Просмотр кода страницы Английская Википедия:Genesis (spacecraft)

{{Английская Википедия/Панель перехода}}
{{Short description|NASA sample return probe}}
{{About|the NASA sample return mission|the space station prototypes|Genesis I|and|Genesis II (space habitat)|other uses|Genesis (disambiguation)}}
{{DISPLAYTITLE: ''Genesis'' (spacecraft)}}
{{Infobox spaceflight
| name                  = ''Genesis''

| image                 = GenSC collection2 150dpi.jpg
| image_caption         = In its collecting configuration, the ''Genesis'' spacecraft exposed several types of [[solar wind]] collectors, as well as [[ion]] and [[electron]] monitors.
| image_alt             = An image of a spacecraft, with two solar panels on either end, and a collection system in the open position, visible on the top of the spacecraft, with the lid open.
| image_size            = 300px

| mission_type          = [[Sample-return mission]]
| operator              = [[NASA]]{{dot}}[[JPL]]
| COSPAR_ID             = 2001-034A
| SATCAT                = 26884
| website               = {{url|http://genesismission.jpl.nasa.gov/}}
| mission_duration      = {{time interval|8 August 2001 16:13:40|8 September 2004 15:58|show=ymdhm|sep=,}}<ref>{{cite web |url=https://solarsystem.nasa.gov/missions/genesis/in-depth/ |title=Genesis: In Depth |publisher=NASA Solar System Exploration |access-date=September 25, 2023}}</ref>
| distance_travelled    =

| manufacturer          = [[Lockheed Martin Space Systems]]
| launch_mass           = {{convert|636|kg|lb|abbr=on}}<ref name="in-depth">{{cite web |url=https://solarsystem.nasa.gov/missions/genesis/in-depth/ |title=Genesis: In Depth |publisher=NASA Solar System Exploration |access-date=February 2, 2020}}</ref>
| dry_mass              = {{convert|494|kg|lb|abbr=on}}<ref name="nssdc">{{cite web |url=https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id=2001-034A |title=Genesis |publisher=[[NASA Space Science Data Coordinated Archive]] |access-date=February 2, 2020}}</ref>
| dimensions            = {{convert|2.3|xx|2.0|m|ft|abbr=on}}<ref name="nssdc" />
| power                 = 254 [[Watt|W]] ([[solar array]] / [[Nickel–hydrogen battery|{{chem2|NiH2}} battery]])<ref name="nssdc" />

| launch_date           = {{start-date|August 8, 2001, 16:13:40}}&nbsp;[[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]]<ref name="in-depth" /> <br/> <small>({{time interval|8 August 2001 16:13:40|show=ymd|sep=,}} ago)</small>
| launch_rocket         = [[Delta II|Delta II 7326-9.5]] (D287)<ref name="in-depth" />
| launch_site           = [[Cape Canaveral Air Force Station|Cape Canaveral]] [[Cape Canaveral Air Force Station Space Launch Complex 17|SLC-17A]]<ref name="in-depth" />
| launch_contractor     = Boeing

| landing_date          = {{start-date|September 8, 2004, 15:58}}&nbsp;[[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]]<ref name="in-depth" /> <br/> <small>({{time interval|8 September 2004 15:58|show=ymd|sep=,}} ago)</small>
| landing_site          = [[Dugway Proving Ground]], [[Utah]]<br/>{{coord|40|11|19|N|113|12|46|W|format=dms|type:adm2nd_scale:1000000_region:US-UT}}

| insignia              = Genesis insignia.png
| insignia_caption      = Official insignia for the ''Genesis'' mission
| insignia_alt          = 
| insignia_size         = 150

| programme             = '''[[Discovery program]]'''
| previous_mission      = ''[[Stardust (spacecraft)|Stardust]]''
| next_mission          = ''[[CONTOUR]]''
}}

