Просмотр кода страницы Английская Википедия:Grassroots environmental activism in the United States–Mexico borderlands

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The [[Mexico–United States border|United States–Mexico border]], also referred to as the borderlands, has received mass media coverage ranging from political concerns to economic and social issues by the United States and Mexico alike.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Stewart |first1=Haeden |last2=Gokee |first2=Cameron |last3=De León |first3=Jason |date=2021-05-27 |title=Counter-infrastructure in the US–Mexico borderlands: some archaeological perspectives |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/00438243.2021.1999854 |journal=World Archaeology |language=en |volume=53 |issue=3 |pages=469–485 |doi=10.1080/00438243.2021.1999854 |s2cid=244928245 |issn=0043-8243}}</ref> For both countries, the borderlands represents a point of contention that is often subject to heightened scrutiny.
[[File:Antique Mexican painting of various animals.jpg|thumb|Antique Mexican painting of a lion, deer, bird, and rabbit illustrates  country's biodiversity.]]
As new infrastructure has been developed throughout the region, for purposes including transportation and national security programs, questions involving its impact on the environment has grown.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Ebner |first=Nina |date=2023 |title=A borderland analytic: Thinking uneven development from the U.S.–Mexico borderlands |url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0308518X231172201 |journal=Environment and Planning A: Economy and Space |language=en |volume=55 |issue=4 |pages=1080–1088 |doi=10.1177/0308518X231172201 |s2cid=258594006 |issn=0308-518X}}</ref> This discussion coincides with the rise in environmental justice campaigns and ongoing research that concerns pollution exposure and its relationship to race and class.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Purdy |first=Jedediah |date=2018 |title="The Long Environmental Justice Movement" |journal=Ecology Law Quarterly |url=https://lawcat.berkeley.edu/record/1128622 |doi=10.15779/Z382F7JR1V|s2cid=157970031 }}</ref> As global organizations address environmental issues in the borderlands, grassroots programs continue to assist their efforts through local means.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Bullard |first1=Robert D. |last2=Johnson |first2=Glenn S. |date=2000 |title=Environmentalism and Public Policy: Environmental Justice: Grassroots Activism and Its Impact on Public Policy Decision Making |url=https://spssi.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/0022-4537.00184 |journal=Journal of Social Issues |language=en |volume=56 |issue=3 |pages=555–578 |doi=10.1111/0022-4537.00184 |issn=0022-4537}}</ref>

== Background ==
[[Environmental activism]] can be characterized by support for environmental and social health and well-being.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|last=Walker |first=Gordon |title=Environmental Justice : Concepts, Evidence and Politics |publisher=Taylor & Francis Group |year=2012 |via=ProQuest Ebook Central}}</ref> With the expansion of academic research and policy-making surrounding concerns for climate change, [[environmental justice]] has also become increasingly prevalent surrounding the language of activism.<ref name=":0" /> As movements have continued to develop, more research has been produced at the national level to consider the relationship between race, socioeconomic level, and the amount of pollution present in particular areas.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last1=Banzhaf |first1=Spencer |last2=Ma |first2=Lala |last3=Timmins |first3=Christopher |date=2019-02-01 |title=Environmental Justice: The Economics of Race, Place, and Pollution |journal=Journal of Economic Perspectives |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=187 |doi=10.1257/jep.33.1.185 |issn=0895-3309|doi-access=free |pmid=30707005 }}</ref> In 2010, a Toxic Release Inventory report on North Carolina from the national database determined there was a relationship between the population density of people of color and the intensity of emissions at chemical plants.<ref name=":1" />

Research on the correlation between larger populations of people of color and increased amounts of emissions across the United States has contributed to the growth of environmental justice movements in non-white communities.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Lazri |first1=Adam McBride |last2=Konisky |first2=David M. |date=2019 |title=Environmental Attitudes Across Race and Ethnicity |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/ssqu.12626 |journal=Social Science Quarterly |language=en |volume=100 |issue=4 |pages=1039–1055 |doi=10.1111/ssqu.12626 |s2cid=151086463 |issn=0038-4941}}</ref> Environmental concerns are also prominent in spaces outside of the United States, including in borderlands along the continental U.S. where crises associated with climate change have implicated [[Latinx]] communities especially.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Miller |first=Char |title=West Side Rising: How San Antonio's 1921 Flood Devastated a City and Sparked a Latino Environmental Justice Movement |publisher=Maverick Books / Trinity University Press |year=2021 |location=United States}}</ref>

