior in almost all mammals, and most likely explains at least part of the fact that masculine people are more likely to express their sexual interest. This is known as the [[Challenge hypothesis]].

Various studies show different communication strategies with a feminine person refusing a masculine person's sexual interest. Some research, like that of Murnen,<ref name="murnen">{{cite journal |last1=Perot |last2=Byrne Murnen |first2=SK |last3=Perot |first3=A |last4=Byrne |first4=D |year=1989 |title = Coping with unwanted sexual activity: Normative responses, situational determinants, and individual differences |doi=10.1080/00224498909551493 |journal = Journal of Sex Research | volume = 26 | issue = 1| pages = 85–106}}</ref> show that when feminine people offer refusals, the refusals are verbal and typically direct. When masculine people do not comply with this refusal, feminine people offer stronger and more direct refusals. However, research from Perper and Weis<ref name="perper">{{cite journal | last1 = Perper | first1 = T. | last2 = Weis | first2 = D. L. | year = 1987 | title = Proceptive and rejective strategies of U.S. and Canadian college women | journal = The Journal of Sex Research | volume = 23 | issue = 4| pages = 455–480 | doi=10.1080/00224498709551385}}</ref> showed that rejection includes acts of avoidance, creating distractions, making excuses, departure, hinting, arguments to delay, etc. These differences in refusal communication techniques are just one example of the importance of communicative competence for both masculine and feminine gender cultures.

==Gender stereotypes==
===General===
{{See also|Sexism#Gender stereotypes|Implicit stereotype#Gender stereotypes|Stereotypes}}
[[File:Glaspalast München 1883 064.jpg|thumb|An 1883 German illustration of children playing house]]
A 1992 study tested gender stereotypes and labeling within young children in the [[United States]].<ref name="fagot">{{Cite journal | last1 = Fagot | first1 = Beverly I. | last2 = Leinbach | first2 = Mary D. | last3 = O'Boyle | first3 = Cherie | title = Gender labeling, gender stereotyping, and parenting behaviors | journal = [[Developmental Psychology (journal)|Developmental Psychology]] | volume = 28 | issue = 2 | pages = 225–230 | doi = 10.1037/0012-1649.28.2.225 | date = March 1992 }}</ref> Fagot ''et al.'' divided this into two different studies; the first investigated how children identified the differences between gender labels of boys and girls, the second study looked at both gender labeling and stereotyping in the relationship of mother and child.<ref name="fagot"/>

Within the first study, 23 children between the ages of two and seven underwent a series of gender labeling and gender stereotyping tests: the children viewed either pictures of males and females or objects such as a hammer or a broom, then identified or labeled those to a certain gender. The results of these tests showed that children under three years could make gender-stereotypic associations.<ref name="fagot" />

The second study looked at gender labeling and stereotyping in the relationship of mother and child using three separate methods. The first consisted of identifying gender labeling and stereotyping, essentially the same method as the first study. The second consisted of behavioral observations, which looked at ten-minute play sessions with mother and child using gender-specific toys.

The third study used a series of questionnaires such as an "Attitude Toward Women Scale", "[[Personal Attributes Questionnaire]]", and "Schaefer and Edgerton Scale" which looked at the family values of the mother.<ref name="fagot" />

The results of these studies showed the same as the first study with regards to labeling and stereotyping.

They also identified in the second method that the mothers' positive reactions and responses to same-sex or opposite-sex toys played a role in how children identified them. Within the third method the results found that the mothers of the children who passed the "Gender Labeling Test" had more traditional family values. These two studies, conducted by Beverly I. Fagot, Mar D. Leinbach and Cherie O'Boyle, showed that gender stereotyping and labeling is acquired at a very young age, and that social interactions and associations play a large role in how genders are identified.<ref name="fagot" />

[[Virginia Woolf]], in the 1920s, made the point: "It is obvious that the values of women differ very often from the values which have been made by the other sex. Yet it is the masculine values that prevail",<ref>{{cite book |last = Woolf | first = Virginia | author-link = Virginia Woolf | title = A room of one's own | publisher = Hogarth Press | location = New York | year = 1929 | page = 76 | oclc = 31499943| title-link = A Room of One's Own }}</ref> remade sixty years later by psychologist [[Carol Gilligan]] who used it to show that psychological tests of maturity have generally been based on masculine parameters, and so tended to show that women were less 'mature'. Gilligan countered this in her ground-breaking work, ''[[In a Different Voice]]'', holding that maturity in women is shown in terms of different, but equally important, human values.<ref>{{cite book | last = Gilligan |first = Carol | author-link = Carol Gilligan | title = In a different voice |publisher = Harvard University Press | location = Cambridge, Massachusetts | year = 2009 | isbn = 978-0-674-44544-4|title-link = In a Different Voice }}</ref>

[[File:Mixed stereotype content model (Fiske et al.).png|thumb|300px|Stereotype content model, adapted from [[Susan Fiske|Fiske]] et al. (2002): Four types of stereotypes resulting from combinations of perceived warmth and competence.<ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Fiske | first1 = Susan T. | last2 = Cuddy | first2 = Amy J.C. |last3 = Glick | first3 = Peter | last4 = Xu | first4 = Jun | author-link1 = Susan Fiske | title = A model of (often mixed) stereotype content: Competence and warmth respectively follow from perceived status and competition | journal = [[Journal of Personality and Social Psychology]] | volume = 82 | issue = 6 | pages = 878–902 | doi = 10.1037/0022-3514.82.6.878 | date = June 2002 | pmid=12051578| citeseerx = 10.1.1.320.4001 | s2cid = 17057403 |url=http://www.cos.gatech.edu/facultyres/Diversity_Studies/Fiske_StereotypeContent.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.cos.gatech.edu/facultyres/Diversity_Studies/Fiske_StereotypeContent.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live}}</ref>]]

Gender stereotypes are extremely common in society.<ref>{{cite web | last = Brewer | first = Holly | title = List of gender stereotypes | url = http://www.healthguidance.org/entry/15910/1/List-of-Gender-Stereotypes.html | date = 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | title = Gender and gender identity at a glance | url = http://www.plannedparenthood.org/health-topics/sexual-orientation-gender/gender-gender-identity-26530.htm | website = plannedparenthood.org | publisher = Planned Parenthood Federation of America Inc. | date = 2012}}</ref> One of the reasons this may be is simply because it is easier on the brain to stereotype (see [[Heuristics in judgment and decision-making|Heuristics]]).

The brain has limited perceptual and memory systems, so it categorizes information into fewer and simpler units which allows for more efficient information processing.<ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Martin | first1 = Carol Lynn | last2 = Halverson | first2 = Charles F. Jr. | title = A schematic processing model of sex typing and stereotyping in children | journal = [[Child Development (journal)|Child Development]] | volume = 52 | issue = 4 | pages = 1119–1134 | doi = 10.2307/1129498 | jstor = 1129498 | date = December 1981 }}</ref> Gender stereotypes appear to have an effect at an early age. In one study, the effects of gender stereotypes on children's mathematical abilities were tested. In this study of American children between the ages of six and ten, it was found that the children, as early as the [[second grade]], demonstrated the gender stereotype that mathematics is a 'boy's subject'. This may show that the mathematical self-belief is influenced before the age in which there are discernible differences in mathematical achievement.<ref name="Cvencek">{{Cite journal | last1 = Cvencek | first1 = Dario | last2 = Meltzoff | first2 = Andrew N. | last3 = Greenwald | first3 = Anthony G. | title = Math–gender stereotypes in elementary school children | journal = [[Child Development (journal)|Child Development]] | volume = 82 | issue = 3 | pages = 766–779 | doi = 10.1111/j.1467-8624.2010.01529.x | pmid = 21410915 | date = May–June 2011 | citeseerx = 10.1.1.300.2757 }}</ref>

According to the 1972 study by Jean Lipman-Blumen, women who grew up following traditional gender-roles from childhood were less likely to want to be highly educated while women brought up with the view that men and women are equal were more likely to want higher education. This result indicates that gender roles that have been passed down traditionally can influence stereotypes about gender.<ref>{{Cite journal | last = Lipman-Blumen | first = Jean | title = How ideology shapes women's lives | journal = [[Scientific American]] | volume = 226 | issue = 1 | pages = 34–42 | doi = 10.1038/scientificamerican0172-34 | date = January 1972 | bibcode = 1972SciAm.226a..34L }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |date=9 July 2015 |first1 = Leigh|last1 = Goodmark|first2 = Juanita|last2 = Flores|first3 = Julie |last3 = Goldscheid|first4 = Andrea |last4 = Ritchie |last5=SpearIt |title=Plenary 2—Redefining Gender Violence |url= https://repository.law.miami.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1039&context=umrsjlr |journal= University of Miami Race & Social Justice Law Review |volume=5 |page=289 |ssrn=2628984}}</ref>

In a later study, Deaux and her colleagues (1984) found that most people think women are ''more'' ''nurturant'', but ''less self-assertive'' than men, and that this belief is indicated universally, but that this awareness is related to women's ''role''. To put it another way, women do not have an ''inherently'' nurturant personality, rather that a nurturing personality is acquired by whoever happens to be doing the housework.<ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Deaux | first1 = Kay | last2 = Lewis | first2 = Laurie L. | title = Structure of gender stereotypes: interrelationships among components and gender label | journal = [[Journal of Personality and Social Psychology]] | volume = 46 | issue = 5 | pages = 991–1004 | doi = 10.1037/0022-3514.46.5.991 | date = May 1984 }}</ref>

A study of gender stereotypes by Jacobs (1991) found that parents' stereotypes interact with the sex of their child to directly influence the parents' beliefs about the child's abilities. In turn, parents' beliefs about their child directly influence their child's self-perceptions, and both the parents' stereotypes and the child's self-perceptions influence the child's performance.<ref>{{Cite journal | last = Jacobs | first = Janis E. | title = Influence of gender stereotypes on parent and child mathematics attitudes | journal = [[Journal of Educational Psychology]] | volume = 83 | issue = 4 | pages = 518–527 | doi = 10.1037/0022-0663.83.4.518 | date = December 1991 }}</ref>

[[Stereotype threat]] involves the risk of confirming, as self-characteristic, a negative stereotype about one's group.<ref name="SteeleAronson">{{Cite journal | last1 = Steele | first1 = Claude M. | last2 = Aronson | first2 = Joshua | author-link1 = Claude Steele | title = Stereotype threat and the intellectual test performance of African Americans | journal = [[Journal of Personality and Social Psychology]] | volume = 69 | issue = 5 | pages = 797–811 | doi = 10.1037/0022-3514.69.5.797 | pmid = 7473032 | date = November 1995 | s2cid = 4665022 }} [http://users.nber.org/~sewp/events/2005.01.14/Bios+Links/Good-rec2-Steele_&_Aronson_95.pdf Pdf.]</ref> In the case of gender it is the implicit belief in gender stereotype that women perform worse than men in mathematics, which is proposed to lead to lower performance by women.<ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Spencer | first1 = Steven J. | last2 = Steele | first2 = Claude M. | last3 = Quinn | first3 = Diane M. | author-link2 = Claude Steele | title = Stereotype threat and women's math performance | journal = [[Journal of Experimental Social Psychology]] | volume = 35 | issue = 1 | pages = 4–28 | doi = 10.1006/jesp.1998.1373 | date = January 1999 | citeseerx = 10.1.1.370.3979 | s2cid = 12556019 }} [http://www.leedsbeckett.ac.uk/carnegie/learning_resources/LAW_PGCHE/SteeleandQuinnStereotypeThreat.pdf Pdf.] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160108184501/http://www.leedsbeckett.ac.uk/carnegie/learning_resources/LAW_PGCHE/SteeleandQuinnStereotypeThreat.pdf |date=8 January 2016 }}</ref>

A review article of stereotype threat research (2012) relating to the relationship between gender and mathematical abilities concluded "that although stereotype threat may affect some women, the existing state of knowledge does not support the current level of enthusiasm for this [as a] mechanism underlying the gender gap in mathematics".<ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Stoet | first1 = Gijsbert | last2 = Geary | first2 = David C. | title = Can stereotype threat explain the gender gap in mathematics performance and achievement? | journal = [[Review of General Psychology]] | volume = 16 | issue = 1 | pages = 93–102 | doi = 10.1037/a0026617 | date = March 2012 | s2cid = 145724069 }}</ref>

In 2018, Jolien A. van Breen and colleagues conducted research into [[Subliminal stimuli|subliminal]] gender stereotyping. Researchers took participants through a fictional "Moral Choice Dilemma Task", which presented eight scenarios "in which sacrificing one person can save several others of unspecified gender. In four scenarios, participants are asked to sacrifice a man to save several others (of unspecified gender), and in four other scenarios they are asked to sacrifice a woman." The results showed that women who identified as feminists were more willing to 'sacrifice' men than women who did not identify as feminists.<ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Jolien A. | first1 = van Breen | last2 = Spears | first2 = Russell | last3 = Kuppens | first3 = Toon | last4 = de Lemus | first4 = Soledad | title = Subliminal gender stereotypes: who can resist? | journal = [[Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin]] | volume = 44 | issue = 12 | pages = 1648–1663 | doi = 10.1177/0146167218771895 | pmid = 29781373 | date = May 2018 | s2cid = 29170275 | url = https://pure.rug.nl/ws/files/76613806/0146167218771895.pdf }} [Epub ahead of print]</ref> "If a person wanted to counteract that and 'level the playing field', that can be done either by boosting women or by downgrading men", said van Breen. "So I think that this effect on evaluations of men arises because our participants are trying to achieve an underlying aim: counteracting gender stereotypes."<ref>{{cite news | last = Airaksinen | first = Toni | title = STUDY: Feminists more willing to 'sacrifice' men | url = https://www.campusreform.org/?ID=10984 | work = [[Campus Reform]] | publisher = [[Leadership Institute]] | date = 5 June 2018 | access-date = 11 June 2018}}
</ref>