'''''Genesis''''' was a [[NASA]] [[sample-return mission|sample-return]] probe that collected a sample of [[solar wind]] particles  and returned them to [[Earth]] for analysis.  It was the first NASA sample-return mission to return material since the [[Apollo program]], and the first to return material from beyond the orbit of the [[Moon]].<ref>{{cite book |url=https://www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/atoms/files/beyond-earth-tagged.pdf |title=Beyond Earth: A Chronicle of Deep Space Exploration, 1958–2016 |series=The NASA history series |publisher=NASA History Program Office |location=Washington, DC |last1=Siddiqi |first1=Asif A. |edition=2nd |page=2 |year=2018 |id=SP2018-4041 |lccn=2017059404 |isbn=9781626830424}}</ref><ref>The NASA [[Stardust (spacecraft)|''Stardust'' mission]] launched two years before ''Genesis'', but did not return to Earth until two years after ''Genesis''{{'s}} return.</ref> ''Genesis'' was launched on August 8, 2001, and the sample return capsule crash-landed in [[Utah]] on September 8, 2004, after a design flaw prevented the deployment of its [[drogue parachute]]. The crash contaminated many of the sample collectors. Although most were damaged, some of the collectors were successfully recovered.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://curator.jsc.nasa.gov/genesis/index.cfm |title=Genesis Solar Wind Samples |publisher=NASA/JPL |series=Curation Series}}</ref>

The ''Genesis'' science team demonstrated that some of the contamination could be removed or avoided, and that the solar wind particles could be analyzed using a variety of approaches, achieving all of the mission's major science objectives.<ref name='Reisenfeld'>{{cite journal |title=Solar Wind Conditions and Composition During the Genesis Mission as Measured by in situ Spacecraft |journal=Space Science Reviews |first1=Daniel B. |last1=Reisenfeld |first2=Roger C. |last2=Wiens |first3=Bruce L. |last3=Barraclough |first4=John T. |last4=Steinberg |first5=Marcia |last5=Neugebauer |first6=Jim |last6=Raines |first7=Thomas H. |last7=Zurbuchen |display-authors=1 |volume=175 |issue=1–4 |pages=125–164 |date=June 2013 |doi=10.1007/s11214-013-9960-2 |bibcode=2013SSRv..175..125R|s2cid=120682800 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://genesismission.jpl.nasa.gov/gm2/team/scienceteam.htm |title=Genesis Science Team |publisher=NASA/JPL}}</ref>

==Objectives==
{{more citations needed|section|date=September 2017}}<!--2 paragraphs with no citations-->

The mission's primary science objectives were:<ref>{{cite web |url=http://web.gps.caltech.edu/genesis/ |title=Genesis Discovery 5 Mission Proposal |publisher=NASA/JPL |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090429045928/http://web.gps.caltech.edu/genesis/ |archive-date=April 29, 2009 |url-status=dead}}</ref>
* To obtain precise solar [[isotope|isotopic]] abundances of [[ion]]s in the solar wind, as essentially no data having a precision sufficient for solving planetary science problems are available;
* To obtain greatly improved solar elemental abundances by factor of 3–10 in accuracy over what is in the literature;
* To provide a reservoir of solar matter for 21st century science to be archived similarly as the lunar samples.

[[File:Genesis Collector Array.jpg|thumb|left|A ''Genesis'' collector array in the clean lab at Johnson Space Center. The hexagons consist of a variety of ultra-pure, semiconductor-grade wafers, including [[silicon]], [[corundum]], [[gold]] on sapphire, [[diamond]]-like carbon films,<ref>{{cite press release |url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2009/02/090218095842.htm |title=Diamond-like Films Help In Study Of Solar Winds |publisher=Sandia National Laboratories |first=Michael |last=Padilla |date=February 16, 2009}}</ref> and other materials.<ref>{{cite journal |title=The Genesis Solar-Wind Collector Materials |journal=Space Science Reviews |first1=A. J. G. |last1=Jurewicz |first2=D. S. |last2=Burnett |first3=R. C. |last3=Wiens |first4=T. A. |last4=Friedmann |first5=C. C. |last5=Hays |first6=R. J. |last6=Hohlfelder |first7=K. |last7=Nishiizumi |first8=J. A. |last8=Stone |first9=D. S. |last9=Woolum |first10=R. |last10=Becker |first11=A. L. |last11=Butterworth |first12=A. J. |last12=Campbell |first13=M. |last13=Ebihara |first14=I. A. |last14=Franchi |first15=V. |last15=Heber |first16=C. M. |last16=Hohenberg |first17=M. |last17=Humayun |first18=K. D. |last18=McKeegan |first19=K. |last19=McNamara |first20=A. |last20=Meshik |first21=R. O. |last21=Pepin |first22=D. |last22=Schlutter |first23=R. |last23=Wieler |display-authors=1 |volume=105 |issue=3–4 |pages=535–560 |date=January 2003 |doi=10.1023/A:1024469927444 |bibcode=2003SSRv..105..535J|s2cid=51768025 }}</ref>]]

Note that the mission's science objectives refer to the composition of the Sun, not that of the solar wind. Scientists desire a sample of the Sun because evidence suggests that the outer layer of the Sun preserves the composition of the early solar nebula. Therefore, knowing the elemental and isotopic composition of the outer layer of the Sun is effectively the same as knowing the elemental and isotopic composition of the solar nebula. The data can be used to model how planets and other Solar System objects formed, and then extend those results to understanding [[stellar evolution]] and the formation of [[planetary system]]s elsewhere in the universe.

