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{{Английская Википедия/Панель перехода}}
{{Short description|Study of the past}}
{{About|the academic discipline|a general history of human beings|Human history|other uses}}
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[[File:Marble_bust_of_Herodotos_MET_DT11742_(cropped).jpg|thumb|[[Herodotus]] ({{circa|484|425}}&nbsp;BC) has been considered the "father of history" in the Western world.]]

'''History''' (derived {{etymology|grc|''{{wikt-lang|grc|ἱστορία}}'' ({{grc-transl|ἱστορία}})|inquiry; knowledge acquired by investigation}})<ref name=JosephJanda>{{Cite book|editor1-last =Joseph |editor1-first =Brian|editor2-last =Janda |editor2-first =Richard| orig-year=  2004| title =The Handbook of Historical Linguistics| publisher =Blackwell Publishing| page =163| isbn =978-1405127479| year =2008}}</ref> is the systematic study and documentation of the human [[past]].<ref>{{cite web | url=http://archaeology.about.com/od/hterms/qt/history_definition.htm | title=History Definition | access-date=21 January 2014 | archive-date=2 February 2014 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140202111248/http://archaeology.about.com/od/hterms/qt/history_definition.htm | url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.siena.edu/pages/3289.asp | title=What is History & Why Study It? | access-date=21 January 2014 | url-status=dead | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140201183734/http://www.siena.edu/pages/3289.asp | archive-date=1 February 2014 | df=dmy-all }}</ref>

The period of events before the [[History of writing#Inventions of writing|invention of writing systems]] is considered [[prehistory]].<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.dictionary.com/browse/prehistory |title=Prehistory Definition & Meaning |dictionary=Dictionary.com |access-date=6 December 2022}}</ref> "History" is an [[umbrella term]] comprising past events as well as the memory, discovery, collection, organization, presentation, and interpretation of these events. [[Historian]]s seek knowledge of the past using [[historical source]]s such as written documents, oral accounts, art and material artifacts, and ecological markers.<ref name=":4">{{Cite book|last=Arnold|first=John H.|title=History: A Very Short Introduction|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2000|isbn=019285352X|location=New York}}</ref> History is incomplete and still has debatable mysteries.

History is an [[academic discipline]] which uses a [[narrative]] to describe, examine, question, and analyze past events, and investigate their patterns of cause and effect.<ref name="evans1">{{cite web |url= http://www.history.ac.uk/ihr/Focus/Whatishistory/evans10.html |title= The Two Faces of E.H. Carr |access-date= 10 November 2008 |author= Professor Richard J. Evans |year= 2001 |website= History in Focus, Issue 2: What is History? |publisher= University of London |archive-date= 9 August 2011 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110809211116/http://www.history.ac.uk/ihr/Focus/Whatishistory/evans10.html |url-status= live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.history.ac.uk/ihr/Focus/Whatishistory/munslow6.html |title= What History Is |access-date= 10 November 2008 |author= Professor Alun Munslow |year= 2001 |website= History in Focus, Issue 2: What is History? |publisher= University of London |archive-date= 9 August 2011 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110809204914/http://www.history.ac.uk/ihr/Focus/Whatishistory/munslow6.html |url-status= live }}</ref> Historians debate which narrative best explains an event, as well as the significance of different causes and effects. Historians debate the [[Historiography|nature of history]] as an end in itself, and its usefulness in giving perspective on the problems of the present.<ref name="evans1"/><ref name=Tosh1>{{cite book |title=The Pursuit of History|last=Tosh|first=John |publisher=Pearson Education Limited |isbn=978-1405823517 | edition=4th|year=2006|page=52}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Stearns |first1=Peter N. |url=https://archive.org/details/knowingteachingl00samw/page/6/mode/2up |title=Knowing, teaching, and learning history : national and international perspectives |last2=Seixas |first2=Peter Carr |last3=Wineburg |first3=Samuel S. |date=2000 |publisher=[[New York University Press]] |others=Internet Archive |isbn=978-0814781418 |page=6 |author-link3=Sam Wineburg}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title= Knowing Teaching and Learning History, National and International Perspectives |last= Nash l |first= Gary B. |editor= Peter N. Stearns |editor2= Peters Seixas |editor3= Sam Wineburg |chapter= The "Convergence" Paradigm in Studying Early American History in Schools |year= 2000 |publisher= New York University Press |location= New York & London |isbn= 0814781411 |pages= [https://archive.org/details/knowingteachingl00samw/page/102 102–115] |chapter-url= https://archive.org/details/knowingteachingl00samw |url= https://archive.org/details/knowingteachingl00samw/page/102 }}</ref>