=== In the workplace ===
[[File:WASPS-Women-Airforce-Service-Pilots-Training-1943-Army-Navy-Screen-Magazine-No.-16.ogv|thumb|Short film about the [[Women Airforce Service Pilots]] in the United States, produced in 1943 as part of the series ''[[Army–Navy Screen Magazine]]''|thumbtime=1:01]]
Gender stereotypes can disadvantage women during the hiring process.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Gorman|first1=Elizabeth H.|title=Gender Stereotypes, Same-Gender Preferences, and Organizational Variation in the Hiring of Women: Evidence from Law Firms|journal=American Sociological Review|date=August 2005|volume=70|issue=4|doi=10.1177/000312240507000408|pages=702–728|s2cid=143766494}}</ref> It is one explanation for the lack of women in key organizational positions.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Heilman|first1=Madeline E.|title=Description and Prescription: How Gender Stereotypes Prevent Women's Ascent Up the Organizational Ladder|journal=Journal of Social Issues|date=2001|volume=57|issue=4|doi=10.1111/0022-4537.00234|pages=657–674|s2cid=144504496 }}</ref> Management and similar leader positions are often perceived to be "masculine" in type, meaning they are assumed to require aggressiveness, competitiveness, strength and independence. These traits do not line up with the perceived traditional female gender role stereotype.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Heilman|first1=Madeline E.|last2=Eagly|first2=Alice H.|title=Gender Stereotypes Are Alive, Well, and Busy Producing Workplace Discrimination|journal=Industrial and Organizational Psychology|date=2008|volume=1|issue=4|pages=393–398|doi=10.1111/j.1754-9434.2008.00072.x|s2cid=143990135}}</ref> (This is often referred to as the "lack of fit" model which describes the dynamics of the gender bias.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Heilman|first=Madeline E.|year=1983|title=Sex Bias in Work Settings: The Lack of Fit Model|journal=Research in Organizational Behavior}}</ref>) Therefore, the perception that women do not possess these "masculine" qualities, limits their ability to be hired or promoted into managerial positions.

One's performance at work is also evaluated based on one's gender. If a female and a male worker show the same performance, the implications of that performance vary depending on the person's gender and on who observes the performance; if a man performs exceedingly well he is perceived as driven or goal-oriented and generally seen in a positive light while a woman showing a similar performance is often described using adjectives with negative connotations.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Taylor|first1=Shelley E.|last2=Fiske|first2=Susan T.|last3=Etcoff|first3=Nancy L.|last4=Ruderman|first4=Audrey J.|title=Categorical and Contextual Bases of Person Memory and Stereotyping|journal=Journal of Personality and Social Psychology|date=1978|volume=36|issue=7|pages=778|doi=10.1037/0022-3514.36.7.778 }}</ref> Female performance is therefore not evaluated neutrally or unbiased and stereotyped in ways to deem their equivalent levels and quality of work as instead of lesser value.

A study in 2001 found that if a woman does act according to female stereotypes, she is likely to receive backlash for not being competent enough; if she does not act according to the stereotypes connected to her gender and behaves more [[Masculinity|masculine]], it is likely to cause backlash through [[third-party punishment]] or further [[job discrimination]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Rudman |first1=Laurie A. |last2=Glick |first2=Peter |date=2001 |title=Prescriptive Gender Stereotypes and Backlash Toward Agentic Women |journal=Journal of Social Issues |volume=57 |issue=4 |pages=743–762 |doi=10.1111/0022-4537.00239 |hdl-access=free |hdl=2027.42/146421|s2cid=54219902 }}</ref> This puts women in the workforce in a precarious, "double bind" situation.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Williams |first1=Joan C. |date=2009 |title=Reconstructive Feminism: Changing the Way We Talk About Gender and Work Thirty Years After the PDA |journal=21 Yale J.L. & Feminism |volume=79 |page=104}}</ref> A proposed step to protect women is the ratification of the [[Equal Rights Amendment]], as it would prohibit gender-based discrimination<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kilgarlin |first1=William Wayne |last2=Tarver |first2=Banks |date=1989 |title=Equal Rights Amendment: Governmental Action and Individual Liberty |journal=Tex. L. Rev. |volume=68}}</ref> regardless of if a woman is acting according to female gender stereotypes, or in defiance of them.

Consequently, that gender stereotype filter leads to a lack of fair evaluation and, in turn, to fewer women occupying higher paying positions. Gender stereotypes contain women at certain, lower levels; getting trapped within the [[glass ceiling]]. While the number of [[women in the workforce]] occupying management positions is slowly increasing,<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Kalysh|first1=Kateryina|author-link2=Carol Kulik|last2=Kulik|first2=Carol T.|last3=Perera|first3=Sanjeewa|title=Help or hindrance? Work-life practices and women in management|journal=The Leadership Quarterly|date=2016|volume=27|issue=3|page=504|doi=10.1016/j.leaqua.2015.12.009}}</ref> women currently fill only 2.5% of the higher managerial positions in the United States.<ref name="ReferenceA">{{cite journal|last1=Sanchez-Huckles|first1=Janis V.|last2=Davis|first2=Donald D.|title=Women and Women of Color in Leadership: Complexity, Identity, and Intersectionality|journal=American Psychologist|date=2010|volume=65|issue=3|pages=171–181|doi=10.1037/a0017459|pmid=20350016}}</ref> The fact that most women are being allocated to occupations that pay less, is often cited as a contributor to the existing [[gender pay gap]].<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Blau|first1=Francine D.|last2=Kahn|first2=Lawrence M.|title=Differences in Pay|journal=The Journal of Economic Perspectives|date=2000|volume=14|issue=4|pages=75–99|doi=10.1257/jep.14.4.75|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Petersen|first1=Trond|last2=Morgan|first2=Laurie A.|title=Separate and Unequal: Occupation-Establishment Sex Segregation and the Gender Wage Gap|journal=The American Journal of Sociology|date=1995|volume=101|issue=2|pages=329–365|doi=10.1086/230727|s2cid=145707764}}</ref>

In relation to white women, [[women of color]] are disproportionally affected by the negative influence their gender has on their chances in the labor market.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Browne|first1=Irene|last2=Misra|first2=Joya|title=The Intersection of Gender and Race in the Labor Market|journal=Annual Review of Sociology|date=2003|volume=29|issue=1|doi=10.1146/annurev.soc.29.010202.100016|pages=487–513}}</ref> In 2005, women held only 14.7% of Fortune 500 board seats with 79% of them being white and 21% being women of color.<ref name="ReferenceA"/> This difference is understood through [[intersectionality]], a term describing the multiple and intersecting oppressions and individual might experience. Activists during [[second-wave feminism]] have also used the term "horizontal oppressions" to describe this phenomenon.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Doing Feminist Theory: From Modernity to Postmodernity|last=Mann|first=Susan Archer|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2012|page=172}}</ref> It has also been suggested that women of color in addition to the glass ceiling, face a "concrete wall" or a "sticky floor" to better visualize the barriers.<ref name="ReferenceA"/>

[[Liberal feminism|Liberal feminist]] theory states that due to these systemic factors of oppression and discrimination, women are often deprived of equal work experiences because they are not provided equal opportunities on the basis of legal rights. Liberal feminists further propose that an end needs to be put to discrimination based on gender through legal means, leading to equality and major economic redistributions.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Scientific Reproduction of Gender Inequality: A Discourse Analysis of Research Texts on Women's Entrepreneurship|last=Ahl|first=Helene|publisher=Copenhagen Business School Press|year=2004|page=14}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Wendell|first=Susan|year=1987|title=A (Qualified) Defense of Liberal Feminism|doi=10.1111/j.1527-2001.1987.tb01066.x|journal=Hypatia|volume=2|issue=2|pages=65–93|s2cid=143213609 }}</ref>

While activists have tried calling on [[Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964]] to provide an equal hiring and promotional process, that practice has had limited success.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Abrams|first1=Kathryn|title=Gender Discrimination and the Transformation of Workplace Norms|journal=Vand. L. Rev|date=1989|volume=42}}</ref> The pay gap between men and women is slowly closing. Women make approximately 21% less than her male counterpart according to the Department of Labor.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.dol.gov/wb/media/gender_wage_gap.pdf |title=Archived copy |access-date=3 May 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180728035654/https://www.dol.gov/wb/media/gender_wage_gap.pdf |archive-date=28 July 2018 |url-status=dead }}</ref> This number varies by age, race, and other perceived attributes of hiring agents. A proposed step towards solving the problem of the gender pay gap and the unequal work opportunities is the ratification of the [[Equal Rights Amendment]] which would constitutionally guarantee [[equal rights for women]].<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Soule|first1=Sarah A.|last2=Olzak|first2=Susan|title=When do Movements Matter? The Politics of Contingency and the Equal Rights Amendment|journal=American Sociological Review|date=2004|volume=69|issue=4|pages=473–497|doi=10.1177/000312240406900401|s2cid=143583752}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Brown|first1=Barbara A.|last2=Emerson|first2=Thomas I.|last3=Falk|first3=Gail|last4=Freedman|first4=Ann E.|title=The Equal Rights Amendment: A Constitutional Basis for Equal Rights for Women|journal=The Yale Law Journal|date=1971|volume=89|issue=5|pages=871–985|doi=10.2307/795228|jstor=795228|url=https://digitalcommons.law.yale.edu/fss_papers/2799}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Ginsburg|first1=Ruth Bader|title=The Need for the Equal Rights Amendment|journal=American Bar Association Journal|date=1973|volume=59|issue=9}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Emerson|first1=Thomas I.|title=In Support of the Equal Rights Amendment|journal=Harv. CR-CLL Rev.|date=1970|volume=6}}</ref> This is hoped to end gender-based discrimination and provide equal opportunities for women.

===In sports===
As strength has been strongly associated to masculinity for many years,<ref name="Klomsten">{{cite journal|last1=Klomsten|first1=Anne T.|last2=Marsh|first2=Herb W.|last3=Skaalvik|first3=Einar M.|title=Adolescents' Perceptions of Masculine and Feminine Values in Sport and Physical Education: A Study of Gender Differences.|journal=Sex Roles|date=2005|volume=52|issue=5|pages=625–636|doi=10.1007/s11199-005-3730-x |s2cid=144198198 |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-005-3730-x}}</ref> sports have evolved into a significant representation of expressions of masculinity<ref>{{cite book|last1=Connell|first1= Raewyn W.|title=Masculinities|date=2005}}</ref> and hence, are commonly perceived as a predominantly male domain.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Messner|first1=Michael|title=Gender ideologies, youth sports, and the production of soft essentialism.|journal=Sociology of Sport Journal|date=2011|volume=28|issue=2|pages=151–170|doi=10.1123/ssj.28.2.151 |url=https://doi.org/10.1123/ssj.28.2.151}}</ref> However, this does not completely neglect the position and role of women in sports. This is evident from the number of females participating in sport has increasing in recent years.