Clearly, the ideal sample collection option would be to send a spacecraft to the [[Sun]] itself and collect some solar plasma; however, that is difficult because of the intense heat of the Sun's superheated gases, as well as the dynamic electromagnetic environment of the [[solar corona]], whose flares regularly interfere with the electronics of distant spacecraft. Fortunately, the Sun continuously sheds some of its outer layer in the form of [[solar wind]].

Accordingly, in order to meet the mission science objectives, the ''Genesis'' spacecraft was designed to collect solar wind [[ion]]s and return them to Earth for analysis.<ref>{{cite journal |title=The Genesis Discovery Mission: Return of Solar Matter to Earth |journal=Space Science Reviews |first1=D. S. |last1=Burnett |first2=B. L. |last2=Barraclough |first3=R. |last3=Bennett |first4=M. |last4=Neugebauer |first5=L. P. |last5=Oldham |first6=C. N. |last6=Sasaki |first7=D. |last7=Sevilla |first8=N. |last8=Smith |first9=E. |last9=Stansbery |first10=D. |last10=Sweetnam |first11=R. C. |last11=Wiens |display-authors=1 |volume=105 |issue=3–4 |pages=509–534 |date=January 2003 |doi=10.1023/A:1024425810605 |bibcode=2003SSRv..105..509B|s2cid=189763898 }}</ref> ''Genesis'' carried several different solar wind collectors, all of which passively collected solar wind; that is, the collectors sat in space facing the Sun, while the ions in the solar wind crashed into them at speeds over {{convert|200|km/s|abbr=on}} and, on impact, buried themselves in the surface of the collectors. This passive collection is a process similar to that used by the semi-conductor industry to make certain types of devices, and a simulation of the process is given by the free-access program [[Stopping and Range of Ions in Matter|SRIM]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.srim.org |title=The Stopping and Range of Ions in Matter |website=SRIM.org |last=Ziegler |first=James F.}}</ref>

Most of the ''Genesis'' collectors continuously sampled all of the solar wind which the spacecraft encountered (the "bulk solar wind"). However, the spacecraft also carried three arrays of collectors which were deployed when specific "regimes" (fast, slow, [[coronal mass ejection]]s) of solar wind were encountered, as determined by the electron and ion monitors on board.<ref>{{cite journal |title=The Plasma Ion and Electron Instruments for the Genesis Mission |journal=Space Science Reviews |first1=B. L. |last1=Barraclough |first2=E. E. |last2=Dors |first3=R. A. |last3=Abeyta |first4=J. F. |last4=Alexander |first5=F. P. |last5=Ameduri |first6=J. R. |last6=Baldonado |first7=S. J. |last7=Bame |first8=P. J. |last8=Casey |first9=G. |last9=Dirks |first10=D. T. |last10=Everett |first11=J. T. |last11=Gosling |first12=K. M. |last12=Grace |first13=D. R. |last13=Guerrero |first14=J. D. |last14=Kolar |first15=J. L. |last15=Kroesche Jr. |first16=W. L. |last16=Lockhart |first17=D. J. |last17=McComas |first18=D. E. |last18=Mietz |first19=J. |last19=Roese |first20=J. |last20=Sanders |first21=J. T. |last21=Steinberg |first22=R. L. |last22=Tokar |first23=C. |last23=Urdiales |first24=R. C. |last24=Wiens |display-authors=1 |volume=105 |issue=3–4 |pages=627–660 |date=January 2003 |doi=10.1023/A:1024426112422 |bibcode=2003SSRv..105..627B|s2cid=189794447 }}</ref> These deployable collector arrays were designed to provide data to test the hypothesis that the rock-forming elements keep their relative proportions throughout the processes which form the solar wind.