Stories common to a particular culture, but not supported by external sources (such as the tales surrounding [[King Arthur]]), are usually classified as [[cultural heritage]] or [[legend]]s.<ref>{{cite book |title= Knowing Teaching and Learning History, National and International Perspectives |last= Seixas |first= Peter |editor= Peter N. Stearns |editor2= Peters Seixas |editor3= Sam Wineburg |chapter= Schweigen! die Kinder! |year= 2000 |publisher= New York University Press |location= New York & London |isbn= 978-0814781418 |page= [https://archive.org/details/knowingteachingl00samw/page/24 24] |chapter-url= https://archive.org/details/knowingteachingl00samw |url= https://archive.org/details/knowingteachingl00samw/page/24 }}</ref><ref name="Low1">{{cite book |title= Knowing Teaching and Learning History, National and International Perspectives |last= Lowenthal |first= David |editor= Peter N. Stearns |editor2= Peters Seixas |editor3= Sam Wineburg |chapter= Dilemmas and Delights of Learning History |year= 2000 |publisher= New York University Press |location= New York & London |isbn= 978-0814781418 |page= [https://archive.org/details/knowingteachingl00samw/page/63 63] |chapter-url= https://archive.org/details/knowingteachingl00samw |url= https://archive.org/details/knowingteachingl00samw/page/63 }}</ref> History differs from [[myth]] in that it is supported by verifiable [[evidence]]. However, ancient cultural influences have helped create variant interpretations of the nature of history, which have evolved over the centuries and continue to change today. The modern study of history is wide-ranging, and includes the study of specific regions and certain topical or thematic elements of historical investigation. History is taught as a part of primary and secondary education, and the academic study of history is a [[Outline of academic disciplines#History|major discipline]] in universities.

[[Herodotus]], a 5th-century BC [[Hellenic historiography|Greek historian]], is often considered the "father of history", as one of the first historians in the Western tradition,<ref name="fordham">{{cite web |last1=Halsall |first1=Paul |title=Ancient History Sourcebook: 11th Brittanica: Herodotus |url=https://sourcebooks.fordham.edu/ancient/eb11-herodotus.asp |website=Internet History Sourcebooks Project |publisher=Fordham University |access-date=3 December 2020 |ref=fordham |archive-date=27 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201127014859/https://sourcebooks.fordham.edu/ancient/eb11-herodotus.asp |url-status=live }}</ref> though he has been criticized as the "father of lies".<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Vives|first1=Juan Luis|url=http://archive.org/details/vivesoneducation00viveuoft|title=Vives, on education : a translation of the De tradendis disciplinis of Juan Luis Vives|last2=Watson|first2=Foster|date=1913|publisher=Cambridge : The University Press|others=Robarts – University of Toronto}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Juan Luis Vives|url=http://archive.org/details/bub_gb_DEsWt25rKq0C|title=Ioannis Ludouici Viuis Valentini, De disciplinis libri 20. in tres tomos distincti, quorum ordinem versa pagella iudicabit. Cum indice copiosissimo|date=1551|publisher=apud Ioannem Frellonium|others=National Central Library of Rome|language=la}}</ref> Along with his contemporary [[Thucydides]], he helped form the foundations for the modern study of past events and societies.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Majoros |first=Sotirios |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ff3ADwAAQBAJ&dq=Along+with+his+contemporary+Thucydides,+he+helped+form+the+foundations+for+the+modern+study+of+past+events+and+societies&pg=PT11 |title=All About Me: The Individual |date=2019 |publisher=FriesenPress |isbn=978-1525558016 |language=en |access-date=10 May 2022 |archive-date=30 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220730035747/https://books.google.com/books?id=Ff3ADwAAQBAJ&dq=Along+with+his+contemporary+Thucydides%2C+he+helped+form+the+foundations+for+the+modern+study+of+past+events+and+societies&pg=PT11 |url-status=live }}</ref> Their works continue to be read today, and the gap between the culture-focused Herodotus and the military-focused Thucydides remains a point of contention or approach in modern historical writing. In East Asia, a state [[chronicle]], the [[Spring and Autumn Annals]], was reputed to date from as early as 722 BC, though only 2nd-century BC texts have survived.

