Просмотр кода страницы Английская Википедия:Hijra (South Asia)

{{Английская Википедия/Панель перехода}}
{{short description|Third gender of South Asian cultures}}
{{other uses|Hijra (disambiguation)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2023}} 
{{Use Indian English|date=August 2022}} 
{{Infobox gender and sexual identity
| name                = Hijra
| native_name         = 
| native_name_lang    = hi
| image               = Traditional welcome performance, Mitral, Kheda district, Gujarat.jpg
| alt                 = A hijra in a traditional village performance
| caption             = A hijra in a traditional village performance
| pronunciation       = {{IPA-hns|ˈɦɪdʒɽa|}}
| meaning             = Umbrella term for people who are [[trans women]], [[intersex]], and/or [[eunuch]]s
| classification      = Gender identity
| synonyms            = ''Aravani'', ''Jagappa'', ''Kinnar'', ''Khawaja Sira'', ''Khadra'', ''Moorat''
| associated_terms    = [[Bakla]], [[Khanith]], [[Kothi (gender)|Kothi]], [[Kathoey]], [[Third gender]], [[Trans woman]], {{lang|rar|[[Akava'ine]]}}, [[Muxe]]
| culture             = [[South Asia]]n
| regions             = [[Indian subcontinent]]
| region1             = {{flag|India}}
| pop1                = 10 million+<ref name="ROY">{{cite journal|last=Roy|first=Jeff|title=Unveiling Koovagam|journal=World Policy Journal|volume=31|number=2|year=2014|page=93|doi=10.1177/0740277514541061 }}</ref>{{refn|name=|group="n"|This number is for Southeast Asia.}}
| region2             = {{flag|Pakistan}}
| pop2                = 250,000+ (2017){{Citation needed|date=March 2022}}
| region3             = {{flag|Bangladesh}}
| pop3                = 12,000+ (2022)
| legal_recognition   = Yes (India, Bangladesh & Pakistan)
| legal_protection    = Limited
}}
{{Transgender sidebar |image=God_marriage_AS.jpg |caption=An image of the Hindu deity [[Shiva]] depicted in dual-gender form, a manifestation of the variety of third gender themes that have developed in South Asia.}}
{{Anthropology of kinship |studies}}

In the [[Indian subcontinent]], '''hijra'''{{lower|0.3em|<ref group="n">{{lang-hi|{{bigger|हिजड़ा}}}}&nbsp; &nbsp;{{lang-ur|{{bigger|{{Nastaliq|ہِجڑا}}}}}}&nbsp; &nbsp;{{lang-bn|{{bigger|হিজড়া}}}}&nbsp; &nbsp;{{lang-kn|{{bigger|ಹಿಜಡಾ}}}}&nbsp; &nbsp;{{lang-te|{{bigger|హిజ్రా}}}}&nbsp; &nbsp;{{lang-pa|{{bigger|ਹਿਜੜਾ}}}}&nbsp; &nbsp;{{lang-or|{{bigger|ହିନ୍ଜଡା}}}}<br />, and {{bigger|ਖੁਸਰਾ}}/{{bigger|{{lang|pa|کھسرا}}}} ''khusra'' (Punjabi).</ref>}} are [[eunuchs]], [[intersex]] people, or [[transgender]] people who live in communities that follow a kinship system known as guru-chela system.<ref name="theguardian.com"/><ref>{{harvnb|Shaw|Barbour|Duncan|Freehling-Burton|2017}}, {{harvnb|Köllen|2016|p=171}}, {{harvnb|Seow|2017|p=132}}, {{harvnb|Ginicola|Smith|Filmore|2017|p=189}}</ref><ref name="guruchelasystem"/><ref name="whoarehijras">{{cite web
|url=https://lovematters.in/en/sexual-diversity/who-are-the-hijras
|title=Who are the hijras?
|access-date=2022-08-14}}</ref> They are also known as '''aravani''', '''aruvani''', and '''jogappa'''.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://webconte.com/community/hijra|title=Hijra Community, India (Govt.)}}</ref> The term is used in [[Pakistan]] as '''khawaja sira''', the equivalent of transgender in the [[Urdu]] language.<ref>{{Cite web | url=https://www.dawn.com/news/1346253 | title=Engendering rights| date=19 July 2017}}</ref>

In Western terms, most Hijras are [[homosexual]] biological males who prefer to [[crossdress]]. Hijras are officially recognised as a [[third gender]] throughout countries in the Indian subcontinent,<ref>{{harvnb|Shaw|Barbour|Duncan|Freehling-Burton|2017}}, {{harvnb|Bevan|2016|p=70}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://mic.com/articles/87149/7-countries-giving-transgender-people-fundamental-rights-the-u-s-still-won-t|title=7 Countries Giving Transgender People Fundamental Rights the U.S. Still Won't|work=mic.com|access-date=17 June 2016}}<br>{{cite web|url=http://pandeia.eu/region/inter/hijras-and-bangladesh-the-creation-of-a-third-gender/|title=Hijras and Bangladesh: The creation of a third gender|date=2 December 2013|work=pandeia.eu|access-date=17 June 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160705033013/http://pandeia.eu/region/inter/hijras-and-bangladesh-the-creation-of-a-third-gender/|archive-date=5 July 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="Cult. Health Sex.">{{cite journal |last=Hossain |first=Adnan |date=April 2017 |title=The paradox of recognition: ''hijra'', third gender and sexual rights in Bangladesh |journal=[[Culture, Health & Sexuality]] |publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]] |volume=19 |issue=12 |pages=1418–1431 |doi=10.1080/13691058.2017.1317831 |doi-access=free |pmid=28498049 |eissn=1464-5351 |issn=1369-1058 |oclc=41546256 |s2cid=5372595}}</ref> being considered neither completely male nor female. Hijras' identity originates in ancient Hinduism and evolved during the Delhi Sultanate (1226–1526) and Mughal Empire (1526–1707).<ref name=":1"/><ref name="Iyer 2009 421">{{Cite book|last=Iyer|first=Nalini|title=Encyclopedia of Gender and Society, Volume 1|publisher=SAGE|year=2009 |isbn=9781412909167|page=421|chapter=Hijra}}</ref>

Many hijras today live in well-defined and organised all-hijra communities, led by a [[guru]].<ref name="guruchelasystem">{{harvnb|Nanda|1985|loc=pp. 35–54 "The most significant relationship in the hijra community is that of the ''guru'' (master, teacher) and ''chela'' (disciple)."}}<br>{{harvnb|Cohen|1995|loc="Hijras are organized into households with a hijra guru as head, into territories delimiting where each household can dance and demand money from merchants"}}</ref> These communities have consisted over generations of those who are in abject poverty or who have been rejected by or fled their family of origin.{{sfn|Nanda|1999|loc=p. 116 "None of the hijra narratives I recorded supports the widespread belief in India that hijras recruit their membership by making successful claims on intersex infants. Instead, it appears that most hijras join the community in their youth, either out of a desire to more fully express their feminine gender identity, under the pressure of poverty, because of ill treatment by parents and peers for feminine behaviour, after a period of homosexual prostitution, or for a combination of these reasons."}} Many work as [[prostitution|sex workers]].{{sfn|Nanda|1996}}

The word ''hijra'' is a [[Hindustani language|Hindustani]] word.<ref>{{harvnb|Reddy|2010|p=243}} "By and large, the Hindi/Urdu term ''hijra'' is used more often in the north of the country, whereas the Telugu term ''kojja'' is more specific to the state of Andhra Pradesh, of which Hyderabad is the capital."</ref> It has traditionally been translated into English as "eunuch" or "[[hermaphrodite]]", where "the irregularity of the male genitalia is central to the definition".{{sfn|Nanda|1999}} However, in general hijras have been born male, with only a few having been born with intersex variations.{{sfn|Nanda|1991|loc="Among thirty of my informants, only one appeared to have been born intersexed."}} Some hijras undergo an initiation rite into the hijra community called nirvaan, which involves the [[Emasculation|removal of the penis, scrotum and testicles]].{{sfn|Nanda|1996}}

Since the late 20th century, some hijra activists and [[Non-governmental organization|non-government organizations]] have [[Lobbying|lobbied]] for official recognition of the hijra as a kind of "third sex" or "[[third gender]]", as neither man nor woman.{{sfn|Agrawal|1997|pp=273–97}} Hijras have successfully gained this recognition in Bangladesh and are eligible for priority in education and certain kinds of low paid jobs.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.dnaindia.com/india/report-gurus-of-eunuchs-can-not-recommend-castration-govt-1660422|title=Gurus of eunuchs can not recommend castration: Govt|date=9 March 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |first=Mohosinul |last=Karim |title=Hijras now a separate gender |newspaper=Dhaka Tribune |date=11 November 2013 |url=http://www.dhakatribune.com/bangladesh/2013/nov/11/hijras-now-separate-gender |access-date=11 November 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-date=11 November 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131111223441/http://www.dhakatribune.com/bangladesh/2013/nov/11/hijras-now-separate-gender}}</ref> In India, the [[Supreme Court of India|Supreme Court]] in April 2014 recognised hijras, transgender people, eunuchs, and intersex people as a "third gender" in law.<ref name="theguardian.com">{{cite news |title=India recognises transgender people as third gender |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/apr/15/india-recognises-transgender-people-third-gender |access-date=15 April 2014 |newspaper=The Guardian |date=15 April 2014}}</ref><ref name="McCoy">{{cite news |last=McCoy |first=Terrence |title=India now recognizes transgender citizens as 'third gender' |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/morning-mix/wp/2014/04/15/india-now-recognizes-transgender-citizens-as-third-gender/ |access-date=15 April 2014 |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |date=15 April 2014}}</ref><ref name="timesofindia.indiatimes.com">{{cite news |title=Supreme Court recognizes transgenders as 'third gender' |url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Supreme-Court-recognizes-transgenders-as-third-gender/articleshow/33767900.cms |access-date=15 April 2014 |newspaper=The Times of India |date=15 April 2014}}</ref> Nepal, Pakistan, India and Bangladesh have all legally accepted the existence of a third gender, with India, Pakistan and Nepal including an option for them on [[passports]] and certain official documents.<ref>Julfikar Ali Manik and Ellen Barry, "A Transgender Bangladeshi Changes Perceptions After Catching Murder Suspects", ''[[The New York Times]]'', 3 April 2015.</ref>