There was a third type of collector on ''Genesis'': the concentrator, which collected bulk solar wind, but was discriminating in that it [[electrostatic]]ally repelled hydrogen and had enough voltage to focus the lighter solar wind elements onto a small target, concentrating those ions by a factor of ~20. The objective of the concentrator was to bring back a sample with enhanced amounts of solar wind ions to make it possible for analysts to precisely measure the isotopes of the light [[Chemical element|elements]].<ref>{{cite journal |title=The Genesis Solar Wind Concentrator |journal=Space Science Reviews |first1=Jane E. |last1=Nordholt |first2=Roger C. |last2=Wiens |first3=Rudy A. |last3=Abeyta |first4=Juan R. |last4=Baldonado |first5=Donald S. |last5=Burnett |first6=Patrick |last6=Casey |first7=Daniel T. |last7=Everett |first8=Joseph |last8=Kroesche |first9=Walter L. |last9=Lockhart |first10=Paul |last10=MacNeal |first11=David J. |last11=McComas |first12=Donald E. |last12=Mietz |first13=Ronald W. |last13=Moses Jr. |first14=Marcia |last14=Neugebauer |first15=Jane |last15=Poths |first16=Daniel B. |last16=Reisenfeld |first17=Steven A. |last17=Storms |first18=Carlos |last18=Urdiales |display-authors=1 |volume=105 |issue=3–4 |pages=561–599 |date=January 2003 |doi=10.1023/A:1024422011514 |bibcode=2003SSRv..105..561N|s2cid=119887884 }}</ref><ref>{{cite conference |url=https://www.lpi.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2013/pdf/3028.pdf |title=Elemental Fractionation Processes in the Solar Wind Revealed by Genesis Solar Wind Regime Samples |conference=44th Lunar and Planetary Science Conference. March 18–22, 2013. The Woodlands, Texas. |first1=V. S. |last1=Heber |first2=K. D. |last2=McKeegan |first3=P. |last3=Bochsler |first4=D. S. |last4=Burnett |first5=Y. |last5=Guan |first6=D. B. |last6=Reisenfeld |first7=R. |last7=Wieler |display-authors=1 |date=March 2013 |bibcode=2013LPI....44.3028H |id=LPI No. 1719}}</ref>

==Operation==

===Mission profile===
[[File:Genesis Mission Trajectory and Flight Plan.jpg|thumb|left|300px|The ''Genesis'' mission's trajectory and flight plan]]

''Genesis'' was a [[Discovery Program|Discovery-class]] mission of the [[NASA]] [[Jet Propulsion Laboratory]] (JPL) at the [[California Institute of Technology]]. The [[spacecraft]] was designed and built by [[Lockheed Martin]] Space Systems at a total mission cost of {{US$|264 million}}.

NASA launched the craft on a [[Delta II|Delta II 7326]] rocket on August 8, 2001, at 16:13:40&nbsp;UTC from [[Cape Canaveral]]. The development of the trajectory for the mission was led by [[Martin Lo]]. Following launch, ''Genesis'' cruised to the Earth-Sun {{L1}} then performed a [[Lissajous orbit]] insertion maneuver, entering an elliptical orbit about {{L1|nolink=yes}} on November 16, 2001. ''Genesis'' exposed its collector arrays on December 3, and began collecting [[solar wind]] particles. The collection process ended after 850 days, on April 1, 2004, with the spacecraft completing five [[Halo orbit|halo loops]] around {{L1|nolink=yes}}.<ref name=NTRS>{{cite report |title=Genesis failure investigation report: JPL Failure Review Board, Avionics Sub-Team |publisher=Jet Propulsion Laboratory |first1=John |last1=Klein |first2=Rob |last2=Manning |first3=Ed |last3=Barry |first4=Jim |last4=Donaldson |first5=Tom |last5=Rivellini |first6=Steven |last6=Battel |first7=Joe |last7=Savino |first8=Wayne |last8=Lee |first9=Jerry |last9=Dalton |first10=Mark |last10=Underwood |first11=Rao |last11=Surampudi |first12=Arden |last12=Accord |first13=Dave |last13=Perkins |first14=Kirk |last14=Barrow |first15=Bob |last15=Wilson |display-authors=1 |date=July 2004 |hdl=2014/38719 |id=Publication 05-2}}</ref> ''Genesis'' began its return to Earth on April 22, 2004. The return phase included an orbital detour toward the Earth {{L2}} so that the craft could be recovered during the daytime, as a direct approach would have forced it to be recovered at night. After completing one halo loop about {{L2|nolink=yes}}, the ''Genesis'' sample return capsule separated from the [[spacecraft bus]] and returned to Earth for the planned recovery on September 8, 2004.<ref name="jpl_hist">{{cite web |url=http://genesismission.jpl.nasa.gov/gm2/mission/history.htm |title=Genesis: Mission History |publisher=NASA/JPL |access-date=September 3, 2009}}</ref>

===Recovery phase===
{{multiple image |align=right |direction=horizontal |total_width=350
 |image1=Genesis retrieval.jpg |caption1=The planned [[mid-air retrieval]] was extensively rehearsed.
 |image2=Genesis Capsule.JPG |caption2=The ''Genesis'' sample return capsule, imaged moments before its impact
}}

Following completion of the collection phase, the collector arrays were stowed in a sample return capsule, and the spacecraft returned to Earth. As the capsule was approaching Earth and at the first stages of re-entry, all appeared well.