==Etymology==
[[File:History-Dielman-Highsmith.jpeg|thumb|upright=1.15|''History'' by [[Frederick Dielman]] (1896)]]
The word ''history'' comes from ''historía'' ({{lang-grc|ἱστορία|translit=historíā|lit=inquiry, knowledge from inquiry, or judge}}<ref>{{LSJ|i(stori/a|ἱστορία}}</ref>). It was in that sense that [[Aristotle]] used the word in his ''[[History of Animals]]''.<ref name="Ferrater-Mora">Ferrater-Mora, José. ''Diccionario de Filosofia''. Barcelona: Editorial Ariel, 1994.</ref> The ancestor word {{lang|grc|ἵστωρ}} is attested early on in [[Homeric Hymns]], [[Heraclitus]], the [[Athenian]] [[ephebos|ephebe]]s' oath, and in [[Boeotic]] inscriptions (in a legal sense, either "judge" or "witness", or similar). The Greek word was borrowed into Classical Latin as ''historia'', meaning "investigation, inquiry, research, account, description, written account of past events, writing of history, historical narrative, recorded knowledge of past events, story, narrative". ''History'' was borrowed from Latin (possibly via [[Old Irish]] or [[Old Welsh]]) into [[Old English]] as ''stær'' ("history, narrative, story"), but this word fell out of use in the late Old English period.<ref name="OED Online. Oxford University Press 2014">"history, n". OED Online. Oxford University Press, December 2014. 9 March 2015.</ref> Meanwhile, as Latin became [[Old French]] (and [[Anglo-Norman language|Anglo-Norman]]), ''historia'' developed into forms such as ''istorie'', ''estoire'', and ''historie'', with new developments in the meaning: "account of the events of a person's life (beginning of the 12th century), chronicle, account of events as relevant to a group of people or people in general (1155), dramatic or pictorial representation of historical events ({{circa|lk=no|1240}}), body of knowledge relative to human evolution, science ({{circa|lk=no|1265}}), narrative of real or imaginary events, story ({{circa|lk=no|1462}})".<ref name="OED Online. Oxford University Press 2014"/>

It was from Anglo-Norman that ''history'' was brought into [[Middle English]], and it has persisted. It appears in the 13th-century ''[[Ancrene Wisse]]'', but seems to have become a common word in the late 14th century, with an early attestation appearing in [[John Gower]]'s ''[[Confessio Amantis]]'' of the 1390s (VI.1383): "I finde in a bok compiled | To this matiere an old histoire, | The which comth nou to mi memoire". In Middle English, the meaning of ''history'' was "story" in general. The restriction to the meaning "the branch of knowledge that deals with past events; the formal record or study of past events, esp. human affairs" arose in the mid-15th century.<ref name="OED Online. Oxford University Press 2014"/> With the [[Renaissance]], older senses of the word were revived, and it was in the Greek sense that [[Francis Bacon]] used the term in the late 16th century, when he wrote about [[natural history]]. For him, ''historia'' was "the knowledge of objects determined by space and time", that sort of knowledge provided by [[memory]] (while [[science]] was provided by [[reason]], and [[poetry]] was provided by [[fantasy]]).<ref>Cf. "history, n." OED Online. Oxford University Press, December 2014. 9 March 2015.</ref>

In an expression of the linguistic [[Synthetic language|synthetic]] vs. [[Analytic language|analytic/isolating]] dichotomy, English like Chinese (史 vs. 诌) now designates separate words for human history and [[storytelling]] in general. In modern [[German language|German]], [[French language|French]], and most Germanic and [[Romance languages]], which are solidly synthetic and highly inflected, the same word is still used to mean both "history" and "story". ''Historian'' in the sense of a "researcher of history" is attested from 1531. In all [[Languages of Europe|European languages]], the substantive ''history'' is still used to mean both "what happened with men", and "the scholarly study of the happened", the latter sense sometimes distinguished with a capital letter, or the word ''[[historiography]]''.<ref name="Ferrater-Mora" />{{Explain|date=February 2023}} The adjective ''historical'' is attested from 1661, and ''historic'' from 1669.<ref name="Whitney">Whitney, W.D. ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=wrACAAAAIAAJ The Century dictionary; an encyclopedic lexicon of the English language] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210202174044/https://books.google.com/books?id=wrACAAAAIAAJ |date=2 February 2021 }}''. New York: The Century Co, 1889.</ref>

==Description==
[[File:The Historians' History of the World - Title Page.jpg|thumb|The title page to ''[[The Historians' History of the World]]'']]

Historians write in the context of their own time, and with due regard to the current dominant ideas of how to interpret the past, and sometimes write to provide lessons for their own society. In the words of [[Benedetto Croce]], "All history is contemporary history". History is facilitated by the formation of a "true discourse of past" through the production of narrative and analysis of past events relating to the human race.<ref>W.D. Whitney, (1889). [https://books.google.com/books?id=wrACAAAAIAAJ The Century dictionary; an encyclopedic lexicon of the English language] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210202174044/https://books.google.com/books?id=wrACAAAAIAAJ |date=2 February 2021 }}. [https://books.google.com/books?id=wrACAAAAIAAJ p. 2842] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210120061910/https://books.google.com/books?id=wrACAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover#PPA2842,M1 |date=20 January 2021 }}.</ref> The modern discipline of history is dedicated to the institutional production of this discourse.