==Terminology==
The Hindi word ''hijra'' may alternately be romanized as ''hijira'', ''hijda'', ''hijada'', ''hijara'', ''hijrah'' and is pronounced {{IPA-hns|ˈɦɪdʒɽaː}}. This term is generally considered derogatory in Urdu and the term ''Khwaja Sara'' is used instead. Khwaja Sara is sometimes seen as a more respectable term and has been reclaimed by the community given its precolonial origins and more accepted status within Islamic society.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|last=Shroff |first=Sara|chapter=Operationalizing the "New" Pakistani Trans Gender Citizen|editor-last=Roy|editor-first=Ahonaa|title=Gender, Sexuality, Decolonization: South Asia in the World Perspective|publisher=Taylor & Francis|year=2020|isbn=9781000330199}}</ref> Another such term is ''khasuaa'' (खसुआ) or ''khusaraa'' (खुसरा).{{citation needed|date=June 2021}}

A number of terms across the culturally and linguistically diverse Indian subcontinent represent similar sex or gender categories. While these are rough [[synonym]]s, they may be better understood as separate identities due to regional cultural differences. In [[Odia language|Odia]], a hijra is referred to as ''hinjida'' or ''hinjda'', in [[Tamil language|Tamil]] as ''ali'', ''aravanni'', ''aravani'' or ''aruvani'' (often considered derogatory, and have been supplanted by in-community terms rejecting the concept of hijra for a broader trans identity, such as ''thirunangai'' ({{lang-ta|திருநங்கை|tirunaṅkai|label=none}}; "respected woman"),  ''thirunambi'' ({{lang-ta|திருநம்பி|tirunampi|label=none}}; "respected man") and ''thirunar'' ({{lang-ta|திருனர்|tiruṉar|label=none}}; "respected person") for trans woman, man and person respectively),<ref>{{cite thesis|first1=Shakthi|last1=Nataraj|title=Trans-formations: Projects of Resignification in Tamil Nadu's Transgender Rights Movement|url=https://escholarship.org/uc/item/6ws8m6pq|year=2019|publisher=UC Berkeley }}</ref> in [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]] as ''khusra'' or ''jankha'', in [[Kannada]] as ''mangalamukhi'' (ಮಂಗಳಮುಖಿ), in [[sindhi language|Sindhi]] as ''khadro'' ({{Lang-sd|کدڙو}}), and in [[Gujarati language|Gujarati]] as ''pavaiyaa'' (પાવૈયા). In [[Bengali language|Bengali]], hijra is called ''হিজড়া'', ''hijra'', ''hijla'', ''hijre'', ''hizra'', or ''hizre''.{{citation needed|date=June 2021}} In [[Konkani language|Konkani]], they are known as ''hizddem'' or ''hizdô''.

In North India, the goddess [[Bahuchara Mata]] is worshipped by pavaiyaa. {{citation needed|date=May 2023}} In South India, the goddess [[Renuka]] is believed to have the power to change one's sex. Male devotees in female clothing are known as ''jogappa''. They perform similar roles to hijra, such as dancing and singing at birth ceremonies and weddings.{{sfn|Bradford|1983|pp=307–22}}

The word ''[[Kothi (Cult)|kothi]]'' (or ''koti'') is common across India, similar to the [[kathoey]] of Thailand, although kothis are often distinguished from hijras. Kothis are regarded as [[feminine men]] or boys who take a feminine role in sex with men, but do not live in the kind of [[Intentional community|intentional communities]] that hijras usually live in. Additionally, not all kothis have undergone initiation rites or the body modification steps to become a hijra.{{sfn|Reddy|Nanda|1997|pp=275–282}} Local equivalents include ''durani'' ([[Kolkata]]), ''menaka'' ([[Cochin]]),<ref name="Naz">Naz Foundation International, Briefing Paper 3: Developing community-based sexual health services for males who have sex with males in South Asia. August 1999. [http://www.nfi.net/NFI%20Publications/NFI%20Briefing%20Papers/sexual%20health.doc Paper online] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151018022522/http://www.nfi.net/NFI%20Publications/NFI%20Briefing%20Papers/sexual%20health.doc |date=18 October 2015 }} ([[Microsoft Word]] file).</ref> ''meti'' (Nepal), and ''zenana'' (Pakistan).

Hijra used to be translated in English as "eunuch" or "hermaphrodite",{{sfn|Nanda|1999}} although [[LGBT]] historians or human rights activists have sought to include them as being [[transgender]].<ref name="Towle Morgan 2002">{{cite journal |last1=Towle |first1=Evan B. |last2=Morgan |first2=Evan |title=Romancing the Transgender Native: Rethinking the Use of the "Third Gender" Concept |journal=GLQ: A Journal of Lesbian and Gay Studies |volume=8 |date=October 2002 |pages=469–497 |doi=10.1215/10642684-8-4-469 |s2cid=143201735}}</ref> In a series of meetings convened between October 2013 and January 2014 by the transgender experts committee of India's [[Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment]], hijra and other trans activists asked that the term "eunuch" be discontinued from usage in government documents, as it is not a term with which the communities identify.

==Gender and sexuality==

A common misconception of many in Indian society is that ''hijra'' are intersex, [[Asexuality|asexual]] and impotent. This is not fully accurate as many hijra are sexually active, in relationships, or may even partake in sex work.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Stief|first=Matthew|date=2017-01-01|title=The Sexual Orientation and Gender Presentation of Hijra, Kothi, and Panthi in Mumbai, India|journal=Archives of Sexual Behavior|volume=46|issue=1 |pages=73–85 |doi=10.1007/s10508-016-0886-0|pmid=27878410|s2cid=44767139 |issn=1573-2800}}</ref> In India, some Hijras do not define themselves by specific sexual orientation, but rather by renouncing sexuality altogether.  However, these notions can come in conflict with the practical, which is that hijras are often employed as prostitutes.<ref name="Sadhin">Nanda, Serena. "Hijra and Sadhin". ''Constructing Sexualities''. Ed. LaFont, S., New Jersey: Pearson Education, 2003. Print.</ref> Furthermore, in India a feminine male who takes a [[bottom (sex)|"receptive" role in sex]] with a man will often identify as a ''kothi'' (or the local equivalent term). While kothis are usually distinguished from hijras as a separate gender identity, they often dress as women and act in a feminine manner in public spaces, even using feminine language to refer to themselves and each other. The usual partners of hijras and kothis are men who consider themselves heterosexual as they are the ones who penetrate.<ref>See, for example, [http://www.rhcatalyst.org/site/PageServer?pagename=Programs_STI_Prevention_Bangladesh In Their Own Words: The Formulation of Sexual and Reproductive Health Behaviour Among Young Men in Bangladesh] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061007132618/http://www.rhcatalyst.org/site/PageServer?pagename=Programs_STI_Prevention_Bangladesh |date=7 October 2006 }}, Shivananda Khan, Sharful Islam Khan and Paula E. Hollerbach, for the Catalyst Consortium.</ref> These male partners are often married, and any relationships or sex with "kothis" or hijras are usually kept secret from the community at large. Some hijras may form relationships with men and even marry,<ref>See, for example, various reports of [[Sonia Ajmeri]]'s marriage. e.g. [http://www.despardes.com/lifestyle/feb05/eunuch-marriage-0228.htm 'Our relationship is sacred'] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061007033623/http://www.despardes.com/lifestyle/feb05/eunuch-marriage-0228.htm|date=7 October 2006}}, despardes.com</ref> although their marriage is not usually recognised by law or religion. Hijras and kothis often have a name for these masculine sexual or romantic partners; for example, ''panthi'' in Bangladesh, ''giriya'' in [[Delhi]] or ''sridhar'' in [[Cochin]].<ref name="Naz" /> A 2015 study found that self identified ''panthi'' participants reported their sexual orientation as bisexual but otherwise aligned with male-typical in other study measures. Identification as ''hijra'', ''kothi'' and ''panthi'' can be distinguished from Western categories, as they go beyond sexual attraction (such as gay, lesbian or bisexual in the West) to also include gender roles/presentation and preference in sexual position.<ref name=":0" />

A qualitative, interview based study found that those who fall under the umbrella of being hijra tend to identify with certain 'schools of thought' including Khusrapan and Zananapan. These terms refer to categories of hijra functioning. Those who follow Khusrapan identify with being a Hermaphrodite, denouncing sex work while believing that the ancient practices of bestowing prayers and blessings are to be depended on for sustenance. In contrast, the Zananapan school of thought has followers who may be born biologically male but identify with being a woman through their appearance and lifestyle. They often turn to begging or sex work as a consequence of social exclusion.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Abdullah|first1=Muhammad Ahmed |last2=Basharat|first2=Zeeshan|last3=Kamal|first3=Bilal|last4=Sattar|first4=Nargis Yousaf|last5=Hassan |first5=Zahra Fatima|last6=Jan|first6=Asghar Dil|last7=Shafqat|first7=Anum |date=December 2012|title=Is social exclusion pushing the Pakistani Hijras (Transgenders) towards commercial sex work? a qualitative study|journal=BMC International Health and Human Rights|volume=12|issue=1|pages=32 |doi=10.1186/1472-698X-12-32|issn=1472-698X|pmc=3534382|pmid=23163979 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