Environmental justice in the U.S.-Mexico borderlands has been influenced by the growing industrialization of the region, particularly since the development of the [[NAFTA|North Atlantic Free Trade Agreement]] and its revision into the [[United States–Mexico–Canada Agreement]].<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last=Ibarraran-Bigalondo |first=Amaia |date=2014 |title=The River Runs Red! Is it a Miracle, Is it an Ecological Disaster? Ito Romo's "El Puente/The Bridge" / ¡El río está rojo! ¿Es un milagro, es un desastre ecológico? "El Puente/The Bridge", de Ito Romo |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/43486664 |journal=Atlantis |volume=36 |issue=2 |pages=133–145 |jstor=43486664 |issn=0210-6124}}</ref> Increasing globalization on the border has contributed to growing concerns for environmentalism by Latinx communities.<ref name=":2" /> The globalization of the environmental justice movement further develops more difficulties in understanding local discourse on conversations of environmental injustice, especially considering regional specifics for places like the borderlands.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Johnson |first1=Melissa A. |last2=Niemeyer |first2=Emily D. |date=2008 |title=Ambivalent Landscapes: Environmental Justice in the US–Mexico Borderlands |url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s10745-008-9171-8 |journal=Human Ecology |language=en |volume=36 |issue=3 |pages=371–382 |doi=10.1007/s10745-008-9171-8 |s2cid=146163700 |issn=0300-7839}}</ref> As Latinx communities continue to advocate for environmental restoration, especially at the U.S.-Mexico border, grassroots organizations have proliferated to develop sustainable programs of advocacy.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Norman |first1=Laura M |last2=Pulliam |first2=H Ronald |last3=Girard |first3=Michele M |last4=Buckley |first4=Steve M |last5=Misztal |first5=Louise |last6=Seibert |first6=David |last7=Campbell |first7=Carianne |last8=Callegary |first8=James B |last9=Tosline |first9=Deborah J |last10=Wilson |first10=Natalie R |last11=Hodges |first11=David |last12=Conn |first12=Jeffrey A |last13=Austin-Clark |first13=A Valer |date=2021 |title=Editorial: Combining the Science and Practice of Restoration Ecology—Case studies of a Grassroots Binational Restoration Collaborative in the Madrean Archipelago Ecoregion (2014-2019) |journal=Air, Soil and Water Research |volume=14 |pages=117862212110094 |doi=10.1177/11786221211009478 |issn=1178-6221|doi-access=free }}</ref>

== Industrialization and globalization in the borderlands ==
Borderland environmental justice is shaped by socio-economic and governing conditions in the region, and globalization has operated as a contributing factor affecting social, political, and economic concerns.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last=Prado |first=Carolina |date=2020-11-09 |title=Borderland environmental justice and governance apertures |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/09644016.2019.1629172 |journal=Environmental Politics |volume=29 |issue=7 |pages=1264–1283 |doi=10.1080/09644016.2019.1629172 |s2cid=197823273 |issn=0964-4016}}</ref> [[Globalization]] has increasingly resulted in peripheral countries, including Mexico, to provide materials and workers for projects in countries like the United States.<ref name=":3" /> Therefore, concerns of environmental activism are linked to global movements of work and production which support [[Western world|Western powers]].<ref name=":3" /> The North Atlantic Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) is one such example of how industrial growth through methods of globalization contributed to overpopulation and militarization of the U.S.-Mexico borderland.<ref name=":2" /> Increased industrialization led to ecological destruction in the region from larger concentrations of factories, resulting in pollution and diminished water quality.<ref name=":2" /> Disruptions in biodiversity and more environmental hazards from inadequate sewage systems encouraged Latinx advocacy groups to address concerns at the border especially.

During the 1970s, the number of factories in Mexico grew from 72 to 620 by the end of the decade.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last1=Grineski |first1=Sara E |last2=Collins |first2=Timothy W |last3=Aguilar |first3=María de Lourdes Romo |date=2015-09-01 |title=Environmental injustice along the US–Mexico border: residential proximity to industrial parks in Tijuana, Mexico |journal=Environmental Research Letters |volume=10 |issue=9 |pages=095012 |doi=10.1088/1748-9326/10/9/095012 |issn=1748-9326|doi-access=free }}</ref> Increased animosity with the United States became apparent as most factories were owned by U.S. corporations and products were imported from Mexico to the states. Industrialization resulting from larger globalized projects has been cited as a cause of pollution and [[environmental degradation]] in the borderlands, further developing tensions between the United States and Mexico.<ref name=":4" />