Extensive planning had been conducted for the capsule's retrieval. A normal [[parachute]] landing might have damaged the delicate samples, so the mission design called for a [[mid-air retrieval]] of the sample return capsule. About {{convert|33|km|mi|abbr=on}} above the ground, a [[drogue parachute]] was to be deployed to slow descent. Then, at a height of {{convert|6.7|km|mi|abbr=on}}, a large [[parafoil]] was to be deployed to slow descent further and leave the capsule in stable flight. A [[helicopter]], with a second helicopter as a backup, was then to attempt to catch the capsule by its parachute on the end of a five-meter hook. Once retrieved, the capsule would have been soft-landed.

The sample return capsule entered Earth's atmosphere over northern [[Oregon]] at 16:55&nbsp;UTC on September 8, 2004, with a velocity of approximately {{convert|24706|mph|km/s|2|order=flip|abbr=on}}.<ref name="jpl_hist"/> Due to a design flaw in a deceleration sensor, parachute deployment was never triggered, and the spacecraft's descent was slowed only by its own [[air resistance]].<ref>{{cite book |url=https://www.nasa.gov/pdf/149414main_Genesis_MIB.pdf |title=Genesis Mishap Investigation Board Report: Volume 1 |publisher=NASA |first=Michael |last=Ryschkewitsch |display-authors=etal |date=June 13, 2006 |access-date=May 1, 2010}}</ref> The planned mid-air retrieval could not be carried out, and the capsule crashed into the desert floor of the [[Dugway Proving Ground]] in [[Tooele County, Utah]], at about {{convert|86|m/s|km/h mph|abbr=on}}.

The capsule broke open on impact, and part of the inner sample capsule was also breached. The damage was less severe than might have been expected given its velocity; it was to some extent cushioned by falling into fairly soft ground.

Unfired pyrotechnic devices in the parachute deployment system and toxic gases from the batteries delayed the recovery team's approach to the crash site. After all was made safe, the damaged sample-return capsule was secured and moved to a clean room for inspection; simultaneously a crew of trained personnel scoured the site for collector fragments and sampled the local desert soil to archive as a reference by which to identify possible contaminants in the future. Recovery efforts by ''Genesis'' team members at the [[Utah Test and Training Range]] – which included inspecting, cataloging and packaging various collectors – took four weeks.<ref>{{cite report |url=http://research.jsc.nasa.gov/PDF/Ares-5.pdf |title=Genesis Recovery Processing |publisher=NASA/JSC |first=E. K. |last=Stansbery |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721051158/http://research.jsc.nasa.gov/PDF/Ares-5.pdf |archive-date=July 21, 2011 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

===Fate of spacecraft bus===
[[File:Genesis crash site scenery.jpg|thumb|right|The sample return capsule broke open when it impacted the Utah desert floor. The capsule was {{convert|1.5|m|ft|abbr=on}} in diameter and had a mass of {{convert|225|kg|lb|abbr=on}}.]]

After releasing the sample return capsule on September 8, 2004, the spacecraft bus traveled back toward the Earth-Sun [[Lagrange Point]] ({{L1}}). A trajectory correction maneuver was performed on November 6, 2004, permitting the spacecraft bus to eventually leave {{L1|nolink=yes}} if it was not used for an extended mission. Final commands were transmitted to the bus on December 2, 2004,<ref>{{cite web |url=https://genesismission.jpl.nasa.gov/science/analysis1.html |title=Genesis science "a work in progress" |publisher=NASA |date=2005 |access-date=November 30, 2012}}</ref> placing ''Genesis'' into hibernation. While in this "safe" mode, it will continue transmitting information about its condition, autonomously pointing its solar arrays toward the Sun. The spacecraft bus left {{L1|nolink=yes}} around February 1, 2005, staying in a heliocentric orbit leading the Earth.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://genesismission.jpl.nasa.gov/mission/solo.html |title=Genesis spacecraft bus flies solo |publisher=NASA |date=2005 |access-date=November 30, 2012}}</ref>

==Sample extraction and results==
[[File:Genesis recovery 09.09.2004.jpg|thumb|right|''Genesis'' Principal Investigator Donald Burnett sorting through the debris from the sample canister.]]