==History==
The ancient [[Kama Sutra]] mentions the performance of [[fellatio]] by feminine people of a third sex (''tritiya prakriti'').{{sfn|Kama Sutra, 1883 Richard Burton translation|loc=[http://www.kamasutra-sex.org/text/kama209.htm Chapter IX, Of the Auparishtaka or Mouth Congress.]}} This passage has been variously interpreted as referring to men who desired other men, so-called eunuchs ("those disguised as males, and those that are disguised as females"),{{sfn|Kama Sutra, 1883 Richard Burton translation}} male and female trans people ("the male takes on the appearance of a female and the female takes on the appearance of the male"),{{sfn|Artola|1975}} or two kinds of biological males, one dressed as a woman, the other as a man.{{sfn|Sweet|Zwilling|1993|p=600}} Furthermore, in the [[Puranas]] three kinds of ''devas'' or divine beings of music and dance were identified. These included ''apsaras'', ''gandharvas'', and ''kinnars'', with the former two referring to female and male while the latter refers to 'neuters'. Additionally, the early writings of the [[Manu Smriti]] explained the biological origin of the sexes, identifying a third sex that could result if there was an equal prevalence of male and female 'seed'.<ref name=":3" />

=== Islamic era ===
Hijra identity and culture is documented to have evolved during the [[Delhi Sultanate]] (1226–1526) and [[Mughal Empire]] (1526–1707), where hijras held positions as servants for elite households, [[working class|manual laborers]], military commanders, political advisors, and guardians of the [[harem]].<ref name=":1"/><ref name="Iyer 2009 421"/>

[[Franciscans|Franciscan]] travelers in the 1650s noted the presence of "men and boys who dress like women" roaming the streets of [[Thatta]], in modern [[Pakistan]]. The presence of these individuals was taken to be a sign of the city's depravity.{{sfn|Lach|1998|p=694}}

=== British colonialism and the anti-Hijra campaign (1858–1947) ===
[[File:Hijra and companions in Eastern Bengal.jpg|thumb|upright|Hijra and companions in Eastern Bengal in 1860]]
Beginning in the 1850s, colonial authorities deployed various strategies to end hijra practices, which they saw as "a breach of public decency" and incapable of "moral transformation," as part of their influence on [[Sexuality in India#Colonial-era|colonial-era sexuality in India]]. {{sfn|Preston|1987|pp=371–87}} Although hijras were already criminalised by Section 377 of the Indian Penal Code, in 1861, authorities of the [[North-Western Provinces]] (NWP) sought to enact a 'special law' against hijras.{{sfn|Hinchy|2019|pp=95–109}} By 1870, no high-ranking British officials argued against the implementation of special legislation to address the 'hijra problem', thus solidifying an anti-hijra campaign all across the [[Indian subcontinent]].{{sfn|Hinchy|2019|pp=95–109}}

Anti-hijra laws were enacted, including a law outlawing castration, a marginal practice of the hijra community, although it was rarely enforced. The hijra were included in the [[Criminal Tribes Act]] (1871), subject to registration, monitoring and stigmatisation.{{sfn|Reddy|2010|p=25}}{{sfn|Hinchy|2019|pp=95–109}} Because of economic costs, hijras and other so-called "criminal tribes" were unable to be collectively sequestered from colonial society. British Lieutenant-Governor [[Edmund Drummond]] (1814–1895) framed the anti-hijra campaign as a necessary project. Hijras were monitored with the hope of ending hijra practices.{{sfn|Hinchy|2019|pp=95–109}} Since the passage of the Criminal Tribes Act (1871), hijras could not possess children. This law also prevented the initiation—castration—as the administrators argued that hijra children did not or could not consent to it.{{sfn|Hinchy|2019|pp=95–109}}

=== Post-colonial era (1947–present) ===
Hijra communities remain throughout modern states of Pakistan, India, Nepal and Bangladesh, although they continue to face social marginalisation and police abuse.{{sfn|Hinchy|2019|p=2}} In the late 20th and early 21st centuries, hijras became the subject of more attention, being the focus of numerous documentaries, news features, ethnographies, monographs and dissertations. [[Gayatri Reddy]] writes that in the 21st century, hijras have also been 'mainstreamed' into popular films: "given this history of near invisibility, the recent attention focused on hijras has been unsettling for both hijras and non-hijras."{{sfn|Reddy|2010|p=3}}

==Social status and economic circumstances==
[[File:Separate tiolets for three genders.jpg|thumb|Male, female and hijra [[public toilet]]s in India]]
Most hijras live at the margins of society with very low status; the very word "hijra" is sometimes used in a derogatory manner. The Indian lawyer and author [[Rajesh Talwar]] has written a book, titled ''The Third Sex and Human Rights'', highlighting the human rights abuses suffered by the community.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.amazon.com/author/rajeshtalwar|title=Rajesh Talwar|publisher=Amazon |access-date=23 August 2015}}{{failed verification |date=January 2022}}</ref> Few employment opportunities are available to hijras. Many get their income from performing at ceremonies (toli), begging (dheengna), or [[prostitution]] ('raarha')—an occupation of eunuchs also recorded in premodern times. Violence against hijras, especially those who are prostitutes, is often brutal, and occurs in public spaces, police stations, prisons, and their homes.<ref>{{cite report |title=Ravaging the Vulnerable: Abuses Against Persons at High Risk of HIV Infection in Bangladesh |publisher=[[Human Rights Watch]] |date=August 2003 |series=Vol. 15, No. 6(C) |url=https://www.hrw.org/reports/2003/bangladesh0803/index.htm |access-date=4 December 2016 |archive-date=5 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305164104/https://www.hrw.org/reports/2003/bangladesh0803/index.htm |url-status=dead }}<br>See also: [http://www.altlawforum.org/PUBLICATIONS/PUCL%20REPORT%202003 Peoples Union of Civil Liberties (Karnataka) Report on Human Rights Violations Against the Transgender Community] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070202173932/http://altlawforum.org/PUBLICATIONS/PUCL%20REPORT%202003 |date=2 February 2007 }}, released in September 2003. Reported in [http://www.countercurrents.org/gen-narrain141003.htm Being a Eunuch], By Siddarth Narrain, for Frontline, 14 October 2003.</ref> As with [[transgender]] people in most of the world, they face extreme discrimination in health, housing, education, employment, immigration, law, and any bureaucracy that is unable to place them into male or female gender categories.<ref>{{cite report |title=Trans Realities: A Legal Needs Assessment of San Francisco's Transgender Communities |date=2003 |author1=Shannon Minter |author2=Christopher Daley |name-list-style=amp |url=http://transgenderlawcenter.org/trans/pdfs/Trans%20Realities%20Final%20Final.pdf |access-date=2009-10-15 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110728122027/http://transgenderlawcenter.org/trans/pdfs/Trans%20Realities%20Final%20Final.pdf |archive-date=28 July 2011}}</ref>

===Housing===
The aforementioned all-hijra communities are where many hijra seek refuge and move in. These are made up of a hierarchical structure with large groups of hijras from different areas forming lineages or ''gharanas''. A ''naayak'' is the head and primary decision maker for a gharana, determining policies for the community. Falling under naayaks are ''gurus'' (lit. "teachers"). Gurus are above community members and regulate daily life in the housing space (known as a ''dera''). The followers of a ''guru'' are called ''chelas''. Traditionally, teachers and their disciples use these terms in many domains such as religious learning; however, they bear specific meaning in hijra communities as being about cultural learning—hijra chelas are taught about hijra customs by their guru. These communities reflect similarities to Western notions of [[found family]].<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last1=Singh |first1=Himanshi |last2=Kumar|first2=Pradeep |date=14 September 2020 |title=Hijra: An Understanding |journal=Journal of Psychosocial Research |volume=15 |pages=77–87 |doi=10.32381/jpr.2020.15.01.6 |s2cid=229027899 |issn=0973-5410}}</ref><ref name=dna>{{cite web |url=https://www.dnaindia.com/mumbai/report-it-s-all-about-the-guru-for-hijra-community-chelas-2050269 |access-date=4 June 2022 |last1=Malu |first1=Preksha |website=DNA India |title=It's all about the guru for hijra community chelas |date=15 April 2015}}</ref>

In these communities, the hijras usually refer to each other in feminine terms. Thus, they refer to their relations as sisters with those who fall around their age range or aunt with those older than them, and so on.<ref name=":3" />

In October 2013, Pakistani Christians and Muslims (Shia and Sunni) put pressure on the landlords of Imamia Colony to evict any [[transgender]] residents. I. A. Rehman, the director of the [[Human Rights Commission of Pakistan]], said, "Generally in Pakistan, Khwaja Sira are not under threat. But they are in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Province because of a 'new Islam' under way."<ref>{{cite news |title=Despite Gains, Pakistan's Transgender Community Under Attack |url=http://www.rferl.org/content/pakistan-transgender-eunuchs/25148690.html |access-date=16 February 2014 |newspaper=Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty |date=26 October 2013}}</ref>

===Healthcare===
The social status of hijra in society plays a part in their difficulty accessing healthcare services as physicians will turn hijra clients away, saying their presence will disturb other clients. Hijra have to hide their identities or can not disclose illnesses such as STIs. Most medical practitioners are also not well educated and informed enough on hijra or sexuality, further contributing to this issue. Social exclusion of the ''hijra'' also has some severe consequences for their health.<ref name="Khan 2009">{{cite journal |last1=Khan |first1=Sharful Islam |last2=Hussain |first2=Mohammed Iftekher |last3=Parveen |first3=Shaila |last4=Bhuiyan |first4=Mahbubul Islam |last5=Gourab |first5=Gorkey |last6=Sarker |first6=Golam Faruk |last7=Arafat |first7=Shohael Mahmud |last8=Sikder |first8=Joya |title=Living on the Extreme Margin: Social Exclusion of the Transgender Population (Hijra) in Bangladesh |journal=Journal of Health, Population, and Nutrition |date=2009 |volume=27 |issue=4 |pages=441–451 |issn=1606-0997|pmc=2928103 |pmid=19761079 |doi=10.3329/jhpn.v27i4.3388}}</ref>

''Hijra'' in Dhaka, Bangladesh were found to have the highest syphilis rates out of all at-risk groups in the city.<ref name="Khan 2009"/> In a study of Bangladeshi hijras, participants reported not being allowed to seek healthcare at the private chambers of doctors, and experiencing abuse if they go to government hospitals.<ref name="Khan 2009"/>