All events that are remembered and preserved in some authentic form constitute the historical record.<ref name="wordnet">[http://wordnet.princeton.edu/perl/webwn WordNet Search – 3.0] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050917065532/http://wordnet.princeton.edu/perl/webwn |date=17 September 2005 }}, "History".</ref> The task of historical discourse is to identify the sources which can most usefully contribute to the production of accurate accounts of past. Therefore, the constitution of the historian's archive is a result of circumscribing a more general archive by invalidating the usage of certain texts and documents (by falsifying their claims to represent the "true past"). Part of the historian's role is to skillfully and objectively use the many sources from the past, most often found in the archives. The process of creating a narrative inevitably generates debate, as historians remember or emphasize different events of the past.<ref name=":1" />

The study of history has sometimes been classified as part of the [[humanities]], other times part of the [[social sciences]].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Gordon|first1=Scott|last2=Irving|first2=James Gordon|year=1991|title=The History and Philosophy of Social Science|publisher=Routledge|page=1|isbn=0415056829}}</ref> It can be seen as a bridge between those two broad areas, incorporating methodologies from both. Some historians strongly support one or the other classification.<ref>Ritter, H. (1986). Dictionary of concepts in history. Reference sources for the social sciences and humanities, no. 3. Westport, Conn: Greenwood Press. p. 416.</ref> In the 20th century the [[Annales school]] revolutionized the study of history, by using such outside disciplines as [[economics]], [[sociology]], and [[geography]] in the study of global history.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Appelrouth |first1=Scott |last2=Edles |first2=Laura Desfor |title=Sociological Theory in the Contemporary Era: Text and Readings |date= 2010 |publisher=Pine Forge Press |isbn=978-1412987615 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8UEAi5pdWn4C&dq=Fernand+Braudel+revolutionized+the+study+of+history,&pg=PA565 |access-date=20 July 2022 |language=en |archive-date=30 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220730035747/https://www.google.com/books/edition/Sociological_Theory_in_the_Contemporary/8UEAi5pdWn4C?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=Fernand+Braudel+revolutionized+the+study+of+history%2C&pg=PA565&printsec=frontcover |url-status=live }}</ref>

Traditionally, historians have recorded events of the past, either in writing or by passing on an [[oral tradition]], and attempted to answer historical questions through the study of written documents and oral accounts. From the beginning, historians have used such sources as monuments, inscriptions, and pictures. In general, the sources of historical knowledge can be separated into three categories: what is written, what is said, and what is physically preserved, and historians often consult all three.<ref>{{cite book|last=Lemon|first=Michael C.|year=1995|title=The Discipline of History and the History of Thought|publisher=Routledge|page=201|isbn=0415123461}}</ref> But writing is the marker that separates history from what comes before.

[[Archaeology]] is especially helpful in unearthing buried sites and objects, which contribute to the study of history. Archeological finds rarely stand alone, with narrative sources complementing its discoveries. Archeology's methodologies and approaches are independent from the field of history. "Historical archaeology" is a specific branch of archeology which often contrasts its conclusions against those of contemporary textual sources. For example, Mark Leone, the excavator and interpreter of historical [[Annapolis, Maryland]], US, has sought to understand the contradiction between textual documents idealizing "liberty" and the material record, demonstrating the possession of slaves and the inequalities of wealth made apparent by the study of the total historical environment.

There are varieties of ways in which history can be organized, including chronologically, [[culture|culturally]], territorially, and thematically. These divisions are not mutually exclusive, and significant intersections are present. It is possible for historians to concern themselves with both the very specific and the very general, though the trend has been toward specialization. The area called [[Big History]] resists this specialization, and searches for universal patterns or trends. History has often been studied with some practical or [[theory|theoretical]] aim, but may be studied out of simple intellectual curiosity.<ref name="graham-ch1">{{cite book |title=The Shape of the Past |author=Graham, Gordon |publisher=[[University of Oxford]] |year=1997 |chapter=Chapter 1}}</ref>

==Prehistory==
{{Further|Protohistory}}

[[Human history]] is the memory of the past [[experience]] of ''[[Homo sapiens sapiens]]'' around the world, as that experience has been preserved, largely in written records. By "prehistory", historians mean the recovery of knowledge of the past in an area where no written records exist, or where the writing of a culture is not understood. By studying painting, drawings, carvings, and other artifacts, some information can be recovered even in the absence of a written record. Since the 20th century, the study of prehistory is considered essential to avoid history's implicit exclusion of certain civilizations, such as those of [[sub-Saharan Africa]] and [[Pre-Columbian era|pre-Columbian]] America. Historians in the West have been criticized for focusing disproportionately on the [[Western world]].<ref>[[Jack Goody]] (2007) ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=jo1UVi48KywC&dq=Jack+Goody+2007&pg=RA2-PA1930 The Theft of History] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150915203034/https://books.google.com/books?id=jo1UVi48KywC&pg=RA2-PA1930&dq=Jack+Goody+2007&sig=g0N7ZF9nz_Uy8nrQTiGdsc0N3sI#PPA12,M1 |date=15 September 2015 }}'' (from [[Google Books]])</ref> In 1961, British historian [[E. H. Carr]] wrote:
{{blockquote|The line of demarcation between prehistoric and historical times is crossed when people cease to live only in the present, and become consciously interested both in their past and in their future. History begins with the handing down of tradition; and tradition means the carrying of the habits and lessons of the past into the future. Records of the past begin to be kept for the benefit of future generations.<ref>{{cite book|last=Carr|first=Edward H.|year=1961|title=What is History?|page=108|publisher=Penguin Books |isbn=0140206523}}</ref>}}
This definition includes within the scope of history the strong interests of peoples, such as [[Indigenous Australians]] and New Zealand [[Māori people|Māori]] in the past, and the oral records maintained and transmitted to succeeding generations, even before their contact with European civilization.