Initial investigations showed that some wafers had crumbled on impact, but others were largely intact. Desert dirt entered the capsule, but not liquid water. Because the solar wind particles were expected to be embedded in the wafers, whereas the contaminating dirt was thought likely just to lie on the surface, it was possible to separate the dirt from the samples.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://curator.jsc.nasa.gov/genesis/recovery.cfm |title=Salvaging Genesis Solar Wind Sample Science |publisher=NASA |access-date=December 6, 2023}}</ref>  Unexpectedly, it was not terrestrial desert soil introduced in the crash that proved most difficult to deal with during the sample analysis process, but the craft's own compounds such as lubricants and craft-building materials.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Crashed spacecraft yields data |journal=Nature |first=Nicola |last=Jones |date=October 18, 2007 |doi=10.1038/news.2007.175|s2cid=121899103|volume=449|issue=7164 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

The analysis team stated that they should be able to achieve most of their primary science goals. On September 21, 2004, the extraction began, and in January 2005 a first sample piece of an aluminum wafer was sent to scientists at [[Washington University in St. Louis]] for analysis.<ref>{{cite press release |url=https://www.nasa.gov/home/hqnews/2005/jan/HQ_05030_genesis_sample.html |title=NASA Sends First Genesis Early-Science Sample to Researchers |publisher=NASA |first1=Dolores |last1=Beasley |first2=William |last2=Jeffs |first3=Susan |last3=Killenberg McGinn |display-authors=1 |date=January 27, 2005 |access-date=April 24, 2006}}</ref>

The ''Genesis'' solar wind samples are under long-term curation at NASA Johnson Space Center so that as sample analysis techniques evolve, pristine solar wind samples will be available to the scientific community in the decades to come.<ref name='Reisenfeld'/>

===Noble gases===
In 2007, scientists at Washington University published detailed [[neon]] and [[argon]] isotope findings.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Constraints on Neon and Argon Isotopic Fractionation in Solar Wind |journal=Science |first1=Alex |last1=Meshik |first2=Jennifer |last2=Mabry |first3=Charles |last3=Hohenberg |first4=Yves |last4=Marrocchi |first5=Olga |last5=Pravdivtseva |first6=Donald |last6=Burnett |first7=Chad |last7=Olinger |first8=Roger |last8=Wiens |first9=Dan |last9=Reisenfeld |first10=Judith |last10=Allton |first11=Karen |last11=McNamara |first12=Eileen |last12=Stansbery |first13=Amy J. G. |last13=Jurewicz |display-authors=1 |volume=318 |issue=5849 |pages=433–435 |date=October 18, 2007 |doi=10.1126/science.1145528 |pmid=17947578 |bibcode=2007Sci...318..433M|s2cid=5110897 }}</ref>  The remaining results on the elemental and isotopic composition of the [[noble gas]]es were reported in 2009.<ref name='Hebera 2009'>{{cite journal |title=Noble gas composition of the solar wind as collected by the Genesis mission |journal=Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta |first1=Veronika S. |last1=Heber |first2=Rainer |last2=Wieler |first3=Heinrich |last3=Baur |first4=Chad |last4=Olinger |first5=Tom A. |last5=Friedmann |first6=Donald S. |last6=Burnett |display-authors=1 |volume=73 |issue=24 |pages=7414–7432 |date=December 2009 |doi=10.1016/j.gca.2009.09.013 |bibcode=2009GeCoA..73.7414H}}</ref> The results agree with data from lunar samples containing "young" (~100 million years) solar wind, indicating that solar wind composition has not changed within at least the last 100 million years.<ref name='Hebera 2009'/>

===Oxygen isotopes===
On April 20, 2005, scientists at the [[Johnson Space Center]] in Houston removed the four solar wind collectors from the concentrator and found them in excellent condition. The concentrator's targets collected solar-oxygen ions during the mission and would be analyzed to measure solar-oxygen isotopic composition, the highest-priority measurement objective for ''Genesis''.<ref>{{cite press release |url=https://www.nasa.gov/home/hqnews/2005/apr/HQ_05102_genesis_collectors.html |title=NASA Announces Key Genesis Science Collectors In Excellent Shape |publisher=NASA |first1=Dolores |last1=Beasley |first2=William |last2=Jeffs |first3=Nancy |last3=Ambrosiano |date=April 20, 2005 |access-date=April 24, 2006}}</ref>