As the belief in gender stereotypes is continuously upheld in society,<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Koivula|first1=Nathalie|title=Perceived characteristics of sports categorized as gender-neutral, feminine and masculine.|journal=Journal of Sport Behavior|date=2001|volume=24|issue=4|pages=377–393}}</ref> sporting events have been divided according to how the sport is characterised, which leads to the conceptualisation of male and female sports.<ref name="Mateo-Orcajada">{{cite journal|last1=Mateo-Orcajada|first1=Adrián|last2=Abenza-Cano|first2=Lucía|last3=Vaquero-Cristóbal|first3=Raquel|last4=Martínez-Castro|first4=Sonia M.|last5=Leiva-Arcas|first5=Alejandro|last6=Gallardo-Guerrero|first6=Ana M.|last7=Sánchez-Pato|first7=Antonio|title=Influence of Gender Stereotypes, Type of Sport Watched and Close Environment on Adolescent Sport Practice According to Gender.|journal=Sustainability|date=2021|volume=13|issue=21|page=11863 |doi=10.3390/su132111863 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Certain traits and sporting events in the sport domain have conventionally been attributed to males and the rest to females. Female sports, expressing the concepts of femininity, are often characterised with flexibility and balance, such as gymnastics or aesthetic sports like dance. Conversely, male sports constitute the idea of masculinity, which is portrayed through strength, speed, aggression and power, such as in football and basketball.<ref name="Mateo-Orcajada"/><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Chalabaev|first1=Aïna|last2=Sarrazin|first2=Philippe|last3=Fontayne|first3=Paul|last4=Boiché|first4=Julie|last5=Clément-Guillotin|first5=Corentin|title=The influence of sex stereotypes and gender roles on participation and performance in sport and exercise: review and future directions.|journal=Psychology of Sport and Exercise|date=2013|volume=14|issue=2|pages=136–144|doi=10.1016/j.psychsport.2012.10.005 |url=https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2012.10.005}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Colley|first1=Ann|last2=Berman|first2=Eryn|last3=Millingen|first3=Liz V.|title=Age and gender differences in young people's perceptions of sport participants.|journal=Journal of Applied Social Psychology|date=2005|volume=35|issue=7|pages=1440–1454|doi=10.1111/j.1559-1816.2005.tb02178.x |url=https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1559-1816.2005.tb02178.x}}</ref>

The element of beauty in women's sport seems to play a crucial role in the of the perceived femininity of a sport. This could be due to it being a vital facet in the general concept of femininity itself.<ref name="Klomsten"/> The objectification of the female form persists, with women being conditioned to utilize their bodies for the satisfaction of others and to measure their looks against the prevailing feminine standard.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Duncan|first1=Margaret C.|title=The politics of women's body images and practices: Foucault, the panopticon, and Shape magazine.|journal=Journal of Sports and Social Issues|date=1994|volume=18|issue=1|pages=48–65|doi=10.1177/019372394018001004 |s2cid=145378359 |url=https://doi.org/10.1177/019372394018001004}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Metheny|first1=Eleanor|title=Symbolic forms of movement: The feminine image in sports.|journal=Connotations of Movement in Sport and Dance|date=1965|pages=43–56}}</ref><ref name="Lippe">{{cite journal|last1=von der Lippe|first1=Gerd|title=Media image: Sport, gender, and national identities in five European countries.|journal=International Review for the Sociology of Sport|date=2002a|volume=37|issue=3–4|pages=371–395|doi=10.1177/101269020203700306 |s2cid=220416715 |url=https://doi.org/10.1177/101269020203700306}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Young|first1=Iris M.|title=The exclusion of women from sport: Conceptual and existential dimensions.|journal=Philosophic Inquiry in Sport|date=1995|volume=18|issue=1|pages=262–266}}</ref> The devaluation of female athleticism due their bodies can be seen in the sport uniforms, where in some sports, such as [[Beach volleyball#Uniform controversy|beach volleyball]], [[Leotard#Gymnastics attire|gymnastics]] and figure skating, males and females don different uniforms in competitions. In the aforementioned sports, female uniforms expose more of their bodies than the male uniforms do despite the lack of evidence that such uniforms would significantly improve their skills.<ref name="Klomsten"/>

While the distinction between male and female sports exist, females participating in male sports is more socially acceptable than the reverse, as questions would arise regarding the masculinity of males competing in the female sports.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Schmalz|first1=Dorothy L.|last2=Kerstetter|first2=Deborah L.|title=Girlie girls and manly men: Children's stigma consciousness of gender in sports and physical activities.|journal=Journal of Leisure Research|date=2006|volume=38|issue=4|pages=536–557|doi=10.1080/00222216.2006.11950091 |bibcode=2006JLeiR..38..536S |s2cid=142736031 |url=https://doi.org/10.1080/00222216.2006.11950091}}</ref> In a study conducted by Klomsten et al. (2005), they discovered that a majority of the females believed that certain sports are better suited for girls than for boys. Hence, they inferred that females do not prefer the idea of males, known to be strong and masculine, participating in feminine sports.<ref name="Klomsten"/>

Sport media coverage of males and females differ significantly and this could attribute to the perpetuation of stereotypical gender roles as well as adversely influencing perceptions of women's abilities.<ref name="Fink">{{cite journal|last1=Fink|first1=Janet S.|title=Female athletes, women's sport, and the sport media commercial complex: have we really "come a long way, baby"?|journal=Sport Management Review|date=2013|volume=18|issue=3|pages=331–342|doi=10.1016/j.smr.2014.05.001 |url=https://doi.org/10.1016/j.smr.2014.05.001}}</ref> Male athletes are often portrayed based on their strength and physical prowess, while female athletes are more frequently depicted in relation to their physical attractiveness and, at times, their sexualized attributes.<ref name="Messner">{{cite journal|last1=Messner|first1=Michael A.|last2=Duncan|first2=Margaret C.|last3=Jensen|first3=Kerry|title=Separating the men from the girls: The gendered language of televised sports.|journal=Gender & Society|date=1993|volume=7|issue=1|pages=121–137|doi=10.1177/089124393007001007 |s2cid=144825977 |url=https://doi.org/10.1177/089124393007001007}}</ref>

Despite the increasing participation and remarkable achievements of female athletes, [[Women's sports#Media coverage|media coverage of women's sport]] have yet to catch up with this significant advancement.<ref name="Cooky">{{cite journal|last1=Cooky|first1=Cheryl|last2=Messner|first2=Michael A.|last3=Hextrum|first3=Robin H.|title=Women play sport, but not on TV: A longitudinal study of televised news media.|journal=Communication & Sport|date=2013|volume=1|issue=3|pages=1–28|doi=10.1177/2167479513476947 |s2cid=53321725 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/2167479513476947}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Lumpkin|first1=Angela|title=Female representation in feature articles published by Sports Illustrated in the 1990s.|journal=Women in Sport and Physical Activity Journal|date=2009|volume=18|issue=2|pages=38–51|doi=10.1123/wspaj.18.2.38 |url= https://doi.org/10.1123/wspaj.18.2.38}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Kian|first1=Edward M.|last2=Vincent|first2=John|last3=Mondello|first3=Michael|title=Masculine hegemonic hoops: An analysis of media coverage of March Madness.|journal=Sociology of Sport Journal|date=2008|volume=25|issue=2|pages=223–242|doi=10.1123/ssj.25.2.223 |url=https://doi.org/10.1123/ssj.25.2.223}}</ref> Female athletes and women's sport receive notably less media attention compared to their male counterparts across various forms of media, and this underrepresentation has worsened over the years, despite the rising levels of female participation and performance.<ref name="Cooky"/><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Kane|first1=Mary J.|title=The better sportswomen get, the more the media ignore them.|journal=Communication and Sport|date=2013|volume=1|issue=3|pages=231–236|doi=10.1177/2167479513484579 |s2cid=147567869 |url= https://doi.org/10.1177/2167479513484579}}</ref>

The depiction of female athletes and women's sport in the media also tends to vary in terms of tone, production quality in a manner that minimises their efforts and performance.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Angelini|first1=James R.|title=Television sports and athlete sex: Looking at the differences in watching male and female athletes.|journal=Journal of Broadcasting and Electronic Media|date=2008|volume=52|issue=1|pages=16–32|doi=10.1177/2167479513484579 |s2cid=147567869 |url=https://doi.org/10.1177/2167479513484579}}</ref> One prevalent practice in sport media coverage is the use of [[Gender marking in job titles|gender marking]].<ref name="Messner"/> The presentation of male athletes and men's sport is regarded as the standard, while their female counterparts are often considered as the "other" or outside of this norm,<ref name="Messner"/> as seen in the naming of events, such as "Women's World Cup" while the men's event being simply named as the "World Cup". The use of first names and being referred to as "girls" or "young ladies" for female athletes is also seen as [[Infantilization|infantilizing]], which reinforces the lower regard for female athletes and perpetuates pre-existing negative perceptions of women's sport.<ref name="Messner"/> The quality of production and filming of men's and women's sport, such as the use of on-screen graphics, shot variations, duration of video frames and camera angles, are also significantly distinct. This influences the audience perceptions by illustrating women's sport as less significant and engaging.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Billings|first1=Andrew C.|last2=Angelini|first2=James R.|title=Communication Quarterly: Packaging the games for viewer consumption: Gender, ethnicity, and nationality in NBC's coverage of the 2004 Summer Olympics.|journal=Women and Language|date=2007|volume=30|issue=1|pages=95–111}}</ref> Thus, female athletes not only face a lack of media coverage, but the little amount of coverage tends to reinforce the [[hegemonic masculinity]] present in sport.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Angelini|first1=James R.|last2=MacArthur|first2=Paul J.|last3=Billings|first3=Andrew C.|title=What's the gendered story? Vancouver's prime time Olympic glory on NBC.|journal=Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media|date=2012|volume=56|issue=2|pages=261–279|doi=10.1080/08838151.2012.678515 |s2cid=145149193 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/08838151.2012.678515}}</ref>

While online sites that promote and cover female athletes exist, these coverages are primarily only found in "niche" sites, which continues to pose challenges in overcoming the prevailing ideology of hegemonic masculinity deeply rooted in sports.<ref name="Messner"/> Therefore, despite the growing participation and outstanding athletic achievements of girls and women, female athletes and women's sports still have a long way to go in achieving equal treatment and fair representation in sports media coverage.<ref name=Fink/>

===Economic and social consequences===
[[File:Katerfrühstück der Ellerbek-Wellingdorfer Seglervereinigung e.V. (Kiel 38.830).jpg|thumb|A meal prepared by women and eaten by men in Germany, 1966]]
Traditional gender roles assume women will serve as the primary [[Care work|caregivers]] for children and the elderly, regardless of whether they also work outside of the home. Sociology scholar [[Arlie Russell Hochschild|Arlie Hochschild]] delves into this phenomenon in her book, ''[[The Second Shift]]''.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Kuttner |first=Robert |date=1989-06-25 |title=She Minds the Child, He Minds the Dog |language=en-US |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1989/06/25/books/she-minds-the-child-he-minds-the-dog.html |access-date=2022-10-26 |issn=0362-4331}}</ref> This "second shift" refers to the unpaid work women take on in the private sphere—housework, cooking, cleaning, and caring for the family unit.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Greenstein |first=Theodore N. |date=1996 |title=Husbands' Participation in Domestic Labor: Interactive Effects of Wives' and Husbands' Gender Ideologies |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/353719 |journal=Journal of Marriage and Family |volume=58 |issue=3 |pages=585–595 |doi=10.2307/353719 |jstor=353719 |issn=0022-2445}}</ref> Economically, this restricts a women's ability to advance in her career due to her added (unpaid) responsibilities at home.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Heilman |first=Madeline E. |date=January 2001 |title=Description and Prescription: How Gender Stereotypes Prevent Women's Ascent Up the Organizational Ladder |url=http://doi.wiley.com/10.1111/0022-4537.00234 |journal=Journal of Social Issues |language=en |publication-date=17 December 2002 |volume=57 |issue=4 |pages=657–674 |doi=10.1111/0022-4537.00234 |s2cid=144504496 |issn=0022-4537 |via=Society for the Psychological Study of Social Issues}}</ref> The [[OECD]] found "Around the world, women spend two to ten times more time on unpaid care work than men."<ref>Ferrant, Gaelle; Pesando, Luca Maria: Nowacka, Keiko (December 2014). [https://www.oecd.org/dev/development-gender/Unpaid_care_work.pdf "Unpaid Care work: The missing link in the analysis of gender gaps in labour outcomes"]</ref> In 2020 alone, women provided over $689 billion in unpaid labor to the U.S. economy.<ref>{{Cite web |date=May 2021 |title=Women Carried the Burden of Unpaid Caregiving in 2020 |url=https://www.nationalpartnership.org/our-work/resources/economic-justice/women-carried-the-burden-of-unpaid-caregiving-in-2020.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210514190029/https://www.nationalpartnership.org/our-work/resources/economic-justice/women-carried-the-burden-of-unpaid-caregiving-in-2020.pdf |archive-date=2021-05-14 |url-status=live |website=National Partnership for Women & Families}}</ref> Lee and Fang found, "Compared with Whites, Blacks, Hispanics, and Asian Americans took more extensive caregiving responsibilities."<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Lee |first1=Yeonjung |last2=Tang |first2=Fengyan |date=June 2015 |title=More Caregiving, Less Working: Caregiving Roles and Gender Difference |url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0733464813508649 |journal=Journal of Applied Gerontology |language=en |volume=34 |issue=4 |pages=465–483 |doi=10.1177/0733464813508649 |pmid=24652908 |s2cid=20984380 |issn=0733-4648}}</ref>

Across all demographics, women are more likely to live in poverty compared to men.<ref name=":3">{{Cite web |title=The Basic Facts About Women in Poverty |url=https://www.americanprogress.org/article/basic-facts-women-poverty/ |access-date=2022-10-26 |website=Center for American Progress |date=3 August 2020 |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":8">{{Cite journal |last1=Shaw |first1=Elyse |last2=Mariano |first2=Halie |date=May 2021 |title=Narrow the Gender Pay Gap, Reduce Poverty for Families: The Economic Impact of Equal Pay by State |url=https://iwpr.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/05/Economic-Impact-of-Equal-Pay-by-State_FINAL.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210511174506/https://iwpr.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/05/Economic-Impact-of-Equal-Pay-by-State_FINAL.pdf |archive-date=2021-05-11 |url-status=live |journal=}}</ref> This is largely due to the gender wage gap between men and women—the Institute for Women's Policy Research found, "Equal pay for working women would increase their annual average earnings from $41,402 to $48,326, adding $541 billion in wage and salary income to the U.S. economy."<ref name=":8" />  The gender wage gap is largely racial—in the U.S., American Indian and Alaska Native (AIAN) women, Black women, and Latina women disproportionally experience poverty and larger wage gaps compared with White and Asian women.<ref name=":3" /> Women are also more likely to live in poverty if they are single mothers and solely responsible for providing for their children. Poverty among single working mothers would fall 40% or more if women earned equal wages to men.<ref name=":3" />

===Implicit gender stereotypes===
{{See also|Implicit stereotype}}
[[File:Bettie Page driving.jpg|thumb|300px|A magazine feature from ''Beauty Parade'' from March 1952 stereotyping women drivers. It features [[Bettie Page]] as the model.]]
Gender stereotypes and roles can also be supported implicitly. [[Implicit stereotypes]] are the unconscious influence of attitudes a person may or may not even be aware that he or she holds. Gender stereotypes can also be held in this manner.