In 2008, [[HIV]] prevalence was 27.6% amongst hijra sex workers in [[Larkana]], Pakistan.<ref>{{cite journal |year=2012|title=Awareness about sexually transmitted infections among Hijra sex workers of Rawalpindi/Islamabad |url=https://www.cabdirect.org/cabdirect/abstract/20133095754|journal=Pakistan Journal of Public Health}}</ref> The general prevalence of HIV among the adult Pakistani population is estimated at 0.1%.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bokhari|first1=Asma|last2=Nizamani|first2=Naseer M.|last3=Jackson |first3=Denis J.|last4=Rehan|first4=Naghma E.|last5=Rahman|first5=Motiur|last6=Muzaffar|first6=Rana |last7=Mansoor|first7=Samina|last8=Raza|first8=Hasan |last9=Qayum|first9=Kanwal|last10=Girault |first10=Philippe|last11=Pisani|first11=Elizabeth|last12=Thaver|first12=Inayat|year=2007|title=HIV risk in Karachi and Lahore, Pakistan: an emerging epidemic in injecting and commercial sex networks |journal=International Journal of STD & AIDS|volume=18|issue=7|pages=486–492|pmid=17623508|s2cid=30097917 |doi=10.1258/095646207781147201}}</ref>

The aforementioned social inequalities and medical negligence also make hijra sex workers a more vulnerable population to HIV. Protection is not usually used in {{Clarify|text=coerced sex|reason=Doing sex work is distinct from being sexually abused|date=January&nbsp;2023}}, increasing risk of direct exposure to HIV.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last1=Ganju|first1=Deepika|last2=Saggurti|first2=Niranjan|date=2017-01-30 |title=Stigma, violence and HIV vulnerability among transgender persons in sex work in Maharashtra, India |journal=Culture, Health & Sexuality |volume=19|issue=8|pages=903–917|doi=10.1080/13691058.2016.1271141 |issn=1369-1058|pmc=6176758|pmid=28132601}}</ref> 40% of the sample in a Pakistan study on HIV reported experiencing forced sex or abuse. Additionally, of this sample, 58% of participants had STI's, the most common being syphilis and gonorrhoea.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Khan|first1=A. A.|last2=Rehan|first2=N. |last3=Qayyum|first3=K.|last4=Khan|first4=A.|date=December 2008|title=Correlates and prevalence of HIV and sexually transmitted infections among Hijras (male transgenders) in Pakistan|journal=International Journal of STD & AIDS|volume=19|issue=12|pages=817–820 |doi=10.1258/ijsa.2008.008135|pmid=19050211 |s2cid=20781118 |issn=0956-4624}}</ref>

An Indian study consisting of 68 transgender participants reported that respondents expressed having intense feelings of low self-worth, shame, depression and suicidal thoughts, internalizing the negative views the society around them holds. Many hijra experience a lack of a support system, facing rejection from family members or difficulties in terms of maintaining steady relationships with romantic partners. This rejection from society contributes to struggles with mental health as well as trans sex workers feeling obligated to accept the violence and stigmas they are subject to.<ref name=":2" />

===Criminalization of sexuality===
After India's Supreme Court re-criminalized homosexual sex on 11 December 2013, there was a sharp increase in physical, psychological and sexual violence against the [[transgender]] community by the [[Indian Police Service]], which often does not investigate reports of sexual assault against them.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.gaystarnews.com/article/indian-transgender-activist-resists-molest-police-officer-gets-beaten040114 |title=Indian transgender activist resists molest[ation?] by police officer, gets beaten up |publisher=Gay Star News |access-date=2 February 2014 |archive-date=22 February 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140222142851/http://www.gaystarnews.com/article/indian-transgender-activist-resists-molest-police-officer-gets-beaten040114 |url-status=dead }}</ref> On 6 September 2018, the Supreme Court overturned India's [[Section 377]], which criminalized [[anal sex|anal]] and [[oral sex]].<ref name="toi-judgement2018">{{cite news |last1=Mahapatra |first1=Dhananjay |last2=Choudhary |first2=Amit Anand |title=SC decriminalises Section 377, calls 2013 ruling 'arbitrary and retrograde'|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/sc-decriminalises-section-377-calls-2013-ruling-arbitrary-and-retrograde/articleshow/65712063.cms |work=The Times of India |date=7 September 2018}}</ref>

===Education and employment===
In an ethnographic study on the ''hijra'' experience in Bangladesh, many ''hijra'' recounted childhood experiences of facing abuse and isolation from their peers for presenting as feminine males. Additionally, many ''hijra'' reported facing abuse and humiliation from their teachers as well, making school an unfriendly and uncomfortable environment for them.  These experiences ultimately resulted in their reluctance to attend school or continue education. This lack of education ends up playing a role in unemployment rates of Hijra. Hijra in Bangladesh also experience sexual harassment and abuse at work, being removed from their jobs when outed as hijra or denied from jobs in general. They face accusations of disturbing the workplace environment.<ref name="Khan 2009"/>

Being turned away from traditional careers, many hijra have become involved in sex work. However, this has its own problems as Hijras face harassment, forced unprotected sex and assault from clients but many are not able to report it due to fear of harassment from the police as well.<ref name="Khan 2009"/>

In 2002, nearly 5,000 people attended the All India Eunuch Conference held in Varanasi; the conference's platform demanded that universities and government open more job opportunities to this population.<ref>{{Cite news|agency=Associated Press|date=30 December 2002|title=Indian eunuchs demand jobs in universities, government|work=The Globe and Mail|url=https://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/world/indian-eunuchs-demand-jobs-in-universities-government/article22398418/|access-date=2020-08-19}}</ref> On 15 April 2014, in ''[[National Legal Services Authority v. Union of India]]'', the [[Supreme Court of India]] ruled that transgender people should be treated as a third category of gender or as a [[Other Backward Class|socially and economically "backward" class]] entitled to proportional access and representation in education and jobs.<ref name="sc">{{cite web|title=Supreme Court's Third Gender Status to Transgenders is a landmark|url=http://news.biharprabha.com/2014/04/supreme-courts-third-gender-status-to-transgenders-is-a-landmark/|access-date=15 April 2014|work=IANS|publisher=news.biharprabha.com}}</ref><!--[Surplus?:] While the ruling was hailed by activists and transgender people alike, it is said that a broad social acceptance will take longer because of the stigma associated with them.<ref name="sc" />-->

Beginning in 2006, hijras were engaged to accompany [[Patna]] city revenue officials to collect unpaid taxes, receiving a 4-percent commission.<ref>{{cite news|date=9 November 2006|title=Indian eunuchs help collect taxes|publisher=CNN|agency=Associated Press|url=http://www.cnn.com/2006/WORLD/asiapcf/11/09/india.eunuchs.ap/index.html|access-date=23 December 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061201185313/http://www.cnn.com/2006/WORLD/asiapcf/11/09/india.eunuchs.ap/index.html|archive-date=1 December 2006}}</ref><!--this one-sentence paragraph seems lobbed in here at random, perhaps to make a point. Could it be tied in or attached to another paragraph?-->

==Language==

The hijra community developed a secret language known as [[Hijra Farsi]].<ref name="unnatural">{{harvnb|Hall|2001|loc=pp. 133–162 "In Delhi the hijras have named their language ''Farsi''. While their "hijralect" has very little, if anything, to do with what is generally known as "Farsi", the term is fitting given that the hijras see themselves as descended from the eunuchs of the medieval Moghul courts, where Farsi was the dominant language.}}</ref> The language has a sentence structure loosely based on [[Hindustani language|Hindi]]<ref name="unnatural" /> and a unique vocabulary of at least a thousand words.{{citation needed|date=May 2018}} Some of the kinship terms and names for rituals used by the Hindi-speaking Hijra community are different in use from those used by people outside the Hijra community. For example, ''dādī'', the Standard Hindi for ''paternal grandmother'', is used in the Hijra community to address one's guru's guru.<ref>{{cite conference |last=Hall |first=K. |year=1996 |title=Lexical subversion in India's Hijra community |book-title=Gender and Belief Systems: Proceedings of the Third Berkeley Women and Language Conference |location=Berkeley, CA |publisher=Berkeley Women and Language Group |pages=279–292 |url=https://www.colorado.edu/faculty/hall-kira/sites/default/files/attached-files/hall-1996-lexical_subversion_in_the_hijra_community.pdf}}</ref> Beyond the Urdu-Hindi speaking areas of subcontinent the vocabulary is still used by the hijra community within their own native languages.{{citation needed|date=May 2018}}

==In politics of South Asia==
[[File:Hijra Protest Islamabad.jpg|thumb|Hijras protesting in [[Islamabad]], the capital of Pakistan]]
The governments of both India (1994)<ref>{{cite news |title=Politicians of the third gender: the "shemale" candidates of Pakistan |url=http://www.newstatesman.com/world-affairs/2013/05/politicians-third-gender-shemale-candidates-pakistan |newspaper=New Statesman}}</ref> and Pakistan (2009){{sfn|Usmani|2009}} have recognised hijras as a "third sex", thus granting them the basic civil rights of every citizen. In India, hijras now have the option to identify as a eunuch ("E") on passports and on certain government documents.{{citation needed|date=August 2022}} They are not, however, fully accommodated; in order to vote, for example, citizens must identify as either male or female. There is also further discrimination from the government. In the 2009 general election, India's election committee denied three hijras candidature unless they identified themselves as either male or female. In 2013, transgender people in Pakistan were given their first opportunity to stand for election.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-22208601 |publisher=BBC News |title=Transgender Pakistanis join election fight for first time |date=18 April 2013}}</ref> [[Sanam Fakir]], a 32-year-old hijra, ran as an independent candidate for [[Sukkur Division|Sukkur]], Pakistan's general election in May.<ref>{{cite news |last=Pinfold |first=Corinne |title=Pakistan: First trans woman in general election says the community is 'more than dancers and beggars' |publisher=PinkNews |date=26 February 2013 |access-date=12 November 2013 |url=http://www.pinknews.co.uk/2013/02/26/pakistan-first-trans-woman-in-general-election-says-the-community-is-more-than-dancers-and-beggars/}}</ref>