The team announced on March 10, 2008, that analysis of a silicon carbide wafer from the ''Genesis'' concentrator showed that the Sun has a higher proportion of [[oxygen-16]] ({{chem2|^{16}O}}) relative to the Earth, Moon, Mars, and bulk meteorites.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ess.ucla.edu/dir_detail.php?u_idx=135 |title=Department Directory: Kevin D. McKeegan |publisher=UCLA Department of Earth and Space Sciences |date=June 26, 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100626214903/http://www.ess.ucla.edu/dir_detail.php?u_idx=135 |archive-date=June 26, 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |title=The Oxygen Isotopic Composition of the Sun Inferred from Captured Solar Wind |journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]] |first1=K. D. |last1=McKeegan |first2=A. P. A. |last2=Kallio |first3=V. S. |last3=Heber |first4=G. |last4=Jarzebinski |first5=P. H. |last5=Mao |first6=C. D. |last6=Coath |first7=T. |last7=Kunihiro |first8=R. C. |last8=Wiens |first9=J. E. |last9=Nordholt |first10=R. W. |last10=Moses |first11=D. B. |last11=Reisenfeld |first12=A. J. G. |last12=Jurewicz |first13=D. S. |last13=Burnett |display-authors=1 |volume=332 |issue=6037 |pages=1528–1532 |date=June 2011 |doi=10.1126/science.1204636 |pmid=21700868 |bibcode=2011Sci...332.1528M|s2cid=6254168 }}</ref>  This implies that an unknown process depleted oxygen-16 by about 6% from the Sun's [[Protoplanetary disk|disk of protoplanetary material]] prior to the coalescence of dust grains that formed the inner planets and the asteroid belt.<ref name="Nature news">{{cite journal |title=The Solar System's first breath |journal=Nature |last=Hand |first=Eric |volume=452 |issue=7185 |pages=259 |date=March 13, 2008 |doi=10.1038/452259a |pmid=18354437 |bibcode=2008Natur.452..259H|s2cid=789382|doi-access=free }}</ref>

===Nitrogen isotopes===
Nitrogen was a key target element because the extent and origin of its isotopic variations in Solar System materials were unknown.  Target material showed that implanted solar wind nitrogen has a {{chem2|^{15}N/^{14}N}} ratio of {{val|2.18|e=-3}} (that is, ≈40% poorer in {{chem2|^{15}N}} relative to the terrestrial atmosphere).  The {{chem2|^{15}N/^{14}N}} ratio of the protosolar nebula was {{val|2.27|e=-3}}, which is the lowest {{chem2|^{15}N/^{14}N}} ratio known for Solar System objects.  This result demonstrates the extreme nitrogen isotopic heterogeneity of the nascent Solar System and accounts for the {{chem2|^{15}N}}-depleted components observed in Solar System reservoirs.<ref name= 'Nitrogen'>{{cite journal |title=A <sup>15</sup>N-Poor Isotopic Composition for the Solar System As Shown by Genesis Solar Wind Samples |journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]] |first1=B. |last1=Marty |first2=M. |last2=Chaussidon |first3=R. C. |last3=Wiens |first4=A. J. G. |last4=Jurewicz |first5=D. S. |last5=Burnett |display-authors=1 |volume=332 |issue=6037 |pages=1533–1536 |date=June 24, 2011 |doi=10.1126/science.1204656 |pmid=21700869 |bibcode=2011Sci...332.1533M|s2cid=29773805 |url=https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01346370/file/Science-2011-Marty-1533-6.pdf }}</ref>

==Mishap Investigation Board (MIB)==
[[File:66940main avionics gswitch.jpg|thumb|right|Top: a view of the ''Genesis'' capsule and bus. Bottom: a closeup of the type of [[accelerometer]] that was installed backwards, with a [[pencil]] shown for scale.]]

A 16-member NASA Mishap Investigation Board (MIB) was appointed, including experts on [[pyrotechnics]], avionics, and other specialties. The MIB started its work on September 10, 2004, when it arrived at Dugway Proving Ground. It determined that all scientific hardware meant to be curated by the Johnson Space Center could be released and were not needed for the work of the board. Both JPL and Lockheed Martin began to prepare flight data and other records for the MIB.