These implicit stereotypes can often be demonstrated by the [[Implicit-association test]] (IAT).

One example of an implicit gender stereotype is that males are seen as better at mathematics than females. It has been found that men have stronger positive associations with mathematics than women, while women have stronger negative associations with mathematics and the more strongly a woman associates herself with the female gender identity, the more negative her association with mathematics.<ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Nosek | first1 = Brian A. | last2 = Banaji | first2 = Mahzarin R. | last3 = Greenwald | first3 = Anthony G. | title = Math = male, me = female, therefore math ≠ me | journal = [[Journal of Personality and Social Psychology]] | volume = 83 | issue = 1 | pages = 44–59 | doi = 10.1037/0022-3514.83.1.44 | date = July 2002 | citeseerx = 10.1.1.463.6120 | pmid = 12088131 | s2cid = 204321795 }}</ref>

These associations have been disputed for their biological connection to gender and have been attributed to social forces that perpetuate stereotypes such as aforementioned stereotype that men are better at mathematics than women.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kYw7ZZzCqNYC&pg=PR5|title=Myths Of Gender: Biological Theories About Women And Men, Revised Edition|first=Anne|last=Fausto-Sterling|date=4 August 2008|publisher=Basic Books|access-date=22 October 2017|via=Google Books|isbn=978-0-7867-2390-4}}</ref>

This particular stereotype has been found in American children as early as second grade.<ref name="Cvencek" />

The same test found that the strength of a Singaporean child's mathematics-gender stereotype and gender identity predicted the child's association between individuals and mathematical ability.<ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Cvencek | first1 = Dario | last2 = Meltzoff | first2 = Andrew N. | last3 = Kapur | first3 = Manu | title = Cognitive consistency and math–gender stereotypes in Singaporean children | journal = Journal of Experimental Child Psychology | volume = 117 | pages = 73–91 | doi = 10.1016/j.jecp.2013.07.018 | pmid = 24141205 | date = January 2014 }}</ref>

It has been shown that this stereotype also reflects mathematical performance: a study was done on the worldwide scale and it was found that the strength of this mathematics-gender stereotype in varying countries correlates with 8th graders' scores on the [[TIMSS]], a standardized math and science achievement test that is given worldwide. The results were controlled for general gender inequality and yet were still significant.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Nosek | first1 = B. A. | last2 = Smyth | first2 = F. L. | last3 = Sriram | first3 = N. | last4 = Lindner | first4 = N. M. | last5 = Devos | first5 = T. | last6 = Ayala | first6 = A. | last7 = BarAnan | first7 = Y. | last8 = Bergh | first8 = R. | last9 = Cai | first9 = H. | last10 = Gonsalkorale | first10 = K. | last11 = Kesebir | first11 = S. | last12 = Maliszewski | first12 = N. | last13 = Neto | first13 = F. | last14 = Olli | first14 = E. | last15 = Park | first15 = J. | last16 = Schnabel | first16 = K. | last17 = Shiomura | first17 = K. | last18 = Tulbure | first18 = B. | last19 = Wiers | first19 = R. W. | last20 = Somogyi | first20 = M. | last21 = Akrami | first21 = N. | last22 = Ekehammar | first22 = B. | last23 = Vianello | first23 = M. | last24 = Banaji | first24 = M. R. | last25 = Greenwald | first25 = A. G. | title = National differences in gender–science stereotypes predict national sex differences in science and math achievement | journal = [[Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences]] | volume = 106 | issue = 26 | pages = 10593–10597 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.0809921106 | pmid = 19549876 | pmc = 2705538 | date = 30 June 2009 | bibcode = 2009PNAS..10610593N | doi-access = free }}</ref>

==Media==
In today's society, media saturates nearly every aspect of one's life. It seems inevitable for society to be influenced by the media and what it is portraying.<ref name=":1" /> Roles are gendered, meaning that both males and females are viewed and treated differently according to biological sex, and because gendered roles are learned, the media has a direct impact on individuals. Thinking about the way in which couples act on romantic television shows or movies and the way women are portrayed as passive in magazine ads, reveals a lot about how gender roles are viewed in society and in heterosexual marriages.<ref name=":1"/> Traditional gendered roles view the man as a "pro-creator, a protector, and a provider," and the woman as "pretty and polite but not too aggressive, not too outspoken and not too smart."<ref name=":2">{{Cite book|title=Marriage and Families: Changes, Choices, and Constrains|last=Benokraits|first=Nijole|publisher=Prentice Hall|year=2002|isbn=978-0-13-034177-8|location=New Jersey|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/marriagesfamilie0004beno}}</ref> Media aids in society conforming to these traditional gendered views. People learn through imitation and social-interaction both in the physical world and through the media; television, magazines, advertisements, newspapers, the Internet, etc.<ref name=":2" /> [[Michael Messner]] argues that "gendered interactions, structure, and cultural meanings are intertwined, in both mutually reinforcing and contradictory ways."<ref>{{cite journal | last = Messner | first = Michael A. | author-link = Michael Messner | title = Barbie girls vs. sea monsters: children constructing gender | journal = [[Gender & Society]] | volume = 14 | issue = 6 | pages = 765–784 | doi = 10.1177/089124300014006004 | date = December 2000 | s2cid = 52253024 |url=http://www.michaelmessner.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/05/barbiegirls.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.michaelmessner.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/05/barbiegirls.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live}}</ref>

Television's influence on society, specifically the influence of television advertisements, is shown in studies such as that of Jörg Matthes, Michael Prieler, and Karoline Adam. Their study into television advertising has shown that women are much more likely to be shown in a setting in the home compared to men. The study also shows that women are shown much less in work-like settings. This underrepresentation in television advertising is seen in many countries around the world, but is very present in developed countries.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Matthes|first1=Jörg|last2=Prieler|first2=Michael|last3=Adam|first3=Karoline|date=October 2016|title=Gender-Role Portrayals in Television Advertising Across the Globe.|journal=Sex Roles|volume=75|issue=7–8|pages=314–327|doi=10.1007/s11199-016-0617-y|pmid=27688526|pmc=5023740}}</ref> In another study in the ''[[Journal of Social Psychology]],'' many television advertisements in countries around the world are seen targeting women at different times of the day than men. Advertisements for products directed towards female viewers are shown during the day on weekdays, while products for men are shown during weekends. The same article shows that a study on adults and television media has also seen that the more television adults watch, the more likely they are to believe or support the gender roles that are illustrated. The support of the presented gender stereotypes can lead to a negative view of feminism or sexual aggression.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Rubie-Davies|first1=Christine M.|last2=Liu|first2=Sabrina|last3=Lee|first3=Kai-Chi Katie|date=March 2013|title=Watching Each Other: Portrayals of Gender and Ethnicity in Television Advertisements|journal=Journal of Social Psychology|volume=153|issue=2|pages=179–180|doi=10.1080/00224545.2012.717974|pmid=23484346|s2cid=40904909}}</ref>

It has been presented in a journal article by [[Emerald Group Publishing Limited]] that adolescent girls have been affected by the stereotypical view of [[Media and gender|women in media]]. Girls feel pressured and stressed to achieve a particular appearance, and there have been negative consequences for the young girls if they fail to achieve this look. These consequences have ranged from anxiety to [[eating disorders]]. In an experiment described in this journal article, young girls described pictures of women in advertisements as unrealistic and fake; the women were dressed in revealing clothing which sexualised them and exposed their thin figures, which were gazed upon by the public, creating an issue with stereotyping in the media.

It has also been presented that children are affected by gender roles in the media. Children's preferences in television characters are most likely to be to characters of the same gender. Because children favor characters of the same gender, the characteristics of the character are also looked to by children.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Aubrey |first1=Jennifer Stevens |last2=Harrison |first2=Kristen |title=The Gender-Role Content of Children's Favorite Television Programs and Its Links to Their Gender-Related Perceptions. |journal=Media Psychology |date=May 2004 |volume=6 |issue=2 |pages=141–142 |doi=10.1207/s1532785xmep0602_1|s2cid=144754474 }}</ref> Another journal article by Emerald Group Publishing Limited examined the underrepresentation of women in children's television shows between 1930 and 1960. While studies between 1960 and 1990 showed an increase in the representation of women in television, studies conducted between 1990 and 2005, a time when women were considered to be equal to men by some, show no change in the representation of women in children's television shows. Women, being underrepresented in children's television shows, are also often portrayed as married or in a relationship, while men are more likely to be single. This reoccurring theme in relationship status can be reflected in the ideals of children that only see this type of representation.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Steyer|first1=Isabella|date=2014|title=Gender representations in children's media and their influence|journal=Campus-Wide Information Systems|volume=31|issue=2/3|pages=171–180|doi=10.1108/CWIS-11-2013-0065}}</ref>

=== Gender Roles in Social Media ===
{{More citations needed section|date=March 2024}}
{{essay-like|section|date=March 2024}}
[[Social media]] has become an integral part of daily life for nearly everyone, serving as a dominant source of information and communication. Women's presentation on social media is directly influenced, with platforms utilizing metrics like numbers and publicity to endorse certain ideals in posts. Perceptions propagated through social media significantly shape real-life thinking and opinions regarding gender.  According to professor Brook Duffy at [[Cornell University]],<ref>{{Cite web |last=EAVI |date=2021-09-22 |title=Social Media and Gender: A Tricky Combination |url=https://eavi.eu/social-media-and-gender-a-tricky-combination/ |access-date=2024-03-05 |website=EAVI |language=en-US}}</ref> social media operates as a [[meritocracy]], yet women's voices are often underrepresented and carry less weight in the public sphere. 

The creation of an [[online identity]] on social media can also lead to the perpetuation of false narratives about gender, setting unrealistic standards for both women and men. [[Body image]] plays a significant role in this, particularly affecting the mental health of young women and men who internalize beauty standards portrayed online, leading to dissatisfaction and harassment.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Santoniccolo |first1=Fabrizio |last2=Trombetta |first2=Tommaso |last3=Paradiso |first3=Maria Noemi |last4=Rollè |first4=Luca |date=2023-05-09 |title=Gender and Media Representations: A Review of the Literature on Gender Stereotypes, Objectification and Sexualization |journal=International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health |volume=20 |issue=10 |pages=5770 |doi=10.3390/ijerph20105770 |doi-access=free |issn=1661-7827 |pmid=37239498|pmc=10218532 }}</ref> A survey conducted by the [[Pew Research Center]] found that women are more likely to have multiple social media accounts, making them more likely to internalize their body image and be influenced by the cultural [[Stereotype|stereotypes]] of female beauty. The emphasis on body image on social media platforms fosters daily comparisons and exposes individuals to sexualized media, increasing self-image insecurity. Furthermore, social media has also contributed to the spread of [[Sexism|sexist]] beliefs and [[Sexualization|sexualized]] images of men.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Daniels |first=Elizabeth A. |date=June 2020 |title=Does Objectification on Social Media Cost Young Men? |url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/2167696818804051 |journal=Emerging Adulthood |language=en |volume=8 |issue=3 |pages=226–236 |doi=10.1177/2167696818804051 |s2cid=149814259 |issn=2167-6968}}</ref> However, [[Hashtag|hashtags]] like #loveyourself and #allbodiesarebeautiful have sparked movements to challenge these standards. 

Despite these challenges, social media has also created new opportunities for women in the workplace, particularly as [[Internet celebrity|influencers]]. However, gender disparities persist, with male influencers generally outperforming their female counterparts. Additionally, media contents across various platforms perpetuate gender stereotypes, with women often portrayed in [[Cosmetics|cosmetic]] and [[fashion]] [[Advertising|advertisements]], while men are associated with gaming and knowledge. On an economic aspect, social media is driven by gendered advertisements and commercials, often reinforcing stereotypical representations of gender. [[Algorithm|Algorithms]] on social media platforms can further exacerbate discriminatory recommendations, reflecting the biases of programmers. Overall, social media's influence on gender norms is profound, shaping perceptions, behaviors, and opportunities in both virtual and real-life settings.