==Historiography==
{{Main|Historiography}}
[[File:Guicciardini M Francesco La Historia dItalia.jpg|thumb|right|The title page to ''La Historia d'Italia'']]
Historiography has a number of related meanings.<ref name="culturahistorica.org">{{cite web |title=What is Historiography? – Culturahistorica.org |url=https://culturahistorica.org/what-is-historiography/ |access-date=20 January 2021 |archive-date=27 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210127195859/https://culturahistorica.org/what-is-historiography/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Firstly, it can refer to how history has been produced: the story of the development of [[Historical method|methodology]] and practices (for example, the move from short-term biographical narrative toward long-term thematic analysis). Secondly, it can refer to what has been produced: a specific body of historical writing (for example, "medieval historiography during the 1960s" means "Works of medieval history written during the 1960s").<ref name="culturahistorica.org"/> Thirdly, it may refer to why history is produced: the [[philosophy of history]]. As a [[Meta (prefix)|meta-level]] analysis of descriptions of the past, this third conception can relate to the first two in that the analysis usually focuses on the narratives, interpretations, [[world view]], use of evidence, or method of presentation of other historians. Historians debate whether history can be taught as a single coherent narrative or a series of competing narratives.<ref>Ernst Breisach, ''Historiography: Ancient, medieval, and modern'' (University of Chicago Press, 2007).</ref><ref>Georg G. Iggers, ''Historiography in the twentieth century: From scientific objectivity to the postmodern challenge'' (2005).</ref>

==Methods==
{{Further|Historical method}}
{| class="toccolours" style="float:right; margin:0 0 1em 1em; width:250px; text-align:left; clear:right;"
|-
|[[File:ancientlibraryalex.jpg|thumb|none|A depiction of the ancient [[Library of Alexandria]]]]

<div style="background:#f8eaba; text-align:center;"> Historical method basics </div>

The following questions are used by historians in modern work.
# ''When was'' the source, written or unwritten, produced ([[Calendar date|date]])?
# Where was it produced ([[wikt:localize|localization]])?
# By whom was it produced ([[author]]ship)?
# From what pre-existing material was it produced ([[wikt:analysis|analysis]])?
# In what original form was it produced ([[wikt:integrity|integrity]])?
# What is the evidential value of its contents ([[credibility]])?
The first four are known as [[historical criticism]]; the fifth, [[textual criticism]]; and, together, external criticism. The sixth and final inquiry about a source is called internal criticism.
|}

[[Europe]]ans have written and published extensively to pull together a "universal history" in the early modern period. This written corpus and discourse in Europe includes ethnographic encounters, comparative philosophy, as well as archaeological discovery.<ref>{{cite book |title=Global Intellectual History |author1=Samuel Moyn |author2=Andrew Sartori |publisher=Columbia University Press |year=2013 |pages=5–6 |isbn=9780231160483}}</ref>

[[Herodotus]], from the 5th-century BC,<ref name="lamberg-karlovsky-p5">{{cite book |title=Ancient Civilizations: The Near East and Mesoamerica |author1=Lamberg-Karlovsky, C.C.  |author2=Jeremy A. Sabloff |publisher=Benjamin-Cummings Publishing |year=1979 |page=5 |isbn=9780881338348 }}</ref> has been acclaimed as the "father of history". However, his contemporary [[Thucydides]] is credited with having first approached history with a well-developed historical method in the ''[[History of the Peloponnesian War]]''. Thucydides, unlike Herodotus, regarded history as the product of the choices and actions of humans, and looked at [[Causality|cause and effect]], rather than the result of divine intervention (though Herodotus was not wholly committed to this idea himself).<ref name="lamberg-karlovsky-p5"/> In his historical method, Thucydides emphasized chronology, a nominally neutral point of view, and that the human world was the result of human actions. Greek historians viewed history as [[Historic recurrence|cyclical]], with events regularly recurring.<ref name="lamberg-karlovsky-p6">{{cite book |title=Ancient Civilizations: The Near East and Mesoamerica |author1=Lamberg-Karlovsky, C.C.  |author2=Jeremy A. Sabloff |publisher=Benjamin-Cummings Publishing |year=1979 |page=6 |isbn=9780881338348 }}</ref>