In April 2014, Justice [[K. S. Panicker Radhakrishnan|K. S. Radhakrishnan]] declared [[transgender]] to be the third gender in Indian law in [[National Legal Services Authority v. Union of India]].<ref name="theguardian.com"/><ref name="McCoy"/><ref name="timesofindia.indiatimes.com"/> The ruling said:<ref name="TGruling">{{cite court |litigants=National Legal Services Authority ... Petitioner Versus Union of India and others ... Respondents |court=Supreme Court of India |date=15 April 2014 |url=http://pastebin.com/9a5g8Qmr |access-date=15 April 2014 }}</ref>

<blockquote>Seldom, our society realises or cares to realise the trauma, agony and pain which the members of Transgender community undergo, nor appreciates the innate feelings of the members of the Transgender community, especially of those whose mind and body disown their biological sex. Our society often ridicules and abuses the Transgender community and in public places like railway stations, bus stands, schools, workplaces, malls, theatres,

hospitals, they are sidelined and treated as untouchables, forgetting the fact that the moral failure lies in the society's unwillingness to contain or embrace different gender identities and expressions, a mindset which we have to change.</blockquote>

Justice Radhakrishnan said that transgender people should be treated consistently with other minorities under the law, enabling them to access jobs, healthcare and education.<ref>{{cite news|title=India court recognises transgender people as third gender|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-india-27031180|access-date=15 April 2014|publisher=BBC News|date=15 April 2014}}</ref> He framed the issue as one of human rights, saying that, "These TGs, even though insignificant in numbers, are still human beings and therefore they have every right to enjoy their human rights", concluding by declaring that:<ref name="TGruling" />

<blockquote>
# Hijras, [[Eunuch]]s, apart from binary gender, be treated as "third gender" for the purpose of safeguarding their rights under Part III of our Constitution and the laws made by the Parliament and the State Legislature.
# Transgender persons' right to decide their self-identified gender is also upheld and the Centre and State Governments are directed to grant legal recognition of their gender identity such as male, female or as third gender.
</blockquote>

A bill supported by all political parties was tabled in Indian parliament to ensure transgender people get benefits akin reserved communities like SC/STs and is taking steps to see that they get enrollment in schools and jobs in government besides protection from sexual harassment.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.deccanherald.com/content/465345/govt-bring-policy-transgenders.html|title=Govt to bring policy for transgenders|work=Deccan Herald|access-date=23 August 2015|date=2015-03-13}}</ref>

In the 1990s, about 10,000 people belonged to a national organisation called Treetiya Panthi Sanghatana (TPS). As of 2003, the president was Kajal Nayak.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Week-long eunuch meet at A'nagar |url=http://cities.expressindia.com/fullstory.php?newsid=48793 |date=8 April 2003|work=PUNE Newsline (India)|access-date=8 April 2003}}{{dead link|date=February 2023|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref> A younger Kajal Nayak, who was 27 years old in 2019, is the president of [[Jajpur]]'s Transgender Association.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Transgender MLA Candidate Kajal Nayak Clears Matric Exams |url=https://kalingatv.com/state/transgender-mla-candidate-kajal-nayak-clears-matric-exams/ |date=2019-05-22|website=KalingaTV |access-date=2020-03-21}}</ref>

==In religion==
[[File:Kuvagam hijras.jpg|thumb|right|upright|The Indian transgender hijras or Aravanis ritually marry the Hindu god [[Iravan|Aravan]] and then mourn his ritual death (seen) in an 18-day festival in [[Koovagam]], India.]]

Many practise a form of [[syncretism]] that draws on multiple religions; seeing themselves to be neither men nor women, hijras practice rituals for both men and women.

They are usually devotees of the mother goddess [[Bahuchara Mata]], [[Shiva]], or both.{{citation needed|date=August 2022}}

===Bahuchara Mata===
[[Bahuchara Mata]] is a Hindu goddess with two unrelated stories both associated with transgender behavior. One story is that she appeared in the avatar of a princess who castrated her husband because he would run in the woods and act like a woman rather than have sex with her.{{Citation needed|date=March 2021}} Another story is that a man tried to rape her, so she cursed him with [[Erectile dysfunction|impotence]].{{Citation needed|date=March 2021}} When the man begged her forgiveness to have the curse removed, she relented only after he agreed to run in the woods and act like a woman.{{Citation needed|date=March 2021}} The primary temple to this goddess is located in [[Gujarat]]<ref name="Frontline2504">{{harvnb|Venkat|2008}}</ref> and it is a place of pilgrimage for hijras, who see Bahuchara Mata as a patroness.

===Ardhanarishvara===

One of the forms of Shiva is called [[Ardhanari|Ardhanarishvara]], a composite representation with one half of the form featuring [[Parvati]]. Ardhanarishvara has special significance as a patron of hijras, who identify with the gender ambiguity.<ref name="Frontline2504" /> According to legend, the sage [[Bhringi]] wished to venerate only Shiva, and ignored Parvati, while worshipping and [[Parikrama|circumambulating]] him. Agitated, Parvati cursed Bhringi to lose all his flesh and blood, reducing him to a skeleton. In this form Bhringi could not stand erect, so the compassionate ones who witnessed the scene blessed the sage with a third leg for support. As her attempt to humiliate the sage had failed, Parvati punished herself with austerities that pleased Shiva and led him to grant her the boon of uniting with him, thereby compelling Bhringi to worship the divine couple in the form of Ardhanarishvara, a combined form of the deities, believed to integrate the masculine and the feminine.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2010-11-21 |title=Ardhanareshwara : Devdutt Pattanaik |url=http://devdutt.com/ardhanareshwara-the-hierarchy-of-halves/ |access-date=2023-11-18 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101121175321/http://devdutt.com/ardhanareshwara-the-hierarchy-of-halves/ |archive-date=21 November 2010 }}</ref> 

===In the ''Ramayana''===

In some versions of the ''[[Ramayana]]'',<ref name="Bockrath2003">"Many, if not most, translations of Valmiki's Ramayana do not contain this reference." Joseph T. Bockrath, "[http://heinonline.org/HOL/LandingPage?collection=journals&handle=hein.journals/lstf27&div=8&id=&page= Bhartia Hijro Ka Dharma]: The Code of India's Hijra", ''Legal Studies Forum'' '''83''' (2003).</ref> when [[Rama]] leaves [[Ayodhya (Ramayana)|Ayodhya]] for his 14-year exile, a crowd of his subjects follow him into the forest because of their devotion to him. Soon Rama notices this, and gathers them to tell them not to mourn, and that all the "men and women" of his kingdom should return to their places in Ayodhya. Rama then leaves for 14 years. When he returns to Ayodhya, he finds that the hijras, being neither men nor women, have not moved from the place where he gave his speech. Impressed with their devotion, Rama grants hijras the boon to confer blessings on people during auspicious inaugural occasions like childbirth and weddings. Specifically, hijras will perform and bestow their blessings when a son is born. This boon is the origin of ''badhai'' in which hijras sing, dance and give blessings.<ref name="Frontline2021">{{harvnb|Narrain|2006}}</ref>

===In the ''Mahabharata''===
[[File:Kuvagam Kuttantavar.jpg|thumb|upright|Kuttantavar festival in [[Koovagam]] ]]
The ''[[Mahabharata]]'' includes an episode in which [[Arjuna]], a hero of the epic, is sent into exile. There he assumes an identity of a eunuch-transvestite and performs rituals during weddings and childbirths that are now performed by hijras.<ref name="Sadhin" />

In another episode, before the [[Kurukshetra War]], [[Iravan|Aravan]] offers his lifeblood to [[Kali|goddess Kali]] to ensure victory for the [[Pandavas]], and Kali agrees. On the night before the battle, Aravan expresses a desire to get married before he dies. No woman was willing to marry a man doomed to die in a few hours, so Lord [[Krishna]] (as [[Mohini]]) marries him. In South India, hijras claim Aravan as their progenitor and call themselves ''aravanis''.<ref name="Frontline2021" />

Each year in [[Tamil Nadu]], during April and May, hijras celebrate an eighteen-day religious festival at a temple located in the village [[Koovagam]] in the [[Ulundurpettai|Ulundurpet]] [[taluk]] in [[Villupuram]] district. The temple is devoted to the deity Koothandavar, who is identified with Aravan. During the festival, the hijras reenact the wedding of Lord Krishna and Lord Aravan, followed by Aravan's subsequent sacrifice. They then mourn Aravan's death through ritualistic dances and by breaking their [[bangle]]s. An annual beauty pageant is also held, as well as various health and HIV/AIDS focused seminars. Hijras from all over the country travel to this festival. [[BBC Three]] documentary ''India's Ladyboys'' as well as the [[National Geographic Channel]] television series ''[[Taboo (2002 TV series)|Taboo]]'' depict personal experiences of hijras attending this festival.

===In Islam===
{{further|LGBT in Islam}}
There is evidence that Indian hijras identifying as Muslim also incorporate aspects of Hinduism. Still, despite this [[syncretism]], [[Gayatri Reddy]] notes that hijra do not practise Islam differently from other Muslims and argues that their syncretism does not make them any less Muslim.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Reddy, Gayatri.|title=With respect to sex: negotiating hijra identity in South India|date=2005|publisher=University of Chicago Press|isbn=978-0-226-70754-9|location=Chicago|oclc=655225261}}</ref> Reddy also documents an example of how this syncretism manifests: in [[Hyderabad]], India, a group of Muslim converts were [[Khitan (circumcision)|circumcised]], something seen as the quintessential marker of male Muslim identity.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Hijras, 'AIDS Cosmopolitanism' and the Politics of Care in Hyderabad|last=Reddy|first=Gayatri|date=2008|doi=10.1037/e618052011-025}}</ref>

==In films and literature==

===India===

''Hijras'' have been portrayed on screen in [[Cinema of India|Indian cinema]] since its inception, historically as [[comic relief]]. A notable turning point occurred in 1974 when real ''hijras'' appeared during a song-and-dance sequence in ''[[Kunwara Baap (1974 film)|Kunwaara Baap]]'' ("The Unmarried Father"). The Hindi movie ''[[Amar Akbar Anthony]]'' (1977) features ''hijras'' who accompany one of the heroes, Akbar ([[Rishi Kapoor]]), in a song entitled "''Tayyab Ali Pyar Ka Dushman''" ("Tayyab Ali, the Enemy of Love").