=== Gender Inequality in Television ===
{{More citations needed section|date=March 2024}}
{{Citation style|1=section|reason=See [[WP:CITE]]|date=March 2024}}
Women’s roles in [[television]] tend to be focused on their relationships with men rather than their own personal goals. Many examples of this are prevalent in teen drama shows (E.g. ''[[The Vampire Diaries]]'', ''[[Gilmore Girls]]'', [[One Tree Hill (TV series)|''One Tree Hill'']]). These shows tend to revolve around an everlasting [[love triangle]] that throughout the run of the show destroys relationships that the female character has with others. It also paints the image that women in [[television]] are only seen as [[Sexual objectification|sex objects]] which shines a negative light on women in real life

Many female characters' personalities seem to revolve around their love life rather than any true, redeeming qualities they may have (ncbi.gov, Sex Roles). Their appearance also is seen as their “best trait” in many cases. When [[Casting (performing arts)|casting]], casting directors tend to look for certain traits when casting female leads for shows. This includes being thin, pretty, tall, etc. These qualities are looked at more compared to others because these are the believed qualities that will attract viewers to continue watching the show (Susan D. Witt, lewisu.edu). These qualities are compared to those of men that include being strong, smart, ambitious, etc. Remarks made towards them throughout the show, and while at award shows/premieres, emphasizes that this is something that people want in order to make their show more appealing. 

Dr. [[Martha Lauzen]], an executive director at [[San Diego State University]], wrote a report that found that when women are producing or directing shows more women get hired (Corinne Segal, PBS). The number of women working in the television industry is already low, women [[Television director|television directors]] making up only 12%, which means the amount of women being hired is also much lower. Additional research found that [[List of streaming media services|streaming services]] have a higher percentage of women actors compared to [[Broadcast television systems|broadcast television]] (Elizabeth Blair, NPR). Women's speaking roles on streaming services make up 47% while on broadcast television it makes up 45%. This is the same with main character roles for women which make up 50% on streaming services and only 48% on broadcast television.

With appearances being a very prevalent part of television, actresses' appearances changing is showcased to the world no matter how big or small. Women tend to be bashed online when something has changed in their appearance. Many women who begin acting as children, and continue acting into adulthood, get bullied by [[Magazine|magazines]] or [[Tabloid journalism|tabloids]] over natural appearance changes that they can’t help. An example of this is [[Sasha Pieterse]] from ''[[Pretty Little Liars]]''. She was heavily criticized online for gaining weight throughout the course of the show. She spoke about how these comments negatively affected her but she continued to get hate. [[Ageism]] is something else that many women experience as they are in the spotlight over time. [[Brooke Shields]] is quoted saying, “It's like you go from sexy to Depends,” (All Things Considered, NPR).

=== Gender Roles in Film ===
{{More citations needed section|date=March 2024}}
{{essay-like|section|date=March 2024}}
Studies have shown that the portrayal of women in films differs from that of men in film. Theorists, such as [[Laura Mulvey]], Judith Mayne, [[Noël Carroll]], and others all discuss how the roles of women within films tend to fit a certain [[Misogyny|misogynistic]] and stereotypical purpose, which tends to be to fit the [[male gaze]], over-sexualize women, or further the classical gender roles placed on women. These ideas can be seen within some of the most well-known films, such as the [[The Twilight Saga (film series)|Twilight Saga]], the [[Transformers (film series)|Transformers series]], [[The Wolf of Wall Street (2013 film)|Wolf of Wall Street]], and many of the original [[Disney Princess|Disney Princess Films]].

Within Keisha Hoerrner’s article about gender roles in Disney films, Hoerrner explores the ways in which women characters all throughout the Disney film franchise are portrayed, and how these misogynistic stereotypes could be affecting the perspectives of the young minds who are consuming these films.<ref name=":10">{{Cite journal |last=Hoerrner |first=Keisha |date=26 Feb 2015 |title=Gender Roles in Disney Films: Analyzing Behaviors from Snow White to Simba |journal=Women's Studies in Communication |volume=19 |issue=2 |pages=213–228 |doi=10.1080/07491409.1996.11089813 |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/epdf/10.1080/07491409.1996.11089813?needAccess=true }}</ref> Hoerrner compares the differences between how heroes and heroines are displayed throughout several Disney films, describing how the heroines tend to be more dependent on male assistance or validation to be successful in their goals, while male heroes are shown in a more self-sufficient and brave light.<ref name=":10" />

San Diego State University conducted a study and found that the percentage of women speaking roles within films declined from 37% in 2022 to 35% in 2023, and the number of female characters in major roles remained at 38%.<ref name=":9">{{Cite web |title=Research – Center for the Study of Women in Television & Film |url=https://womenintvfilm.sdsu.edu/research/ |access-date=2024-03-06 |language=en-US}}</ref> SDSU also found that the percentage of films with female protagonists contracted from 33% in 2022 to 28% in 2023.<ref name=":9" />

Many theorists have used the [[Bechdel test|Bechdel Test]] as a scale of how “feminist” a film is. It has been found that some of the most famous and popular films that are consumed by the general public do not pass the Bechdel Test, and most feminist theorists argue the consumption of films that do not pass the test negatively contributes to the continuation of unfair gender roles. Some films that have been reported not to pass the Bechdel test are [[The Avengers (2012 film)|The Avengers]], [[The Lord of the Rings (film series)|The Lord of the Rings]], [[The Girl with the Dragon Tattoo (2011 film)|The Girl with the Dragon Tattoo]], [[The Lion King]], [[Star Wars original trilogy]], [[Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire (film)|Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire]], [[Casablanca (film)|Casablanca]], and [[Finding Nemo]].<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Heffernan |first1=Ryan |last2=Lyons |first2=Jessica |date=2023-03-19 |title=15 Modern Movies That Surprisingly Fail the Bechdel Test |url=https://collider.com/modern-movies-bechdel-test-fail/ |access-date=2024-03-06 |website=Collider |language=en}}</ref>

==Gender inequality online==
An example of gender stereotypes assumes those of the male gender are more 'tech savvy' and happier working online, however, a study done by Hargittai & Shafer,<ref>{{Cite journal|title = Differences in Actual and Perceived Online Skills: The Role of Gender*|journal = Social Science Quarterly |date=1 June 2006 |issn = 1540-6237|pages = 432–448|volume = 87|issue = 2|doi = 10.1111/j.1540-6237.2006.00389.x|first1 = Eszter|last1 = Hargittai|first2 = Steven|last2 = Shafer}}</ref> shows that many women also typically have lower self-perceived abilities when it comes to use of the World Wide Web and online navigation skills. Because this stereotype is so well known many women assume they lack such technical skills when in reality, the gap in technological skill level between men and women is significantly less than many women assume.

In the journal article written by Elizabeth Behm-Morawitz video games have been guilty of using sexualised female characters, who wear revealing clothing with an 'ideal' figure. It has been shown, female gamers can experience lower [[self-efficacy]] when playing a game with a sexualized female character. Women have been stereotyped in online games and have shown to be quite sexist in their appearances. It has been shown these kind of character appearances have influenced peoples' beliefs about gender capabilities by assigning certain qualities to the male and female characters in different games.<ref>{{cite journal|title=The Effects of the Sexualization of Female Video Game Characters on Gender Stereotyping and Female Self-Concept|first1=Elizabeth|last1=Behm-Morawitz|first2=Dana|last2=Mastro|date=1 December 2009|journal=Sex Roles|volume=61|issue=11–12|pages=808–823|doi=10.1007/s11199-009-9683-8|s2cid=146385940}}</ref>

The concept of gender inequality is often perceived as something that is non-existent within the online community, because of the anonymity possible online. Remote or home-working greatly reduces the volume of information one individual gives another compared to face-to-face encounters,<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Postmes|first1=Tom|last2=Spears|first2=Russell|title=Behavior Online: Does Anonymous Computer Communication Reduce Gender Inequality?|journal=Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin|date=2002|volume=28|issue=8|pages=1073–1083|doi=10.1177/01461672022811006|s2cid=145697214}}</ref> providing fewer opportunities for unequal treatment but it seems real-world notions of power and privilege are being duplicated: people who choose to take up different identities (avatars) in the online world are (still) routinely discriminated against, evident in [[Online game|online gaming]] where users are able to create their own characters. This freedom allows the user to create characters and identities with a different appearance than their own in reality, essentially allowing them to create a new identity, confirming that regardless of actual gender those who are perceived as female are treated differently.

In marked contrast to the traditional male-dominated stereotype a study shows that 52% of the gaming audience is made up of women and a minority of gaming characters are women.{{non sequitur|date=December 2018}} Only 12% of game designers in Britain and 3% of all programmers are women.<ref name="Jayanth1">{{Cite news|title = 52% of gamers are women – but the industry doesn't know it {{!}} Meg Jayanth|url = https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2014/sep/18/52-percent-people-playing-games-women-industry-doesnt-know|newspaper = The Guardian|access-date =10 December 2015|date = 18 September 2014|last1 = Jayanth|first1 = Meg}}</ref>

Despite the growing number of women who partake in online communities, and the anonymous space provided by the Internet, issues such as gender inequality, the issue has simply been transplanted into the online world.

== Politics and gender issues ==

===Political ideologies===
Modern [[Social conservatism|social conservatives]] tend to support traditional gender roles. [[Right-wing politics|Right wing]] political parties often oppose [[Antifeminism|women's rights]] and [[LGBT rights opposition|transgender rights]].<ref>{{cite journal|first1=Lynn|last1=Cooper|title=The Attack on Women's Rights |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/29766113|journal=Crime and Social Justice|date=1981|issn=0094-7571|pages=39–41|issue=15|jstor=29766113 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|first1=Paisley|last1=Currah|first2=Richard M.|last2=Juang|first3=Shannon|last3=Minter|title=Transgender Rights|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FUwOKayHVwcC|publisher=U of Minnesota Press|date=2006|isbn=978-0-8166-4312-7|via=Google Books}}</ref> These [[Familialism|familialist]] views are often shaped by the religious [[fundamentalism]], traditional [[family values]], and [[Traditional society|cultural values]] of their voter base.<ref>{{cite book |author-first=Robert B. |author-last=Smith |title=Social Conservatism, Distractors, and Authoritarianism: Axiological versus instrumental rationality |editor=Harry F. Dahms |work=Mediations of Social Life in the 21st Century|date=2014|publisher=Emerald Group Publishing|isbn=978-1-78441-222-7|page=101|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=C5V1BQAAQBAJ&pg=PA101|language=en}}</ref>{{better source needed|reason=source is about a single 2008 survey of just the United States|date=July 2022}}

Modern [[Cultural liberalism|social liberals]] tend to oppose traditional gender roles, especially for women. [[Left-wing politics|Left wing]] political parties tend to support [[women's rights]] and [[transgender rights]]. In contrast to social conservatives, their views are more influenced by [[secularism]], [[feminism]], and [[progressivism]].<ref name="wars">{{Cite web|url=https://www.encyclopedia.com/religion/legal-and-political-magazines/culture-wars|title=Culture Wars|website=[[Encyclopedia.com]]}}</ref>

=== In political office ===
Even though the number of women running for [[elected office]] in the United States has increased over the last decades, they still only make up 20% of U.S. senators, 19.4% of U.S. congressional representatives and 24% of statewide executives.<ref>{{cite web |title=Current Numbers |quote=This page contains current numbers of women officeholders serving in 2017 with links on the right to basic fact sheets for each level of office. |url=http://www.cawp.rutgers.edu/current-numbers|website=www.cawp.rutgers.edu/current-numbers|publisher=Center for American Women and Politics|access-date=6 February 2017|date=12 June 2015 }}</ref> Additionally, many of these political campaigns appear to focus on the aggressiveness of the female candidate which is often still perceived as a masculine trait.<ref>{{cite journal|author-link1=Leonie Huddy|last1=Huddy|first1=Leonie|last2=Terkildsen|first2=Nayda|title=Gender Stereotypes and the Perception of Male and Female Candidates|journal=American Journal of Political Science|date=February 1993|volume=37|issue=1|pages=119–147|doi=10.2307/2111526|jstor=2111526}}</ref> Therefore, female candidates are running based on gender-opposing stereotypes because that predicts higher likelihood of success than appearing to be a stereotypical woman.{{citation needed|date=March 2023}}

Elections of increasing numbers of women into office serves as a basis for many scholars to claim that voters are not biased towards a candidate's gender. However, it has been shown that female politicians are perceived as only being superior when it comes to handling [[women's rights]] and [[poverty]], whereas male politicians are perceived to be better at dealing with [[crime]] and [[foreign affairs]].<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Sanbonmatsu|first1=Kira|title=Stereotypes and Vote Choice|journal=American Journal of Political Science|date=January 2002|volume=46|issue=1|pages=20–34|doi=10.2307/3088412|jstor=3088412}}</ref> That view lines up with the most common gender stereotypes.