Latinx communities have been increasingly affected by issues of pollution and subsequent climate change.<ref name=":5">{{Cite book |last=Miller |first=Char |title=West Side Rising: How San Antonio's 1921 Flood Devastated a City and Sparked a Latino Environmental Justice Movement |publisher=Maverick Books / Trinity University Press |year=2021 |location=United States}}</ref> The 1921 flood in San Antonio, for example, is attributed more to climate change rather than it being a product of a natural disaster, and Latinx communities have criticized White and middle-class groups for their role played in the ecological disruption of historically Latinx regions.<ref name=":5" />

== Latinx environmental justice organizations ==

=== Colectivo Salud y Justicia Ambiental AC ===
This program, translated to "Collective Health and Environmental Justice AC", is a sister organization of the Environmental Health Coalition.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-09-13 |title=Environmental Health Coalition |url=https://www.environmentalhealth.org/ |access-date=2023-10-05 |publisher=Environmental Health Coalition}}</ref> Based in Tijuana, Mexico since 1993, the group is composed primarily of women and young adult activists and volunteers.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Colectivo Salud y Justicia Ambiental AC |url=https://colectivosja.org/ |access-date=2023-10-05 |publisher=Colectivo Salud y Justicia Ambiental AC |language=es |trans-title=Collective Health and Environmental Justice AC}}</ref> The primary mission of Colectivo Salud y Justicia Ambiental AC is to promote community-building with the environment in mind, especially by advocating for development that is free from contamination.

The program's missions include eliminating strong toxins that affect citizens and homes, empowering communities with educational materials, and creating sustainable project planning.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2019-06-07 |title=Objetivos |url=https://colectivosja.org/objetivos/ |access-date=2023-10-05 |publisher=Colectivo Salud y Justicia Ambiental AC |language=es |trans-title=Objectives}}</ref> Based in Northwestern Mexico near the border of California, the group's projects include advocating for environmental policy initiatives that bolster environmentally friendly practices through alternative and sustainable means. One recent plan is part of a grant from Frontera 2025, an environmental program initiated with the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. This project is dedicated to analyzing pollution in Río Alamar to build on plans that clean and rehabilitate the local area. Collective Salud y Justice Ambiental AC also strives to engage local residents on preventing litter from entering important waterways.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2022-04-08 |title=Análisis de Residuos y Vulnerabilidad Socioambiental en el Arroyo Alamar |url=https://colectivosja.org/analisis-de-residuos-y-vulnerabilidad-socioambiental-en-el-arroyo-alamar/ |access-date=2023-10-05 |publisher=Colectivo Salud y Justicia Ambiental AC |language=es |trans-title=Analysis of Waste and Socio-Environmental Vulnerability in Arroyo Alamar}}</ref>

=== Borderlands Restoration Network ===
The Borderlands Restoration Network works with partnering organizations to establish healthier ecosystems along the U.S.-Mexico border. The network's partnerships include the Cuenca Los Ojos Foundation that began in the 1980s with the goal of supporting the biodiversity of the Madrean Archipelago.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Cuenca Los Ojos |url=https://www.cuencalosojos.org |access-date=2023-10-06 |publisher=Cuenca Los Ojos}}</ref> Founded by Ron Pulliam, the organization has some Latinx representation in each of its administrative branches and works with groups that serve conservation areas extending from Mexico to the southwestern United States.

The network also advocates for [[Restoration economy|restorative economies]] that seek to expand sustainable rather than extractive activities. As such, some of its projects include seed nurseries and wildlife preserves in Patagonia, Arizona.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Home |url=https://www.borderlandswildlifepreserve.org/ |access-date=2023-10-06 |publisher=Borderlands Wildlife Preserve}}</ref> Education and outreach are similarly valued, especially through its Borderlands Earth Care Youth initiative which supports diverse, young people living in the U.S.-Mexico borderlands through fieldwork and community empowerment as well as its Women Grow Food (WGF) program that supports women and girls in collecting food through greenhouse facilities.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Women Grow Food |url=https://www.borderlandsrestoration.org/women-grow-food.html |access-date=2023-10-06 |publisher=Borderlands Restoration Network}}</ref>

=== Pronatura Noroeste ===
Pronatura Noroeste was founded in 1991 as part of the oldest conservation program in Mexico.<ref>{{Cite web|title=About us |url=https://pronatura-noroeste.org/en/about-us/ |access-date=2023-10-06 |website=Pronatura Noroeste AC}}</ref> The organization works with scientific tools and organizations at all levels of government to support the native ecology and communities in the region. Many of Pronatura Noroeste's offices are in northwest Mexico, and the group's focus remains on the conservation of wildlife and ecosystems of the region as a whole.