* In ''[[Soorma Bhopali]]'' (1988), [[Jagdeep]] encounters a troupe of ''hijras'' on his arrival in Bombay. The leader of this pack is also played by Jagdeep himself.
* One of the main characters in [[Khushwant Singh]]'s novel ''[[Delhi: A Novel|Delhi]]'' (1990), Bhagmati, is a ''hijra''. She makes a living as a semi-prostitute and is wanted in the diplomatic circles of the city.
* One of the first sympathetic ''hijra'' portrayals was in Mani Ratnam's [[Bombay (film)|''Bombay'']] (1995). 1997's ''[[Tamanna (1997 film)|Tamanna]]''<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0205445/|title=Tamanna (1998)|author=Kron-3|date=13 April 1998|publisher=IMDb|access-date=23 August 2015}}</ref> starred male actor [[Paresh Rawal]] in a central role as "Tiku", a ''hijra'' who raises a young orphan. [[Pooja Bhatt]] produced and also starred in the movie, with her father [[Mahesh Bhatt]] co-writing and directing.
* The 1997 Hindi film ''[[Darmiyaan: In Between]]'', directed & co-written by [[Kalpana Lajmi]], is based on the subject of ''hijras'', with a fictitious story of an actress bearing a son that turns out to be neuter.
* [[Kishor Shantabai Kale|Kishor Shatabai Kale]]'s novel, ''Hijara Ek Mard [Eunuch, A Man],'' was adapted for the stage in 1998''.'' The play was titled ''Andharyatra.''<ref>{{Cite web|date=20 April 1998|title=Rediff on the NeT: Noted novelist to portray eunuch in Marathi play|url=https://www.rediff.com/news/1998/apr/20eunuch.htm|access-date=2020-10-20|website=rediff.com}}</ref>
* In the 2000 Tamil film ''[[Appu (2000 film)|Appu]]'', directed by [[Vasanth]] and a remake of the Hindi film ''Sadak'', the antagonist is a brothel-owning ''hijra'' played by [[Prakash Raj]]. (In ''Sadak'', the brothel-owning character was played by [[Sadashiv Amrapurkar]] under the name "Maharani".)
* In [[Anil Kapoor]]'s ''[[Nayak (2001 Hindi film)|Nayak]]'' (2001), [[Johnny Lever]], who plays the role of the hero's assistant, gets beaten up by hijras, when he is caught calling them "hijra" (he is in habit of calling almost everyone who bothers him by this pejorative and no one cares much, except this once ironically, as the addressees are literally what he is calling them.)
* There is a brief appearance of ''hijras'' in the 2004 [[Gurinder Chadha]] film ''[[Bride & Prejudice]]'', singing to a bride-to-be in the marketplace.
* Deepa Mehta's controversial film ''[[Water (2005 film)|Water]]'' (2005) features the ''hijra'' character "Gulabi" (played by [[Raghubir Yadav]]), who has taken to introducing the downtrodden, outcast widows of [[Varanasi]] to prostitution.
* [[Vijay TV]]'s ''[[Ippadikku Rose]]'' (2008), a Tamil show conducted by postgraduate educated transgender woman Rose, was a very successful program that discussed various issues faced by youth in Tamil Nadu, where she also gave her own experiences.
* In addition to numerous other themes, the 2008 movie ''[[Welcome to Sajjanpur]]'' by [[Shyam Benegal]] explores the role of ''hijras'' in Indian society.
* ''[[Jogwa]]'', a 2009 Marathi film, depicts the story of a man forced to be ''hijra'' under certain circumstances. The movie has received several accolades.<ref>{{cite web|title=Jogwa: societal grime with aesthetic beauty|url=http://wogma.com/article/jogwa-societal-grime-with-aesthetic-beauty|access-date=23 August 2015}}</ref>
* The 2011 film ''[[Queens! Destiny of Dance]]'' tells the story of an upmarket hijra community that is headed by their queen, Guru Amma, played by actress [[Seema Biswas]].<ref>{{cite news |last1=Kulkarni |first1=Onkar |title=The third act |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/news-archive/web/the-third-act/ |access-date=11 June 2020 |work=[[The Indian Express]] |date=29 April 2011}}</ref>
* The 2011 comedy-horror ''[[Kanchana (2011 film)|Kanchana]]'' features an unemployed man who is possessed by a transgender woman seeking revenge against her murderers.
* The 2020 comedy-horror ''[[Laxmii]]'', based on ''Kanchana'', features the actor [[Akshay Kumar]], a [[cisgender]] man who usually plays hypermasculine roles, in the role of a Muslim man who begins crossdressing because he is possessed by the ghost of a transgender woman.<ref>{{Cite web|last1=Jha |first1=Meenketan|last2=Holland|first2=Oscar|date=13 November 2020|title='Laxmii' critics say Bollywood blockbuster offers a problematic transgender portrayal |url=https://www.cnn.com/style/article/laxmii-bollywood-film-transgender/index.html|access-date=2020-11-14 |publisher=CNN}}</ref>
* The novel ''[[The Ministry of Utmost Happiness]]'' by [[Arundhati Roy]] features a storyline involving a hijra character named Anjum.
* The 2010 novel ''[[Chanakya's Chant]]'' by [[Ashwin Sanghi]] features a storyline involving a hijra character.
* In the 2004 film '[[Bride and Prejudice]]', directed by [[Gurinder Chadha]], a group of hijras make an appearance during the 'A Marriage Has Come to Town' number, in which they dance and sing the following lyrics: "Who can tell you more about Yin & Yang?/Sharing one spirit between woman and man/Marriage is the path taken by he and she/May your new life be kissed by harmony."

===Malayalam===
In the [[Malayalam]] movie ''[[Ardhanaari]]'', released on 23 November 2012, director Santhosh Sowparnika depicts the life of a transgender person. [[Manoj K Jayan]], [[Thilakan]], [[Sukumari]] and Maniyanpilla Raju perform leading roles.

[[Njan Marykutty]] is another Malayalam film about the troubles and challenges of a [[trans woman]] in [[Kerala]].<ref>{{Cite news | url=http://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/movies/njan-marykutty-review-transpersons-troubles-handled-sensitively/article24182789.ece |title = 'Njan Marykutty' review: Transperson's troubles handled sensitively|newspaper = The Hindu|date = 16 June 2018|last1 = Sudhish|first1 = Navamy}}</ref>

===Tamil===
{{see also|Transgender Rights in Tamil Nadu }}

''Vaadamalli'' by novelist Su. Samuthiram is the first [[Tamil language|Tamil]] novel about the Aravaani community in [[Tamil people|Tamil Nadu]], published in 1994.

Transgender activist [[A. Revathi]] became the first hijra to write about transgender issues and gender politics in Tamil. Her works have been translated into more than eight languages and act as primary resources on gender studies in Asia. Her book is part of a research project for more than 100 universities. She is the author of ''Unarvum Uruvamum'' (Feeling and Form), the first of its kind in English from a member of the hijra community.<ref name="Life story">{{cite web |last1=Prabhu |first1=Gayathri |title=The Truth About Me: Hijra Life Story |url=https://dspace.flinders.edu.au/xmlui/bitstream/handle/2328/27270/Revathi_Prabhu.pdf;jsessionid=D277D135BF0635C433AAD29C74F50730?sequence=1 |website=Writers in Conversation |access-date=6 October 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.thehindu.com/books/hope-floats/article802665.ece |location=Chennai, India|work=The Hindu|first=S. M.|last=Umair|title=Hope floats|date=29 September 2010}}</ref> She acted and directed stage plays on gender and sexuality issues in Tamil and Kannada. ''The Truth about Me: A Hijra Life Story''<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.penguinbooksindia.com/en/node/120 |title=A. Revathi |access-date=24 April 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140424081007/http://www.penguinbooksindia.com/en/node/120 |archive-date=24 April 2014 }}</ref> is part of the syllabus for final year students of [[The American College in Madurai]].

"Naan Saravanan Alla" (2007) and Vidya's ''I Am Vidya'' (2008) were the first autobiographies of trans women.<ref>{{cite news| url=http://www.thehindu.com/features/metroplus/society/my-life-my-way/article3978249.ece | location=Chennai, India | work=The Hindu | first=Pushpa | last=Achanta | title=My life, my way | date=9 October 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.deccanherald.com/content/89595/doraiswamy-revathi-tamil-writer-activists.html|title=Doraiswamy to Revathi: A Tamil writer-activist's alternative journey|work=Deccan Herald|access-date=23 August 2015|date=2010-08-18}}</ref>

===Pakistan===
The 1992 film ''[[Immaculate Conception (film)|Immaculate Conception]]''<ref>{{cite web|url=http://imdb.com/title/tt0104489/|title=Immaculate Conception (1992)|author=rajiv-sethi|date=11 September 1992|publisher=IMDb|access-date=23 August 2015}}</ref> by [[Jamil Dehlavi]] is based upon the culture-clash between a western Jewish couple seeking fertility at a [[Karachi]] shrine known to be blessed by a [[Sufi|Sufi fakir]] called 'Gulab Shah' and the group of Pakistani eunuchs who guard it.