It has also been predicted that gender highly matters only for female candidates that have not been politically established. These predictions apply further to established candidates, stating that gender would not be a defining factor for their campaigns or the focal point of media coverage. This has been refuted by multiple scholars, often based on [[Hillary Clinton]]'s multiple campaigns for the office of [[President of the United States]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Carroll|first=Susan J.|author-link=Susan J. Carroll|year=2009|title=Reflections on Gender and Hillary Clinton's Presidential Campaign: The Good, the Bad, and the Misogynistic|journal=Politics & Gender|volume=5|pages=1–20|doi=10.1017/s1743923x09000014|s2cid=143560740|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Carlin|first1=Diana B.|last2=Winfrey|first2=Kelly L.|title=Have You Come A Long Way, Baby? Hillary Clinton, Sarah Palin, and Sexism in 2008 Campaign Coverage|journal=Communication Studies|date=2009|volume=60|issue=4|pages=326–343|doi=10.1080/10510970903109904|s2cid=145107322}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=McGinley|first1=Ann C.|title=Hillary Clinton, Sarah Palin, and Michelle Obama: Performing Gender, Race, and Class on the Campaign Trail|journal=Denver University Law Review|date=2009|volume=86}}</ref>

Additionally, when voters have little information about a female candidate, they are likely to view her as being a stereotypical woman which they often take as a basis for not electing her because they consider typical male qualities as being crucial for someone holding a political office.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Huddy|first1=Leonie|last2=Terkildsen|first2=Nadya|title=The Consequences of Gender Stereotypes for Women Candidates at Different Levels and Types of Office|journal=Political Research Quarterly|date=1993|volume=46|issue=3|pages=503–525|doi=10.1177/106591299304600304|s2cid=144560550}}</ref>

===Feminism and women's rights===
{{Main|Feminism}}
{{see also|Women's rights}}
[[File:US Navy 080123-N-3385W-028 Cmdr. Adrienne Simmons, medical provider for Provincial Reconstruction Team Khost and only woman on the team, speaks at the groundbreaking ceremony for a women's mosque and park in downtown Khost City.jpg|thumb|Cmdr. Adrienne Simmons speaking at the 2008 ceremony for the only women's mosque in Khost City, a symbol of progress for growing women's rights in the Pashtun belt]]

Throughout the 20th century, women in the United States saw a dramatic shift in social and professional aspirations and norms. Following the [[Women's suffrage in the United States|Women's Suffrage Movement]] of the late-nineteenth century, which resulted in the passage of the [[Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution|Nineteenth Amendment]] allowing women to vote, and in combination with conflicts in Europe, [[World War I|WWI]] and [[World War II|WWII]], women found themselves shifted into the industrial workforce. During this time, women were expected to take up industrial jobs and support the troops abroad through the means of domestic industry. Moving from "homemakers" and "caregivers", women were now factory workers and "breadwinners" for the family.

However, after the war, men returned home to the United States and women, again, saw a shift in social and professional dynamics. With the reuniting of the nuclear family, the ideals of American [[Suburb]]ia boomed. Throughout the 1950s and 1960s, [[middle-class]] families moved in droves from urban living into newly developed single-family homes on former farmland just outside major cities. Thus established what many modern critics describe as the "private sphere".<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Rotman | first1 = Deborah L. | year = 2006 | title = Separate Spheres? Beyond the Dichotomies of Domesticity | journal = Current Anthropology | volume = 47 | issue =4 | pages=666–674 |doi=10.1086/506286| s2cid = 145576707 }}</ref> Though frequently sold and idealized as "perfect living",<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Dodson | first1 = Dan W. | year = 1958 | title = Suburbanism and Education | journal = Journal of Educational Sociology | volume = 32 | issue = 1| pages =2–7|doi=10.2307/2264228| jstor = 2264228 }}</ref> many women had difficulty adjusting to the new "private sphere". Writer [[Betty Friedan]] described this discontent as "[[The Feminine Mystique|the feminine mystique]]". The "mystique" was derived from women equipped with the knowledge, skills, and aspirations of the workforce, the "public sphere", who felt compelled whether socially or morally to devote themselves to the home and family.<ref>Friedan, Betty. "The Feminine Mystique". New York:W.W. Norton, 1963.</ref>

One major concern of feminism, is that women occupy lower-ranking job positions than men, and do most of the housework.<ref name="Gender differences in perceptions of household labor">{{cite journal|author1=Kiger, Kiger|author2=Riley, Pamela J.|date=1 July 1996|title=Gender differences in perceptions of household labor|url=http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1G1-18658547.html|journal=The Journal of Psychology|volume=130|issue=4|pages=357–70|doi=10.1080/00223980.1996.9915024|pmid=8756271 |url-access=subscription |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100118012046/http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1G1-18658547.html |archive-date= Jan 18, 2010 }}</ref> A recent (October 2009) report from the Center for American Progress, "The Shriver Report: A Woman's Nation Changes Everything" tells us that women now make up 48% of the US workforce and "mothers are breadwinners or co-breadwinners in a majority of families" (63.3%, see figure 2, page 19 of the Executive Summary of The Shriver Report).<ref name="The Shriver Report">{{cite web|title=The Shriver Report: A Woman's Nation Changes Everything|url=http://www.americanprogress.org/issues/2009/10/womans_nation.html/#executive_summary|author=Maria Shriver |date=19 October 2009|publisher=Center for American Progress|url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091020003755/http://www.americanprogress.org/issues/2009/10/womans_nation.html/|archive-date=20 October 2009|access-date=23 October 2009}}</ref>

[[File:Louise Weiss.jpg|thumb|right|[[Louise Weiss]] along with other Parisian [[suffragette]]s in 1935. The newspaper headline reads "The Frenchwoman Must Vote".]]
Another recent article in ''[[The New York Times]]'' indicates that young women today are closing the pay gap. [[Luisita Lopez Torregrosa]] has noted, "Women are ahead of men in education (last year, 55 percent of U.S. college graduates were female). And a study shows that in most U.S. cities, single, childless women under 30 are making an average of 8 percent more money than their male counterparts, with Atlanta and Miami in the lead at 20 percent."<ref>{{cite news|last=Torregrosa|first=Luisita|title=They Call It the Reverse Gender Gap|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2011/12/14/us/14iht-letter14.html |url-access=subscription |newspaper=New York Times|access-date=30 November 2012|date=13 December 2011}}</ref>

Feminist theory generally defines gender as a social construct that includes ideologies governing feminine/masculine (female/male) appearances, actions, and behaviors.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Case|first=Mary Anne C.|date=October 1995|title=Disaggregating Gender from Sex and Sexual Orientation: The Effeminate Man in the Law and Feminist Jurisprudence|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/797140|journal=The Yale Law Journal|volume=105|issue=1|pages=1–105|doi=10.2307/797140|jstor=797140}}</ref> An example of these gender roles would be that males were supposed to be the educated breadwinners of the family, and occupiers of the public sphere whereas, the female's duty was to be a homemaker, take care of her husband and children, and occupy the private sphere. According to contemporary gender role ideology, gender roles are continuously changing. This can be seen in [[Londa Schiebinger]]'s ''Has Feminism Changed Science'', in which she states, "Gendered characteristics - typically masculine or feminine behaviors, interests, or values-are not innate, nor are they arbitrary. They are formed by historical circumstances. They can also change with historical circumstances."<ref>''Has Feminism Changed Science?'', Cambridge: Harvard University Press 2001, {{ISBN|978-0-674-00544-0}}</ref>

One example of the contemporary definition of gender was depicted in [[Sally Shuttleworth]]'s ''Female Circulation'' in which the, "abasement of the woman, reducing her from an active participant in the labor market to the passive bodily existence to be controlled by male expertise is indicative of the ways in which the ideological deployment of gender roles operated to facilitate and sustain the changing structure of familial and market relations in Victorian England."<ref>Shuttleworth, Sally. "Female Circulation: Medical Discourse and Popular Advertising in the Mid-Victorian Era." Body/Politics: Women and the Discourses of Science. Eds. Mary Jacobus, Evelyn Fox Keller and Sally Shuttleworth. New York: Routledge, 1990. 47–70</ref> In other words, this shows what it meant to grow up into the roles (gender roles) of a female in Victorian England, which transitioned from being a homemaker to being a working woman and then back to being passive and inferior to males. In conclusion, gender roles in the contemporary sex gender model are socially constructed, always changing, and do not really exist since they are ideologies that society constructs in order for various benefits at various times in history.

===Men's rights===
{{Main|Men's rights movement}}
{{see also|Fathers' rights movement}}
[[File:Save Indian Families protest (New Delhi, 26 August 2007).jpg|thumb|250px|Protest in New Delhi for men's rights organized by the [[Save Indian Family Foundation]]]]

The men's rights movement (MRM) is a part of the larger [[men's movement]]. It branched off from the [[men's liberation movement]] in the early-1970s. The men's rights movement is made up of a variety of groups and individuals who are concerned about what they consider to be issues of male disadvantage, [[discrimination]] and oppression.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/fatherhoodpoliti00gava |url-access=registration |page=[https://archive.org/details/fatherhoodpoliti00gava/page/11 11] |last=Gavanas |first=Anna |title=Fatherhood Politics in the United States: Masculinity, Sexuality, Race, and Marriage |publisher=University of Illinois Press |location= Urbana |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-252-02884-7 |quote=All these cases of perceived discrimination make up the men's rights view that men are considered, by government and society, to be more expendable than women.}}</ref><ref name="BoydLongwood1996">{{cite book|title=Redeeming men: religion and masculinities|editor1-first=Stephen Blake |editor1-last=Boyd |editor2-first=W. Merle |editor2-last=Longwood |editor3-first=Mark William |editor3-last=Muesse|publisher=[[Westminster John Knox]] Press|year=1996|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VSrhNzWb6sIC&pg=PR17|isbn=978-0-664-25544-2|page=17|quote=In contradistinction to pro-feminism, however, the men's rights perspective addresses specific legal and cultural factors that put men at a disadvantage. The movement is made up of a variety of formal and informal groups that differ in their approaches and issues; Men's rights advocates, for example, target sex-specific military conscription and judicial practices that discriminate against men in child custody cases.}}</ref> The movement focuses on issues in numerous areas of society (including [[family law]], [[parenting]], [[reproduction]], [[domestic violence]]) and government services (including [[education]], [[Conscription|compulsory military service]], social safety nets, and health policies) that they believe discriminate against men.

Scholars consider the men's rights movement or parts of the movement to be a [[backlash (sociology)|backlash]] to [[feminism]].<ref name=backlash>See, for example:
* {{cite journal
 |last=Maddison 
 |first=Sarah 
 |year=1999 
 |title=Private Men, Public Anger: The Men's Rights Movement in Australia 
 |journal=Journal of Interdisciplinary Gender Studies 
 |volume=4 
 |issue=2 
 |pages=39–52 
 |url=http://newcastle.edu.au/Resources/Schools/Humanities%20and%20Social%20Science/JIGS/JIGSV4N2_039.pdf 
 |url-status=dead 
 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131020163216/https://newcastle.edu.au/Resources/Schools/Humanities%20and%20Social%20Science/JIGS/JIGSV4N2_039.pdf 
 |archive-date=20 October 2013
}}
* {{cite book |last1= Doyle |first1= Ciara |editor1-first= Peter |editor1-last= Herrman |title= Citizenship Revisited: Threats or Opportunities of Shifting Boundaries |year= 2004 |publisher= [[Nova Publishers]] |location= New York |isbn= 978-1-59033-900-8 |pages = [https://books.google.com/books?id=HdLVGgJQ0mUC&pg=PA61 61–62] |chapter= The Fathers' Rights Movement: Extending Patriarchal Control Beyond the Marital Family }}
* {{cite book |last1= Flood |first1= Michael |author-link1= Michael Flood |editor1-first= Michael S. |editor1-last= Kimmel |editor1-link= Michael Kimmel |editor2-last= Hearn |editor2-first= Jeff |editor3-last= Connell |editor3-first= Raewyn |title= Handbook of Studies on Men and Masculinities |year= 2005 |publisher= [[SAGE Publications]] |location= Thousand Oaks |isbn= 978-0-7619-2369-5 |page= 459 |chapter= Men's Collective Struggles for Gender Justice: The Case of Antiviolence Activism |chapter-url= https://books.google.com/books?id=UvAZD45BMDoC&pg=PA459}}
* {{cite web
 |url=http://www.salon.com/2011/03/29/scott_adams_mens_rights_movement/ 
 |title=Is the men's rights movement growing? 
 |last1=Finocchiaro 
 |first1=Peter 
 |date=29 March 2011 |work=[[Salon (website)|Salon]] 
 |access-date=10 March 2013 }}
* {{cite book |last = Messner |first = Michael |author-link= Michael Messner |year= 2000 |title= Politics of Masculinities: Men in Movements |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=nG8MGcopgWQC&pg=PA41 |location = Lanham |publisher = [[Rowman & Littlefield]] |page= 41 |isbn= 978-0-8039-5577-6}}
* {{cite book |last1= Solinger |first1= Rickie |title= Reproductive Politics: What Everyone Needs to Know |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=gfem7O38h6MC&pg=PP130 |year= 2013 |publisher= Oxford University Press |location= Oxford |isbn= 978-0-19-981141-0 |page= 130 }}
* {{cite book |last1= Menzies |first1= Robert |editor1-first= Susan B |editor1-last= Boyd |title= Reaction and Resistance: Feminism, Law, and Social Change |year= 2007 |publisher= University of British Columbia Press |location= Vancouver |isbn= 978-0-7748-1411-9 |chapter= Virtual Backlash: Representation of Men's "Rights" and Feminist "Wrongs" in Cyberspace |chapter-url= https://books.google.com/books?id=ASc568aunFoC&pg=PA65 |pages= 65–97}}
* {{cite book |last1= Dunphy |first1= Richard |title= Sexual Politics: An Introduction |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=NVPQkt0bVpAC&pg=PA88 |year= 2000 |publisher= Edinburgh University Press |location= Edinburgh |isbn= 978-0-7486-1247-5 |page= 88 }}
* {{Cite journal |last= Mills |first= Martin |title= Shaping the boys' agenda: the backlash blockbusters |year= 2003 |journal= International Journal of Inclusive Education |volume= 7 |issue= 1 |pages= 57–73 |doi= 10.1080/13603110210143644|s2cid= 144875158 }}</ref> The men's rights movement denies that men are privileged relative to women.<ref name="clatter">{{cite book|last=Clatterbaugh|first=Kenneth|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JfG8qCLMP9EC|title=Contemporary perspectives on masculinity: Men, women, and politics in modern society|date=1996|publisher=Westview Press|isbn=978-0-8133-2701-3|edition=Reissued 2nd.|location=Boulder, Colorado|page=11|quote=Indeed the premise of all men's rights literature is that men are ''not'' privileged relative to women... Having denied that men are privileged relative to women, this movement divides into those who believe that men and women are equally harmed by sexism and those who believe that society has become a bastion of female privilege and male degradation.|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150317231546/https://books.google.com/books?id=JfG8qCLMP9EC|archive-date=17 March 2015}}</ref> The movement is divided into two camps: those who consider men and women to be harmed equally by sexism, and those who view society as endorsing the degradation of men and upholding female privilege.<ref name=clatter/>