Its recent projects include shorebird conservation during winter seasons and studying bird migrations of [[least tern]]s near Baja California with the [[Motus (wildlife tracking network)|MOTUS monitoring network]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Pronatura |date=2022-09-27 |title=MOTUS monitoring network |url=https://pronatura-noroeste.org/en/motus-monitoring-network/ |access-date=2023-10-06 |publisher=Pronatura Noroeste AC}}</ref> Marine monitoring is also an important part of Pronatura Noroeste's projects, as the waters in the Gulf of California make Northwest Mexico the habitat of many fish and crustaceans.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Pronatura |date=2022-09-27 |title=Sustainable Fisheries |url=https://pronatura-noroeste.org/en/sustainable-fisheries/ |access-date=2023-10-06 |publisher=Pronatura Noroeste AC}}</ref> Similarly, the economy of red sea urchins for people living in Northwest Mexico makes its biological research important for local communities.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Pronatura |date=2023-08-08 |title=Biological monitoring of Red Sea Urchin in Baja California's coastal strip successfully completed |url=https://pronatura-noroeste.org/en/biological-monitoring-red-sea-urchin-baja-california/ |access-date=2023-10-06 |publisher=Pronatura Noroeste AC}}</ref>

Marine, coastal, and wetland ecosystem conservation compose much of the organization's ecological advocacy. Along with the scientific projects that the group invests in, Pronatura Noroeste also supports local community-building at conservation sites.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Pronatura |date=2023-07-25 |title=Urban artists deliver their ecological vision through murals at Tijuana River conservation site |url=https://pronatura-noroeste.org/en/urban-artists-murals-tijuana-river/ |access-date=2023-10-06 |publisher=Pronatura Noroeste AC}}</ref> The organization ultimately seeks to aid Indigenous and underserved populations by monitoring and preserving forested regions that they rely on.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Pronatura Noroeste |date=2022-09-28 |title=Ejido Pueblo Nuevo, an example of community and government collaboration for responsible use of forest resources |url=https://pronatura-noroeste.org/en/ejido-pueblo-nuevo-community-use-forest-resources/ |access-date=2023-10-06 |publisher=Pronatura Noroeste AC}}</ref>

=== GreenLatinos ===
GreenLatinos is an organized community of Latinx leaders that aims to address climate change through environmental conservation efforts. While not focused on the U.S.-Mexico border itself, the organization has contributed to projects that address Mexican American communities living in the borderlands, including their work with the [[National Parks Conservation Association]] to create a national historic site for the Blackwell School in commemoration of Latinx segregation during the Jim Crow era.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Conservation Advocates Celebrate Blackwell School National Historic Site Designation |url=https://www.greenlatinos.org/news/conservation-advocates-celebrate-blackwell-school-national-historic-site-designation |access-date=2023-10-06 |publisher=GreenLatinos}}</ref>

Some of GreenLatinos' policy priorities include clean air initiatives and education programs. Its recent Climate Justice and Clean Air program successfully launched a virtual collective for partners to join online campaigns.<ref name=":6">{{Cite web |title=Climate Change & Clean Air |url=https://www.greenlatinos.org/climate-and-clean-air |access-date=2023-10-06 |publisher=GreenLatinos}}</ref> The program also serves as a leader in the Methane Partners Campaign to hold the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) in the United States accountable for passing strict rules regarding methane to protect local communities.<ref name=":6" />

Unlike other organizations, while the organization is open to anyone joining its working group, it prioritizes people in Latinx-led organizations and those who live in largely Latinx communities. As a result, many of its team and board members identify as Latinx or are closely associated with predominately Latinx regions, unlike other environmental programs that serve the population.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Team |url=https://www.greenlatinos.org/team |access-date=2023-10-06 |publisher=GreenLatinos}}</ref>

=== References ===
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Wikipedia Student Program]]
[[Category:Environmentalism in Mexico]]
[[Category:Environmentalism in the United States]]
[[Category:Environmental justice]]
[[Category:Environment and society]]
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