There was sophisticated use of historical method in ancient and medieval [[China]]. The groundwork for professional historiography in [[East Asia]] was established by court historian [[Sima Qian]] (145–90 BC), author of the ''[[Records of the Grand Historian]]'' (''Shiji'') and posthumously known as the Father of [[Chinese historiography]]. [[Augustine of Hippo|Saint Augustine]] was influential in [[Western Christianity|Christian]] and [[Western thought]] at the beginning of the medieval period. Through the Medieval and [[Renaissance]] periods, history was often studied through a [[sacred history|sacred]] or religious perspective. Around 1800, German philosopher and historian [[Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel]] brought [[philosophy]] and a more [[Secularity|secular]] approach in historical study.<ref name="graham-ch1"/>

In the preface to his book, the ''[[Muqaddimah]]'' (1377), the [[Historiography of early Islam|Arab historian]] and [[Sociology in medieval Islam|early sociologist]], [[Ibn Khaldun]], warned of 7 mistakes he thought historians committed. In this criticism, he approached the past as strange and in need of interpretation. The originality of Ibn Khaldun was to claim that the cultural difference of another age must govern the evaluation of relevant historical material, to distinguish the principles according to which it might be possible to attempt the evaluation, and to feel the need for experience, in addition to rational principles, in order to assess a culture of the past. Ibn Khaldun criticized "idle [[superstition]] and uncritical acceptance of historical data". He introduced a [[scientific method]] to the study of history, and referred to it as his "new science".<ref>{{cite book|author1=Ibn Khaldun |last2=Rosenthal |first2=Franz |last3=Dawood |first3=N.J. |year=1967 |title=The Muqaddimah: An Introduction to History |page=x |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=0691017549 }}</ref> His method laid the groundwork for the observation of the role of [[State (polity)|state]], [[communication]], [[propaganda]] and [[systemic bias|systematic bias]] in history,<ref name=Mowlana>H. Mowlana (2001). "Information in the Arab World", Cooperation South Journal, vol1</ref> and so is sometimes considered to be the "father of historiography"<ref>{{cite book|last=Ahmed |first=Salahuddin |year=1999 |title=A Dictionary of Muslim Names |publisher=C. Hurst & Co. Publishers |isbn=1850653569}}</ref>
<ref name=Enan>{{Cite book|title=Ibn Khaldun: His Life and Works |first=Muhammed Abdullah |last=Enan |publisher=The Other Press |year=2007 |isbn=9789839541533 |page=v }}</ref> or the "father of the philosophy of history".<ref name=Akhtar>S.W. Akhtar (1997). "The Islamic Concept of Knowledge", ''Al-Tawhid: A Quarterly Journal of Islamic Thought & Culture'' '''12''' (3).</ref>

In the West, historians developed modern methods of historiography in the 17th and 18th centuries, especially in France and Germany. In 1851, [[Herbert Spencer]] summarized these methods:"From the successive strata of our historical deposits, they [historians] diligently gather all the highly colored fragments, pounce upon everything that is curious and sparkling and chuckle like children over their glittering acquisitions; meanwhile the rich veins of wisdom that ramify amidst this worthless debris, lie utterly neglected. Cumbrous volumes of rubbish are greedily accumulated, while those masses of rich ore, that should have been dug out, and from which golden truths might have been smelted, are left untaught and unsought."<ref>Cited in [[Robert Carneiro]], ''The Muse of History and the Science of Culture'', New York: Kluwer Publishers, 2000, p 160.</ref>
By the "rich ore" Spencer meant scientific theory of history. Meanwhile, [[Henry Thomas Buckle]] expressed a dream of history becoming one day a science: "In regard to nature, events apparently the most irregular and capricious have been explained and have been shown to be in accordance with certain fixed and universal laws. This has been done because men of ability and, above all, men of patient, untiring thought have studied events with the view of discovering their regularity, and if human events were subject to a similar treatment, we have every right to expect similar results.<ref>Cited in ''Muse of History'', pp. 158–159.</ref>
Contrary to Buckle's dream, the 19th-century historian with greatest influence on methods became [[Leopold von Ranke]] in Germany. He limited history to "what really happened" and by this directed the field further away from science. For Ranke, historical data should be collected carefully, examined objectively and put together with critical rigor. But these procedures "are merely the prerequisites and preliminaries of science. The heart of science is searching out order and regularity in the data being examined and in formulating generalizations or laws about them."<ref>''Muse of History'', p 147.</ref>
{{blockquote|
As Historians like Ranke and many who followed him have pursued it, ''no'', history is not a science. Thus if Historians tell us that, given the manner in which he practices his craft, it cannot be considered a science, we must take him at his word. If he is not doing science, then, whatever else he is doing, he is not ''doing'' science. The traditional Historian is thus no scientist and history, as conventionally practiced, is not a science.<ref>''Muse of History'', p 150.</ref>}}
In the 20th century, academic historians focused less on epic nationalistic narratives, which often tended to glorify the nation or [[Great man theory|great men]], to more objective and complex analyses of social and intellectual forces. A major trend of historical methodology in the 20th century was to treat history more as a [[social science]] rather than [[The arts|art]], which traditionally had been the case. Leading advocates of history as a social science were a diverse collection of scholars which included [[Fernand Braudel]] and [[E. H. Carr]]. Many are noted for their multidisciplinary approach e.g. Braudel combined history with geography. Nevertheless, these multidisciplinary approaches failed to produce a theory of history. So far only one theory of history came from a professional historian.<ref>Max Ostrovski, ''The Hyperbole of the World Order'', Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield, 2006.</ref> Whatever other theories of history exist, they were written by experts from other fields (for example, Marxian theory of history). The field of [[digital history]] has begun to address ways of using computer technology, to pose new questions to historical data and generate digital scholarship.