It was announced by the MIB on September 20, 2004, that the capsule, having had the science material extracted, would be moved to the Lockheed Martin Space Systems facility near [[Denver, Colorado]], for MIB use.<ref>{{cite press release |url=https://genesismission.jpl.nasa.gov/mission/MIBstatus_report1.html |title=Genesis Mishap Investigation Board Status Report #1 |publisher=NASA |first=Donald |last=Savage |date=September 20, 2004 |access-date=May 19, 2014 |id=04-306}}</ref>

A first possible root cause of the failed deployment of the parachutes was announced in an October 14 press release. [[Lockheed Martin]] had designed the system with an acceleration sensor's internal mechanisms wrongly oriented (a G-switch was backwards), and design reviews had not caught the mistake. The accelerometer was installed according to the incorrect design.  The intended design was to make an electrical contact inside the sensor at {{convert|3|g-force|lk=on}}, maintaining it through the maximum expected {{convert|30|g-force|lk=on}}, and breaking the contact again at 3&nbsp;''g'' to start the parachute release sequence. Instead, no contact was ever made.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.newscientist.com/news/news.jsp?id=ns99996541 |title=Genesis crash linked to upside-down design |work=New Scientist |first=Maggie |last=McKee |date=October 15, 2004 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20041104050911/https://www.newscientist.com/news/news.jsp?id=ns99996541 |archive-date=November 4, 2004}}</ref>

The same general parachute concept was also used on the ''[[Stardust (spacecraft)|Stardust]]'' [[comet]]ary sample return spacecraft, which landed successfully in 2006.

NASA investigation board chair [[Michael Ryschkewitsch]] noted that none of the stringent review procedures at NASA had picked up a mistake, saying, "It would be very easy to mix this up."<ref>{{cite journal |title=Flawed drawings caused spacecraft crash |journal=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]] |first=Nicola |last=Jones |date=October 18, 2004 |doi=10.1038/news041018-1|volume=431 |issue=7010|doi-access=free }}</ref>

This mishap is similar to the original event that inspired [[Edward A. Murphy Jr.]] to formulate the now-famous [[Murphy's Law]]: an [[accelerometer]] installed backwards.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.nbcnews.com/id/6301146 |title='Murphy's Law' rules outer space... And NASA still needs to learn how to evade it |work=NBC News |first=James |last=Oberg |author-link=James Oberg |date=October 21, 2004 |access-date=March 8, 2019}}</ref> On January 6, 2006, Ryschkewitsch revealed that a pre-test procedure on the craft was skipped by Lockheed Martin, and he noted that the test could have easily detected the problem.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.space.com/missionlaunches/ap_060107_genesis_update.html |title=Official: Genesis Pre-Launch Test Skipped |work=[[Space.com]] |agency=[[Associated Press]] |date=January 7, 2006 |access-date=April 24, 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060110200423/http://www.space.com/missionlaunches/ap_060107_genesis_update.html |archive-date=January 10, 2006}}</ref>

{{Clear}}

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==External links==
{{Portal|Spaceflight}}
{{Commons category|Genesis (spacecraft)}}
* [https://genesismission.jpl.nasa.gov/ ''Genesis'' home page] by the [[Jet Propulsion Laboratory]]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20190504105535/https://solarsystem.nasa.gov/missions/genesis/in-depth/ ''Genesis'' mission profile] by [http://solarsystem.nasa.gov NASA's Solar System Exploration]
* {{cite web |url=http://anon.nasa-global.speedera.net/anon.nasa-global/genesis/genesis.mov |title=Impact video |format=[[QuickTime]] movie |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20041016170740/http://anon.nasa-global.speedera.net/anon.nasa-global/genesis/genesis.mov |archive-date=October 16, 2004 |url-status=dead}} [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dhCrOdbOUkY Alternate] on YouTube.com.

{{Planetary Missions Program Office|Discovery=y}}
{{Sun spacecraft}}
{{Solar System probes}}
{{Jet Propulsion Laboratory}}
{{Orbital launches in 2001}}

[[Category:NASA space probes]]
[[Category:Missions to the Sun]]
[[Category:Discovery Program]]
[[Category:Derelict satellites in heliocentric orbit]]
[[Category:Lockheed Martin satellites and probes]]
[[Category:Space accidents and incidents in the United States]]
[[Category:Sample return missions]]
[[Category:Space probes launched in 2001]]
[[Category:Spacecraft launched by Delta II rockets]]
[[Category:Spacecraft using Lissajous orbits]]
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