Men's rights groups have called for male-focused governmental structures to address issues specific to men and boys including education, health, work and marriage.<ref name=toi>{{cite news |url= http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/bangalore/What-about-tax-and-fathers-custody-rights/articleshow/5244920.cms |title=What about tax, and father's custody rights? |work=The Times of India|date=17 May 2011|access-date=22 December 2011}}</ref><ref name="Northbourne"/><ref name=wt>{{cite news |url= http://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2011/may/17/guys-got-it-made-think-again-say-advocates/ |title=Guys got it made? Think again, say advocates |first= Wetzstein|last= Cheryl |work=Washington Times |access-date=22 December 2011}}</ref> Men's rights groups in India have called for the creation of a Men's Welfare Ministry and a National Commission for Men, as well as the abolition of the National Commission for Women.<ref name=toi/><ref>{{cite news|url= http://uk.reuters.com/article/us-india-husbands-idUKTRE5AJ0TZ20091120 |title=Indian husbands want protection from nagging wives |work= Reuters |date=20 November 2009|access-date=22 December 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url= http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2009-08-09/man-woman/28177085_1_indian-law-law-minister-siff |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20121020060318/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2009-08-09/man-woman/28177085_1_indian-law-law-minister-siff |url-status= dead |archive-date= 20 October 2012 |title=Boys fight for freedom!|author=Manigandan KR |work=[[The Times of India]]|date=9 August 2009 |access-date=22 December 2011}}</ref> In the United Kingdom, the creation of a Minister for Men analogous to the existing [[Minister for Women (United Kingdom)|Minister for Women]], have been proposed by [[David Amess]], MP and [[Lord Northbourne]], but were rejected by the government of [[Tony Blair]].<ref name="Northbourne">{{cite news| url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/programmes/bbc_parliament/3522631.stm |work=BBC News | title=FHM: For Him Minister? | date=3 March 2004 |access-date=22 December 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/1343276/Yesterday-in-Parliament.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220111/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/1343276/Yesterday-in-Parliament.html |archive-date=11 January 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live | work=The Daily Telegraph |location=London | title=Yesterday in Parliament | first=Michael | last=Kallenbach | date=16 June 2000 |access-date=5 May 2010}}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref>[https://api.parliament.uk/historic-hansard/written-answers/2004/mar/08/minister-for-men#S6CV0418P2_20040308_CWA_745 ''Minister for Men.''] Hansard, UK Parliament. Retrieved 24 November 2011.</ref> In the United States, [[Warren Farrell]] heads a commission focused on the creation of a "White House Council on Boys and Men" as a counterpart to the "White House Council on Women and Girls" which was formed in March 2009.<ref name=wt/>

Related to this is the Father's Rights Movement, whose members seek social and political reforms that affect fathers and their children.<ref>Crowley, Jocelyn E. (2008). Defiant Dads: Fathers' Rights Activists in America. Cornell University Press. {{ISBN|978-0-8014-4690-0}}.</ref> These individuals contest that societal institutions such as family courts, and laws relating to child custody and child support payments, are gender biased in favor of mothers as the default caregiver. They therefore are systemically discriminatory against males regardless of their actual caregiving ability, because males are typically seen as the bread-winner, and females as the care-giver.<ref>Baskerville, S (2007). Taken into Custody: The War Against Fatherhood, Marriage, and the Family. Cumberland House Publishing. {{ISBN|1-58182-594-3}}.</ref>

===Gender neutrality===
{{Main|Gender neutrality}}
[[Gender neutrality]] is the movement to end discrimination of gender altogether in society through means of [[gender neutral language]], the end of [[sex segregation]] and other means.

=== Transgender and cross-dressing ===
{{Main|Transgender|Legal aspects of transsexualism}}
[[File:Camille Cabral pour les Trans.JPG|thumb|upright|[[Camille Cabral]], a transgender activist at a demonstration for transgender people in Paris, 1 October 2005]]

Transgender is the state of one's [[gender identity]] or gender expression not matching one's [[Sex assignment|assigned sex]].<ref name="glaad.org">Gay and Lesbian Alliance Against Defamation. [http://www.glaad.org/reference/transgender "GLAAD Media Reference Guide - Transgender glossary of terms"], "[[GLAAD]]", US, May 2010. Retrieved 24 February 2011.</ref> Transgender is independent of [[sexual orientation]]; transgender people may identify as [[heterosexual]], [[Homosexuality|homosexual]], [[bisexual]], etc.; some may consider conventional sexual orientation labels inadequate or inapplicable to them. The definition of ''transgender'' includes:
* "Denoting or relating to a person whose sense of personal identity and gender does not correspond with their birth sex."<ref>{{cite web |title=Definition of transgender in English by Oxford Dictionaries |url=https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/transgender |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160925144023/https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/transgender |url-status=dead |archive-date=25 September 2016 |website=Oxford Dictionaries |access-date=18 June 2018}}</ref>
* "People who were assigned a sex, usually at birth and based on their genitals, but who feel that this is a false or incomplete description of themselves."<ref name="usi">"[https://web.archive.org/web/20080608075230/http://www.usilgbt.org/index.php?categoryid=35 USI LGBT Campaign - Transgender Campaign]". Retrieved 11 January 2012.</ref>
* "Non-identification with, or non-presentation as, the sex (and assumed gender) one was assigned at birth."<ref>[http://www.stroud.gov.uk/info/gender_equality_scheme.pdf Stroud District Council "Gender Equality SCHEME AND ACTION PLAN 2007"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080227114158/http://www.stroud.gov.uk/info/gender_equality_scheme.pdf |date=27 February 2008 }}</ref>

While people self-identify as transgender, the transgender identity umbrella includes sometimes-overlapping categories. These include [[transsexual]]; [[transvestism|transvestite or cross-dresser]]; [[genderqueer]]; [[Androgyny|androgyne]]; and [[bigender]].<ref name="ryan">{{Cite book |title=Lesbian and Gay Youth: Care and Counseling |first1=Caitlin C |last1=Ryan |first2=Donna |last2=Futterman |journal=Adolescent Medicine (Philadelphia, Pa.) |volume=8 |issue=2 |pages=207–374 |year=1998 |publisher=Columbia University Press |isbn=978-0-231-11191-1 |url=https://archive.org/details/lesbiangayyouthc0000ryan/page/49 |pmid=10360017 }}</ref> Usually not included are [[transvestic fetish]]ists (because it is considered to be a [[paraphilia]] rather than gender identification), and [[drag kings]] and [[drag queens]], who are performers who cross-dress for the purpose of entertaining. In an interview, celebrity drag queen [[RuPaul]] talked about society's ambivalence to the differences in the people who embody these terms. "A friend of mine recently did the ''[[The Oprah Winfrey Show|Oprah]]'' show about transgender youth", said RuPaul. "It was obvious that we, as a culture, have a hard time trying to understand the difference between a drag queen, transsexual, and a transgender, yet we find it very easy to know the difference between the [[American League|American baseball league]] and the [[National League (baseball)|National baseball league]], when they are both so similar."<ref name=DS>[[n:RuPaul speaks about society and the state of drag as performance art|Interview with RuPaul]], David Shankbone, ''[[Wikinews]]'', 6 October 2007.</ref>

==Sexual orientation==
{{Main|Sexual orientation}}
{{see also|Societal attitudes towards homosexuality|Sexuality and gender identity-based cultures|Straight acting}}
{{LGBT sidebar}}
Sexual orientation is defined by the interplay between a person's emotional and physical attraction toward others.<ref>Issues in Society : Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity. (2014). Thirroul, AU: The Spinney Press. Retrieved from http://www.ebrary.com</ref> Generally, sexual orientation is broken into the three categories: heterosexual, homosexual and bisexual. By basic definition, the term heterosexual is typically used in reference to someone who is attracted to people of the opposite sex, the term homosexual is used to classify people who are attracted to those of the same sex, and the term bisexual is used to identify those who are attracted to both the same and opposite sexes.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Lindley | first1 = Lisa | last2 = Walsemann | first2 = Katrina | last3 = Carter | first3 = Jarvis | year = 2012 | title = The Association of Sexual Orientation Measures With Young Adults' Health-Related Outcomes | journal = American Journal of Public Health | volume = 102 | issue = 6| pages = 1177–1178 | doi = 10.2105/ajph.2011.300262 | pmid = 22021310 | pmc=3483939}}</ref> Sexual orientation can be variously defined based on sexual identity, sexual behavior and sexual attraction. People can fall anywhere on a spectrum from strictly heterosexual to strictly homosexual.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Epstein | first1 = Robert | last2 = McKinney | first2 = Paul | last3 = Fox | first3 = Shannon | last4 = Garcia | first4 = Carlos | year = 2013 | title = Support for a Fluid-Continuum Model or Sexual Orientation: A Large-Scale Internet Study | journal = Journal of Homosexuality | volume = 59 | issue = 10| pages = 1356–1358 | doi = 10.1080/00918369.2012.724634 | pmid = 23153024 | s2cid = 37966088 }}</ref>

Scientists do not know the exact cause of sexual orientation, but they theorize that it is caused by a complex interplay of [[Genetics|genetic]], [[hormonal]], and [[Environment and sexual orientation|environmental influences]],<ref name="pediatrics2004"/><ref name="Lamanna">{{cite book|last1=Lamanna|first1=Mary Ann|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fofaAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA82|title=Marriages, Families, and Relationships: Making Choices in a Diverse Society|last2=Riedmann|first2=Agnes|last3=Stewart|first3=Susan D|publisher=[[Cengage Learning]]|year=2014|isbn=978-1-305-17689-8|page=82|quote=The reason some individuals develop a gay sexual identity has not been definitively established – nor do we yet understand the development of heterosexuality. The American Psychological Association (APA) takes the position that a variety of factors impact a person's sexuality. The most recent literature from the APA says that sexual orientation is not a choice that can be changed at will, and that sexual orientation is most likely the result of a complex interaction of environmental, cognitive and biological factors. is shaped at an early age. and evidence suggests biological, including genetic or inborn hormonal factors, play a significant role in a person's sexuality (American Psychological Association 2010).|access-date=11 February 2016}}</ref><ref name="Stuart">{{cite book|author=Gail Wiscarz Stuart|title=Principles and Practice of Psychiatric Nursing|publisher=[[Elsevier Health Sciences]]|isbn=978-0-323-29412-6|year=2014|page=502|access-date=11 February 2016|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ivALBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA502|quote=No conclusive evidence supports any one specific cause of homosexuality; however, most researchers agree that biological and social factors influence the development of sexual orientation.}}</ref> and do not view it as a choice.<ref name="pediatrics2004"/><ref name="Lamanna"/><ref name="Kersey-Matusiak">{{cite book|author=Gloria Kersey-Matusiak|title=Delivering Culturally Competent Nursing Care|publisher=[[Springer Publishing Company]]|isbn=978-0-8261-9381-0|year=2012|page=169|access-date=10 February 2016|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=X8O_wGedAYoC&pg=PA169|quote=Most health and mental health organizations do not view sexual orientation as a 'choice.'}}</ref> Although no single theory on the cause of sexual orientation has yet gained widespread support, scientists favor [[Biology and sexual orientation|biologically based theories]].<ref name="pediatrics2004">{{cite journal |doi=10.1542/peds.113.6.1827 |author=Frankowski BL|author2=American Academy of Pediatrics Committee on Adolescence|title=Sexual orientation and adolescents |journal=[[Pediatrics (journal)|Pediatrics]]|volume=113 |issue=6 |pages=1827–32 |date=June 2004|pmid=15173519|url=http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/113/6/1827.long|doi-access=free}}</ref> There is considerably more evidence supporting nonsocial, biological causes of sexual orientation than social ones, especially for males.<ref name=Bailey16>{{cite journal|last1=Bailey|first1=J. Michael|last2=Vasey|first2=Paul|last3=Diamond|first3=Lisa|author4-link=Marc Breedlove|last4=Breedlove|first4=S. Marc|last5=Vilain|first5=Eric|last6=Epprecht|first6=Marc|title=Sexual Orientation, Controversy, and Science|journal=Psychological Science in the Public Interest|date=2016|volume=17|issue=2|pages=45–101|doi=10.1177/1529100616637616|pmid=27113562|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/301639075|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name=LeVay>{{cite book |last=LeVay |first=Simon |date=2017 |title=Gay, Straight, and the Reason Why: The Science of Sexual Orientation |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HmQFFfa03nkC |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-975296-6 }}</ref><ref name=Balthazart>{{cite book |last=Balthazart |first=Jacques |date=2012 |title=The Biology of Homosexuality |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3fjGjlcVINkC |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-983882-0 }}</ref> There is no substantive evidence which suggests parenting or early childhood experiences play a role with regard to sexual orientation.<ref name="rcp2007">{{cite web|title=Submission to the Church of England's Listening Exercise on Human Sexuality|url=http://www.rcpsych.ac.uk/workinpsychiatry/specialinterestgroups/gaylesbian/submissiontothecofe/psychiatryandlgbpeople.aspx#history|publisher=The Royal College of Psychiatrists|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130117212459/http://www.rcpsych.ac.uk/workinpsychiatry/specialinterestgroups/gaylesbian/submissiontothecofe/psychiatryandlgbpeople.aspx|archive-date=17 January 2013|access-date=13 June 2013}}</ref>