''[[Murad (film)|Murad]]'' ({{lang-en|desire}}, but the film's English title was ''Eunuch's Motherhood''), was an award-winning biographical [[telefilm]] drama made by Evergreen Media Europe for Pakistan's television channel [[Indus TV]] that aired in 2003. It featured some of the country's top male television actors—Sohail Asghar, [[Nadeem Zafar|Nabeel]], [[Qazi Wajid]], and Kamran Jilani playing the roles of hijras. It was directed by [[Kamran Qureshi]], written by [[Zafar Mairaj]] and produced by [[Iram Qureshi]]. It won both Best TeleFilm and Best Director awards at 2003 [[Indus Telefilm Festival]].<ref name="Award and Nominations">{{cite web|url=http://www.kamranqureshi.com/index.php?option=com_joomdragdrop&view=custom&Itemid=61|title=Award and Nominations|publisher=Kamran Qureshi}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.facebook.com/pages/category/Movie/641478289248860/about/|title=TV Movie Murad 2003|via=Facebook}}</ref> The story revolves around Saima, a transgender woman, who adopts a child named Murad. For the first time, influential male actors showed their support for hijra rights during interviews, pointing out that in [[Pakistani English]] at that time eunuch was the term to describe a transgender person, and ''khwaja sara'' had not yet replaced what is now considered a derogatory term due to decades of heckling and name calling.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/user/qureshikamran/videos|title=Director Kamran Qureshi|via=YouTube}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url = https://www.imdb.com/title/tt3661244|title = Murad aka Eunuch's Motherhood|date = 2003|access-date = 1 April 2018|publisher = IMDb}}</ref>

In 2004, [[Kamran Qureshi]] directed ''[[Moorat]]'' ({{lang-en|effigy}}, released in English under the title ''Eunuch's Wedding''). It a 33-episode series produced by [[Humayun Saeed]] and [[Abdullah Kadwani]] with more than a dozen cast members.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://7thsky.biz/current/prg002_Moorat_main.html|title=Moorat|publisher=7th Sky Entertainment|access-date=3 February 2014|archive-date=4 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304051706/http://www.7thsky.biz/current/prg002_Moorat_main.html|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=siueVu5VIk8| url-status=live| archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211102/siueVu5VIk8| archive-date=2021-11-02 |title=OST TV Serial 'Moorat' (on Intersex & Transgender) 2004 – Tina Sani Song |via=YouTube}}{{cbignore}}</ref> It was nominated for Best Drama Serial, [[Abid Ali (actor)|Abid Ali]] for Best Actor, and [[Maria Wasti]] for Best Actress at the [[Lux Style Awards]] 2005.<ref name="Award and Nominations"/><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-7_XCqhjtrg| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140723112403/http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-7_XCqhjtrg| archive-date=2014-07-23| url-status=dead|title=YouTube|via=YouTube}}</ref> The show was credited with making people understand the pain and abuse that hijra constantly endure when people make fun of the way they look or dress. The story involves a young lady who is engaged to be married. It turns out her husband is transgender. The story unfolds the trans community and their deprived and isolated world. It portrays eloquently how they, too, are not far away from human emotions and feelings and their world is not much different from the heterosexual community. Even though they are in plain sight, they are taboo subjects and are not taken seriously. This makes them suffer endlessly in silence wrapped in slurs. The 33-episode series therefore touches on transgender abuse, abuse against women, poverty, the immorality of arranged marriages and child abuse.<ref>{{cite web|title=Moorat Aka Eunuch's Wedding|date=Aug 2004 |url=https://www.imdb.com/title/tt3852622|access-date=1 April 2018|publisher=IMDb}}</ref>

''[[Bol (film)|Bol]]'' (Urdu: بول meaning ''Speak''), is a 2011 Urdu-language Pakistani social drama film. It concerns a patriarch, Hakim, who is a misogynist, a domestic abuser, a bigot and a zealot who forces religion on his family. They face financial difficulties due to Hakim wanting a son. He rejects his transgender daughter, Saifi, as he wanted an heir and she identifies as a girl. Saifi is deeply loved by the rest of her family. As she grows up, men want to take advantage of her and she does not understand at first. However, her oldest sister intervenes and teaches Saifi about what kind of touching is inappropriate. As Saifi grows older, she is not allowed to leave the house. She finds her sister's dresses compelling and tries them on, revealing her gender identity. A neighbour, played by famous South Asian singer [[Atif Aslam]], who is in love with one of the sisters, gets Saifi a job at a place where they paint trucks, with the blessing of Saifi's sisters and mother. Saifi dresses like a boy; however, other boys sense her lack of self-esteem and eventually gang-rape her. She is saved when another transgender person, played by Almas Bobby (a transgender actor), finds her and takes her home. Hakim overhears Saifi telling her mother and Zainab what happened. When everybody is asleep, Hakim locks the room and suffocates Saifi for the "shame" he would have to bear if the story got out.<ref>{{cite news|title=BOL: A review|url=http://www.dawn.com/news/641475/bol-movie-review |access-date=21 December 2013|newspaper=DAWN|date=7 April 2011}}</ref> It received several positive reviews from critics and went on to win the Best Hindi film award in IRDS Film awards 2011 by Institute for Research and Documentation in Social Sciences (IRDS).{{citation needed|date=January 2022}}

===Outside the Indian subcontinent===

In the graphic novel [[Habibi (graphic novel)|''Habibi'']] by Craig Thompson, the protagonist, Zam, is adopted by a group of hijras.

In the TV comedy ''[[Outsourced (TV series)|Outsourced]]'' (2011), a hijra is hired by Charlie as a stripper for Rajiv's "bachelor party", much to Rajiv's utter horror.

Hijras feature prominently in [[John Irving]]'s 1994 novel ''[[A Son of the Circus]]''.

[[Arundhati Roy]]’s 2017 novel ''[[The Ministry of Utmost Happiness]]'' features a Muslim hijra character.

===Documentaries===
* ''[[Middle Sexes: Redefining He and She|Middle Sexes]]'' (HBO documentary, includes segment on modern hijra) (2005)
* ''Shabnam Mausi'' (2005) based on the life of politician [[Shabnam Mausi]].
* Showgirls of Pakistan (2020, Dokumentary) includes segment on modern hijra

==See also==
{{portal|Pakistan|India|Transgender}}
* [[Galli]], the eunuch priests of the Phrygian goddess Cybele in antiquity
* [[Gender identities in Thailand]]
* [[Homosexuality in India]]
* [[Kathoey]], a distinct transgender group in Thailand.
* [[Lên đồng]], transgender priest or medium in Vietnam
* [[LGBT rights in Pakistan]]
* [[List of transgender-related topics]]
* [[Miss Transqueen India]], a beauty pageant for transgender women
* [[Muxe]], an analogous [[Zapotec peoples|Zapotec]] concept
* [[Nullo (body modification)|Nullo]]
* [[Transgender rights in Tamil Nadu]]
* [[Transvestism]]
* [[Two-spirit]]