In opposition to the claims of history as a social science, historians such as [[Hugh Trevor-Roper]] argued the key to historians' work was the power of the [[imagination]], and hence contended that history should be understood as art. [[French historians]] associated with the [[Annales school]] introduced quantitative history, using raw data to track the lives of typical individuals, and were prominent in the establishment of [[cultural history]] (cf. ''[[History of mentalities|histoire des mentalités]]''). Intellectual historians such as [[Herbert Butterfield]] have argued for the significance of ideas in history. American historians, motivated by the civil rights era, focused on formerly overlooked ethnic, racial, and socioeconomic groups. A genre of [[social history]] to emerge post-WWII was ''[[Alltagsgeschichte]]'' (History of Everyday Life). Scholars such as [[Ian Kershaw]] examined what everyday life was like for ordinary people in 20th-century Germany, especially in [[Nazi Germany]].

[[Marxist historiography|Marxist historians]] sought to validate [[Karl Marx]]'s theories by analyzing history from a Marxist perspective. In response to the Marxist interpretation of history, historians such as [[François Furet]] have offered anti-Marxist interpretations of history. [[Feminism|Feminist]] historians argued for the importance of studying the experience of women. [[Postmodernism|Postmodernists]] have challenged the validity and need for the study of history on the basis all history is based on the personal interpretation of sources. [[Keith Windschuttle]]'s 1994 book, ''The Killing of History'' defended the worth of history.

Today, most historians begin their research in the archives, on either a physical or digital platform. They often propose an argument and use research to support it. [[John H. Arnold (historian)|John H. Arnold]] proposed that history is an argument, which creates the possibility of creating change.<ref name=":4" /> Digital information companies, such as [[Google]], have sparked controversy over the role of internet censorship in information access.<ref>{{Cite book|last=King|first=Michelle T.|title=Research Methods for History|publisher=Edinburgh University Press|year=2016|edition=2nd|location=Edinburgh|chapter=Working With/In the Archives}}</ref>

===Marxian theory===
{{Main|Historical materialism}}
The [[Marxist philosophy|Marxist theory]] of historical materialism theorises that society is fundamentally determined by the ''material conditions'' at any given time – in other words, the relationships which people have with each other in order to fulfill basic needs such as feeding, clothing and housing themselves and their families.<ref>See, in particular, [http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1845/german-ideology/ Marx and Engels, ''The German Ideology''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171022082029/http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1845/german-ideology/ |date=22 October 2017 }}</ref> Overall, [[Karl Marx|Marx]] and [[Friedrich Engels|Engels]] claimed to have identified five successive stages of the development of these material conditions in [[Western Europe]].<ref>Marx makes no claim to have produced a master key to history. Historical materialism is not "an historico-philosophic theory of the marche generale imposed by fate upon every people, whatever the historic circumstances in which it finds itself" (Marx, Karl: Letter to editor of the Russian paper ''Otetchestvennye Zapiskym'', 1877). His ideas, he explains, are based on a concrete study of the actual conditions that pertained in Europe.</ref> [[Marxist historiography]] was once orthodoxy in the Soviet Union, but since the communism's collapse there, its influence has significantly reduced.<ref>Mikhail M. Krom, "From the Center to the Margin: the Fate of Marxism in Contemporary Russian Historiography", ''Storia della Storiografia'' (2012) Issue 62, pp. 121–130</ref>