An active conflict over the cultural acceptability of [[non-heterosexual]]ity rages worldwide.<ref>Maurianne Adams, Lee Anne Bell, Pat Griffin (2007). Teaching for Diversity and Social Justice. Routledge. pp. 198–199. {{ISBN|1135928509}}. Retrieved 27 December 2014. "Because of the complicated interplay among gender identity, gender roles, and sexual identity, transgender people are often assumed to be lesbian or gay (See Overview: Sexism, Heterosexism, and Transgender Oppression). ... Because transgender identity challenges a binary conception of sexuality and gender, educators must clarify their own understanding of these concepts. ... Facilitators must be able to help participants understand the connections among sexism, heterosexism, and transgender oppression and the ways in which gender roles are maintained, in part, through homophobia."</ref><ref>Claire M. Renzetti, Jeffrey L. Edleson (2008). Encyclopedia of Interpersonal Violence. SAGE Publications. p. 338. {{ISBN|1452265917}}. Retrieved 27 December 2014. "In a culture of homophobia (an irrational fear of gay, lesbian, bisexual, and transgender [GLBT] people), GLBT people often face a heightened risk of violence specific to their sexual identities."</ref><ref>2014 Report on State Sponsored Homophobia Retrieved 4 Mar 15 from {{cite web |url=http://old.ilga.org/Statehomophobia/ILGA_SSHR_2014_Eng.pdf |title=Archived copy |access-date=12 May 2016 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161020202330/http://old.ilga.org/Statehomophobia/ILGA_SSHR_2014_Eng.pdf |archive-date=20 October 2016  }}</ref><ref>Bruce-Jones, Eddie; Itaborahy, Lucas Paoli (May 2011). "State-sponsored Homophobia". ilga.org. Retrieved 15 October 2011.</ref><ref>West, D.J. Homosexuality re-examined. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1977. {{ISBN|0-8166-0812-1}}</ref> The belief or assumption that [[heterosexuality|heterosexual]] relationships and acts are "normal" is described as [[heterosexism]] or in [[queer theory]], [[heteronormativity]]. Gender identity and sexual orientation are two separate aspects of individual identity, although they are often mistaken in the media.<ref name="GLAAD">Gay and Lesbian Alliance Against Defamation. [http://www.glaad.org/reference/transgender "GLAAD Media Reference Guide, 8th Edition. Transgender Glossary of Terms"], ''[[GLAAD]]'', USA, May 2010. Retrieved 20 November 2011.</ref>

Perhaps it is an attempt to reconcile this conflict that leads to a common assumption that one same-sex partner assumes a pseudo-male gender role and the other assumes a pseudo-female role. For a gay male relationship, this might lead to the assumption that the "wife" handled domestic chores, was the receptive sexual partner, adopted effeminate mannerisms, and perhaps even dressed in women's clothing.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Mager|first1=Don|title=Gay Theories of Gender Role Deviance|journal=SubStance|date=1985|volume=14|issue=1|pages=32–48|doi=10.2307/3684953|jstor=3684953}}</ref> This assumption is flawed because homosexual couples tend to have more equal roles, and the effeminate behavior of some gay men is usually not adopted consciously, and is often more subtle.<ref name=Dwyer>{{cite book|last=Dwyer |first=D.|title=Interpersonal Relationships [e-book]|year=2000|publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-203-01971-9|page=104|edition=2nd}}</ref>

Cohabitating same-sex partners are typically egalitarian when they assign domestic chores.<ref name=":7">{{cite book|last=Cherlin|first=Andrew|title=Public and Private Families, an introduction|year=2010|publisher=McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.|page=234}}</ref> Sometimes these couples assign traditional female responsibilities to one partner and traditional male responsibilities to the other. Same-sex [[domestic partnership|domestic partners]] challenge traditional gender roles in their division of household responsibilities, and gender roles within homosexual relationships are flexible.<ref>{{cite book|last=Crook|first=Robert|title=Our Sexuality|year=2011|publisher=Wadsworth Cengage Learning|page=271}}</ref> For instance, cleaning and cooking, traditionally regarded by many as both female responsibilities, might be assigned to different people. Carrington observed the daily home lives of 52 gay and lesbian couples and found that the length of the work week and level of earning power substantially affected the assignment of housework, regardless of gender or sexuality.<ref>Carrington, C. (1999) No place like home: Relationships and family life among lesbians and gay men. The University of Chicago Press.</ref><ref name=":7"/>

In many cultures, gender roles, especially for men, simultaneously act as an indicator for heterosexuality, and as a boundary of acceptable behavior for straight people. Therefore, lesbians, gay men and bisexual people may be viewed as exempt from some or all components of gender roles or as having different "rules" they are expected to follow by society.

These modified "rules" for lesbian, gay and bisexual people may also be oppressive. Morgan examines the plight of homosexuals seeking [[right of asylum|asylum]] from homophobic persecution who have been turned away by US customs for "not being gay enough"; not conforming sufficiently to standard (Western) conceptions of the gender roles occupied by gays and lesbians.<ref>Morgan, D. (2006) Not gay enough for the government: Racial and sexual stereotypes in sexual orientation asylum cases. Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual and Transgender Legal Issues http://heinonline.org/HOL/Page?handle=hein.journals/lsex15&div=9&g_sent=1&collection=journals#141</ref>

Conversely, heterosexual men and women who are not perceived as being sufficiently masculine or feminine, respectively, may be assumed to be, or suspected to be, homosexual, and persecuted for their perceived homosexuality.

==Criminal justice==
{{Main|Gender and crime}}
A number of studies conducted since the mid-90s have found direct correlation between a female criminal's ability to conform to gender role [[stereotypes]] and the severity of her sentencing, particularly among female murderers.<ref>Chan, W. (2001). Women, Murder and Justice. Hampshire: Palgrave.</ref><ref>Hart, L. (1994). Fatal Women: Lesbian Sexuality and the Mark of Aggression. Princeton: Princeton University Press.</ref><ref>Ballinger, A. (1996.) The Guilt of the Innocent and the Innocence of the Guilty: The Cases of Marie Fahmy and Ruth Ellis. In Wight, S. & Myers, A. (Eds.) No Angels: Women Who Commit Violence. London: Pandora.</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Filetti | first1 = J. S. | year = 2001 | title = From Lizzie Borden to Lorena Bobbitt: Violent Women and Gendered Justice | journal = Journal of American Culture | volume = 35 | issue = 3| pages = 471–484 | doi=10.1017/s0021875801006673| s2cid = 146288256 }}</ref> "In terms of the social realities of justice in America, the experiences of diverse groups of people in society have contributed to the shaping of the types of criminals and victims that we have had. Like Andersen and Hill Collins (1998: 4) in their discussion of what they refer to as a 'matrix of domination,' we too conceive that class, race, and gender represent "multiple, interlocking levels of domination that stem from the societal configurations of these structural relationships. These patterned actions, in turn, affecting individual consciousness, group interaction, and individual and group access to institutional power and privileges.{{'"}}<ref>{{cite web|last=Barak|first=Gregg|title=Class, Race, and Gender in Criminology and Criminal Justice: Ways of Seeing Difference|url=http://critcrim.org/critpapers/barak.htm|publisher=American Society of Criminology|access-date=22 November 2013|date=2009-03-15}}</ref> "Patterns of offending by men and by women are notable both for their similarities and for their differences. Both men and women are more heavily involved in minor property and substance abuse offenses than in serious crimes like robbery or murder. However, men offend at much higher rates than women for all crime categories except prostitution. This gender gap in crime is greatest for serious crime and least for mild forms of lawbreaking such as minor property crimes."<ref>{{cite journal|last=Steffensmeier|first=Darrell|author2=Emilie Allan|title=Gender and Crime: Toward a Gendered Theory of Female Offending|journal=Annual Review of Sociology|year=1996|volume=22|pages=459–487|doi=10.1146/annurev.soc.22.1.459|issue=1}}<!--|access-date=22 November 2013--></ref>

===Gender roles in family violence===
The 'Family Violence Framework' applies gender dynamics to family violence.<ref name="Hattery2012">{{cite book|last1=Hattery|first1=Angela|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RX0fAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA7|title=The Social Dynamics of Family Violence|last2=Smith|first2=Earl|date=2012|publisher=Westview Press|isbn=978-0-8133-4463-8|page=7|access-date=1 June 2017}}{{Dead link|date=March 2024 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref><ref>Straus, M & Gelles, R (1995) Physical violence in American families. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction.</ref> "Families are constructed around relationships that involve obligations and responsibilities, but also status and power".<ref name="Hattery2012"/> According to Hattery and Smith, when "masculinity and femininity are constructed…to generate these rigid and narrow gender roles, it contributes to a culture of violence against women"<ref name="Hattery2016">{{cite book|last1=Hattery|first1=Angela|last2=Smith|first2=Earl|title=The Social Dynamics of Family Violence|date=2016|publisher=Westview Press|location=Boulder|isbn=978-0-8133-4999-2|edition=Second}}</ref> "People with more resources are more likely to be abusive towards those without resources", meaning that the stronger member of the relationship abuses the weaker partner or family member.<ref name="Hattery2012"/> However, the fight for power and equality remains – "Intimate partner violence in same-sex couples reveals that the rates are similar to those in the heterosexual community".{{sfn|Hattery|Smith|2012|p=291}}

==See also==
{{Portal|Feminism|Human sexuality|Psychology}}
{{Div col|colwidth=30em}}
* [[Anti-gender movement]]
* [[Childhood gender nonconformity]]
* [[Dominatrix]]
* [[Gender advertisement]]
* [[Gender and emotional expression]]
* [[Gender bender]]
* [[Gender mainstreaming]]
* [[Gender polarization]]
* [[Gender policing]]
* [[Gender roles in agriculture]]
* [[Gender roles in childhood]]
* [[Gender roles in non-heterosexual communities]]
* [[Gender studies]]
* [[Grammatical gender]]
* [[Heteropatriarchy]]
* [[List of transgender-related topics]]
* [[Masculism]]
* [[Matriarchy]]
* [[Patriarchy]]
* [[Media and gender]]
* [[Men's movement]]
* [[Misandry]]
* [[Misogyny]]
* [[Role theory]]
* [[Sex and gender distinction]]
* [[Sexual inversion (sexology)]]
* [[Sexual orientation hypothesis]]
* [[Social construction of gender]]
* [[Sociology of gender]]
* [[Women in Christianity]]
* [[Women in Islam]]
{{div col end}}

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}<ref>{{Cite web |title=Beyond Gender Choice: Mass Effect's varied inclusiveness – Gamecritics.com |url=https://gamecritics.com/alex-raymond/beyond-gender-choice-mass-effects-varied-inclusiveness/ |access-date=2023-10-22 |website=gamecritics.com}}</ref>

==External links==
{{Wikiquote}}
{{Commons category|Gender roles}}
*[https://www.ohchr.org/en/women/gender-stereotyping OHCHR | Gender stereotyping]. A short summary of international treaties concerning gender stereotyping.
*[https://www.pewresearch.org/topic/gender-lgbt/gender-roles/ Surveys on gender roles] by the Pew Research Center
*[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PzuJW0cPzJ4 Gender Communication Barriers and Techniques], Strategic Communications, ''[[Stanford Graduate School of Business]]''. Serves to help develop communication skills.

{{Gender studies}}
{{Sexual identities}}
{{Feminism}}
{{Evolutionary psychology}}
{{Authority control}}

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[[Category:Gender-related stereotypes|Role]]
[[Category:Social conservatism]]
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