==References==
=== Explanatory notes ===
{{reflist|group="n"}}

===Citations===
{{reflist}}

=== General and cited references ===
* {{cite journal |last1=Agrawal |first1=Anuja |year=1997 |title=Gendered Bodies: The Case of the 'Third Gender' in India |journal=[[Contributions to Indian Sociology]] |volume=31 |issue=2| pages=273–297 |doi=10.1177/006996697031002005 |s2cid=145502268}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Artola |first1=George |title=The Transvestite in Sanskrit Story and Drama |journal=Annals of Oriental Research |date=1975 |issue=25 |pages=56–68 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Bevan |first1=Thomas E. |title=Being Transgender: What You Should Know |date=2016 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=9781440845253 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uMJHDQAAQBAJ&q=hijra%20third%20gender&pg=PA70}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Bradford |first1=Nicholas J. |title=Transgenderism and the Cult of Yellamma: Heat, Sex, and Sickness in South Indian Ritual |journal=Journal of Anthropological Research |date=1983 |volume=39 |issue=3 |pages=307–322 |jstor=3629673 |doi=10.1086/jar.39.3.3629673 |s2cid=160623081 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Burton |first1=Richard |title=The Kama Sutra: The Classic Translation of 1883 by Sir Richard Burton |date=1883 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=G1fokQEACAAJ |ref={{harvid| Kama Sutra, 1883 Richard Burton translation}}}}
* {{cite book |last1=Cohen |first1=L |editor1-last=Abramson |editor1-first=Paul R. |editor2-last=Pinkerton |editor2-first=Steven D. |title=Sexual Nature/Sexual Culture |date=1995 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=9780226001821 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yl7gQ18B93cC |chapter=The Pleasures of Castration: the postoperative status of hijras, jankhas and academics}}
* {{cite book |editor1-last=Ginicola |editor1-first=Misty M. |editor2-last=Smith |editor2-first=Cheri |editor3-last=Filmore |editor3-first=Joel M. |title=Affirmative Counseling with LGBTQI+ People |date=2017 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=9781119375494 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pi8bDgAAQBAJ&q=Hijra%20transgender%20eunuch%20intersex&pg=PA189}}
* {{cite book |last1=Hall |first1=Kira |editor1-last=Hellinger |editor1-first=Marlis |editor2-last=Bussmann |editor2-first=Hadumod |title=Gender across languages: the linguistic representation of women and men |date=2001 |publisher=J. Benjamins |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5_HtAAAAMAAJ |chapter=Unnatural' Gender in Hindi|isbn=9789027268860 }}
* {{Cite book|last=Hinchy|first=Jessica|title=Governing Gender and Sexuality in Colonial India: The Hijra, c.1850–1900|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2019|isbn=9781108492553}}
* {{cite book |editor1-last=Köllen |editor1-first=Thomas |title=Sexual Orientation and Transgender Issues in Organizations: Global Perspectives on LGBT Workforce Diversity |date=2016 |publisher=Springer |isbn=9783319296234 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=60kWDAAAQBAJ&q=Hijra%20transgender%20eunuch&pg=PA171}}
* {{cite book|last1=Lach|first1=Donald|title=Asia in the Making of Europe, Volume III: A Century of Advance. Book 2, South Asia|date=1998|publisher=University of Chicago Press|isbn=978-0226466972|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zZIvBwAAQBAJ&q=thatta&pg=PA694}}
* {{cite journal |last=Nanda |first=Serena|author-link=Serena Nanda |title=The hijras of India: cultural and individual dimensions of an institutionalized third gender role |journal=Journal of Homosexuality |date=1985 |volume=11 |issue=3–4 |pages=35–54 |issn=0091-8369|pmid=4093603 |doi=10.1300/J082v11n03_03}}
* {{cite book |last1=Nanda |first1=Serena |editor1-last=Freilich |editor1-first=Morris |editor2-last=Raybeck |editor2-first=Douglas |editor3-last=Savishinsky |editor3-first=Joel S. |title=Deviance: Anthropological Perspectives |date=1991 |publisher=Bergin & Garvey |isbn=9780897892049 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Q0BE1WOXVD8C |chapter=chpt. 7. Deviant careers: the hijras of India}}
* {{cite book |last1=Nanda |first1=Serena |editor1-last=Herdt |editor1-first=Gilbert H. |title=Third sex, third gender: beyond sexual dimorphism in culture and history |date=1996 |publisher=Zone Books |isbn=9780942299823 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dlI91F_FHSYC |chapter=Hijras: An Alternative Sex and Gender Role in India}}
* {{cite book |last1=Nanda |first1=Serena |title=Neither Man Nor Woman: The Hijras of India |date=1999 |publisher=Wadsworth Publishing Company |isbn=9780534509033 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=K1sbAAAAYAAJ&q=0534509037}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Narrain |first1=Siddharth |title=In a twilight world |journal=Frontline |date=October 2006 |volume=20 |issue=21 |url=http://www.frontlineonnet.com/fl2021/stories/20031024002509800.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061021143028/http://www.frontlineonnet.com/fl2021/stories/20031024002509800.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=2006-10-21 }}
* {{cite journal |last1= Preston |first1=Laurence W. |title=A Right to Exist: Eunuchs and the State in Nineteenth-Century India |journal=Modern Asian Studies |date=1 April 1987 |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=371–387 |doi=10.1017/S0026749X00013858 |s2cid=145309265 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/231903575 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Ratra |first1=Amiteshwar |title=Marriage and Family: In Diverse and Changing Scenario |date=2006 |publisher=Deep & Deep Publications |isbn=9788176297585 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XV5iBV_pYm0C&q=chhakka%20hijra&pg=PA61}}
* {{cite journal |last=Reddy |first=Gayatri |year=2003 |title='Men' Who Would Be Kings: Celibacy, Emasculation, and the Re-Production of Hijras in Contemporary Indian Politics |journal=Social Research |volume=70 |issue=1 |pages=163–200|doi=10.1353/sor.2003.0050 |s2cid=142842776 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Reddy |first1=Gayatri |title=With Respect to Sex: Negotiating Hijra Identity in South India |year=2010 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=9780226707549 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SyqTnL9jTFoC&q=Criminal%20Tribes%20Act&pg=PA26}}
* {{cite book |first1=Gayatri |last1=Reddy |last2=Nanda |first2=Serena |editor1-last=Brettell |editor1-first=Caroline |editor2-last=Sargent |editor2-first=Carolyn Fishel |title=Gender in Cross-cultural Perspective |date=1997 |publisher=Prentice Hall |isbn=9780135336137 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OIMEAQAAIAAJ |chapter=Hijras: An "Alternative" Sex/Gender in India}}
* {{cite book |last1=Seow |first1=Lynelle |title=CultureShock! India |date=2017 |publisher=Marshall Cavendish International Asia Pte Ltd |isbn=9789814771986 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8s6iDgAAQBAJ&q=Hijra%20transgender%20eunuch%20intersex&pg=PT132}}
* {{cite book |editor1-last=Shaw |editor1-first=Susan M. |editor2-last=Barbour |editor2-first=Nancy Staton |editor3-last=Duncan |editor3-first=Patti |editor4-last=Freehling-Burton |editor4-first=Kryn |editor5-last=Nichols |editor5-first=Jane |title=Women's Lives around the World: A Global Encyclopedia [4 volumes] |date=2017 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=9781610697125 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jgRCDwAAQBAJ&pg=RA2-PA87}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Sweet |first1=Michael J. |last2=Zwilling |first2=Leonard |title=The First Medicalization: The Taxonomy and Etiology of Queerness in Classical Indian Medicine |journal=Journal of the History of Sexuality |date=1993 |volume=3 |issue=4 |pages=590–607 |jstor=3704394 |pmid=11623132 }}
* {{Cite news |last1=Usmani |first1=Basim |title=Pakistan to register 'third sex' hijras |url=https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2009/jul/18/pakistan-transgender-hijra-third-sex |website=The Guardian |date=18 July 2009}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Venkat |first1=Vidya |title=Transgender persons are finally getting their due with the Tamil Nadu government announcing a welfare board for them. |journal=Frontline |date=February 2008 |volume=25 |issue=4 |url=https://www.frontline.in/static/html/fl2504/stories/20080229607610000.htm }}
* {{cite book |first1=Lahzar |last1=Zanned |chapter=Root formation and polysemic organization |editor1-last=Alhawary |editor1-first=Mohammad T. |editor2-last=Benmamoun |editor2-first=Elabbas |title=Perspectives on Arabic Linguistics XVII-XVIII: Papers from the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Annual Symposia on Arabic Linguistics |date=2005 |publisher=John Benjamins Publishing |isbn=978-9027247810 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Aq7Q_HiLUSYC}}

==Further reading==
* Ahmed, Mona and Dayanita Singh (photographer). ''Myself Mona Ahmed''. [[Scalo Publishers]], 15 September 2001. {{ISBN|3-908247-46-2}}
* Bakshi, Sandeep. "A Comparative Analysis of Hijras and Drag Queens: The Subversive Possibilities and Limits of Parading Effeminacy and Negotiating Masculinity." Ed. Stephen Hunt, Religions of the East. Surrey: Ashgate, 2010.
* Gannon, Shane Patrick. ''Translating the hijra: The symbolic reconstruction of the British Empire in India''. PhD Thesis. [[University of Alberta]], 2009.
* Jaffrey, Zia. "The Invisibles: A Tale of the Eunuchs of India." Vintage, 1998.
* Jami, Humaira. "[https://web.archive.org/web/20090913183933/http://bangkok2005.anu.edu.au/papers/Jami.pdf Condition and Status of Hijras (Transgender, Transvestites etc.) in Pakistan]", National Institute of Psychology, [[Quaid-i-Azam University]] (nd, 2005?)
* {{cite journal | last1=Khan |first1=Faris A. |year=2016 |title=Khwaja Sara Activism: The Politics of Gender Ambiguity in Pakistan | journal=Transgender Studies Quarterly |volume=3 |issue=1–2| pages=158–164 |doi=10.1215/23289252-3334331 |s2cid=156840298}}
* Khan, Faris A. (2014). "Khwajasara: 'Transgender' Activism and Transnationality in Pakistan." In ''South Asia in the World: An Introduction'', edited by Susan Wadley, 170–184. New York: Routledge.
* Kugle, Scott. ''Sufis & Saints' Bodies: Mysticism, Corporeality & Sacred Power in Islam.'' University of North Carolina Press, 2007.
* Malloy, Ruth Lor, Meen Balaji and others. ''Hijras: Who We Are''. Toronto: [[Think Asia]], 1997.
* [[John Money|Money, John]]. ''Lovemaps''. [[Irvington Publishers]], 1988. Page 106. {{ISBN|0-87975-456-7}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Pamment |first1=Claire |year=2010 |title=Hijraism Jostling for a Third Space in Pakistani Politics |journal=The Drama Review |volume=54 |issue=2| pages=29–48 |doi=10.1162/dram.2010.54.2.29| s2cid=57567229}}
* Patel, Geeta. ''Home, Homo, Hybrid: Translating Gender.'' In ''[[A Companion to Postcolonial Studies]]''. Malden MA: [[Wiley-Blackwell|Blackwell]], 2000. 410–27.
* Zipfel, Isabell ' 'Hijras, the third sex' ' eBook with 34 photographs https://www.amazon.com/Hijras-the-third-sex-ebook/dp/B009ETN58C

==External links==
{{Commons category|Hijras}}
* [http://ai.eecs.umich.edu/people/conway/TS/PUCL/PUCL%20Report.html Human Rights Violations against the Transgender Community] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110607125951/http://ai.eecs.umich.edu/people/conway/TS/PUCL/PUCL%20Report.html |date=7 June 2011 }}, summary of a 2003 report by the Peoples' Union for Civil Liberties, Karnataka
* [http://newsweek.washingtonpost.com/postglobal/america/2007/08/begum_nawazish_ali_drag_queen.html Aamr C. Bakshi of ''The Washington Post'' on Pakistan Drag Queen talk show host Begum Nawazish Ali]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20140829060300/http://www.thewe.cc/contents/more/archive/aruvani.html Collected BBC articles on Hijras]
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/3080116.stm India's eunuchs demand rights], BBC News, 4 September 2003
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20050613081858/http://home.interlink.or.jp/~takeshii/ The Works on Hijra in Indian Sub-Continent – Photographs] ''(Link to most recent archived version at Archive.org.)''
* [https://www.straightdope.com/21342199/why-are-indian-eunuchs-warned-about-unsafe-sex Why are Indian eunuchs warned about unsafe sex?]
* [http://www.worldpress.org/Asia/845.cfm World Press: Pakistan's Hijras]
* [http://www.sangama.org Sangama] – Leading Hijra Human Rights Organisation in India
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/668042.stm Eunuch MP takes seat – BBC world news]- News on Shabnam Mausi, Hijra MP

{{LGBT in India}}

{{Social issues in India}}

{{Sexual identities}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Hijra (South Asia)| ]]
[[Category:Gender systems]]
[[Category:Transgender in Asia]]
[[Category:Third gender]]
[[Category:Gender and Hinduism]]
{{Навигационная таблица/Портал/Английская Википедия}}
[[Категория:Английская Википедия]]
[[Категория:Википедия]]
[[Категория:Статья из Википедии]]
[[Категория:Статья из Английской Википедии]]