=== Potential shortcomings in the production of history ===
Many historians believe that the production of history is embedded with [[bias]] because events and known facts in history can be interpreted in a variety of ways. [[Constantin Fasolt]] suggested that history is linked to politics by the practice of silence itself.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|last=Fasolt|first=Constantin|title=The Limits of History|publisher=University of Chicago Press|year=2004|isbn=0226239101|location=Chicago|pages=xiii-xxi}}</ref> He said: "A second common view of the link between history and politics rests on the elementary observation that historians are often influenced by politics."<ref name=":0" /> According to [[Michel-Rolph Trouillot]], the historical process is rooted in the archives, therefore silences, or parts of history that are forgotten, may be an intentional part of a narrative strategy that dictates how areas of history are remembered.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|last=Trouillot|first=Michel-Rolph|title=Silencing the Past: Power and the Production of History|publisher=Beacon Press|year=1995|location=Boston|pages=31–69|chapter=The Three Faces of Sans Souci: The Glories and the Silences in the Haitian Revolution|asin=B00N6PB6DG}}</ref> Historical omissions can occur in many ways and can have a profound effect on historical records. Information can also purposely be excluded or left out accidentally. Historians have coined multiple terms that describe the act of omitting historical information, including: "silencing",<ref name=":1" /> "selective memory",<ref name=":2">{{Cite book|last=Lerner|first=Gerda|title=Why History Matters: Life and Thought|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=1997|isbn=0195046447|location=New York|pages=199–211}}</ref> and erasures.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last=Cronon|first=William|date=1992|title=A Place for Stories: Nature, History, and Narrative|journal=The Journal of American History|volume=78|issue=4|pages=1347–1376|doi=10.2307/2079346|jstor=2079346}}</ref> [[Gerda Lerner]], a twentieth century historian who focused much of her work on historical omissions involving women and their accomplishments, explained the negative impact that these omissions had on minority groups.<ref name=":2" />

Environmental historian [[William Cronon]] proposed three ways to combat bias and ensure authentic and accurate narratives: narratives must not contradict known fact, they must make ecological sense (specifically for environmental history), and published work must be reviewed by scholarly community and other historians to ensure accountability.<ref name=":3" />

==Areas of study==
{| class="toccolours" style="float:right; margin:0 0 1em 1em; width:250px; text-align:left; clear:right;"
! style="background:#f8eaba;"|Particular studies and fields
|-
|
These are approaches to history; not listed are histories of other fields, such as [[history of science]], [[history of mathematics]], and [[history of philosophy]].
* [[Ancient history]]: the study of history from the beginning of human history until the Early Middle Ages.
* [[Atlantic history]]: the study of the history of people living on or near the Atlantic Ocean.
* [[Art history]]: the study of changes in and the social context of art.
* [[Comparative history]]: the historical analysis of social and cultural entities not confined to national boundaries.
* [[Contemporary history]]: the study of recent historical events.
* [[Counterfactual history]]: the study of historical events as they might have happened in different causal circumstances.
* [[Cultural history]]: the study of culture in the past.
* [[Digital history]]: the use of computing technologies to do massive searches in published sources.
* [[Economic history]]: the use of economic models fitted to the past.
* [[Intellectual history]]: the study of ideas in the context of the cultures that produced them and their development over time.
* [[Maritime history]]: the study of maritime transport and all connected subjects.
* [[Material culture|Material history]]: the study of objects and the stories they can tell.
* [[Modern history]]: the study of modern times, the era after the [[Middle Ages]].
* [[Military history]]: the study of warfare, historical wars, and [[Naval history]], which is sometimes considered to be a sub-branch of military history.
* [[Oral history]]: the collection and study of historical information by utilizing spoken interviews with people who have lived past events.
* [[Palaeography]]: the study of ancient texts.
* [[People's history]]: historical work from the perspective of common people.
* [[Political history]]: the study of politics in the past.
* [[Psychohistory]]: the study of the psychological motivations for historical events.
* [[Pseudohistory]]: studies about the past that fall outside the domain of mainstream history (sometimes equivalent to [[pseudoscience]]).
* [[Social history]]: the study of the process of social change throughout history.
* [[Women's history]]: the history of female human beings. [[Gender history]] is related and covers the perspective of gender.
* [[World history (field)|World history]]: the study of history from a global perspective, with special attention to non-Western societies.
|}

===Periods===
{{Main|Periodization}}
Historical study often focuses on events and developments that occur in particular blocks of time. Historians give these [[Periodization|periods of time]] names in order to allow "organising ideas and classificatory generalisations" to be used by historians.<ref name="Marwick-p169">{{cite book |title=The Nature of History |author=Marwick, Arthur|publisher=The Macmillan Press LTD |year=1970 |page=169}}</ref> The names given to a period can vary with geographical location, as can the dates of the beginning and end of a particular period. [[Century|Centuries]] and [[decade]]s are commonly used periods and the time they represent depends on the [[Calendar era|dating system]] used. Most periods are constructed retrospectively and so reflect value judgments made about the past. The way periods are constructed and the names given to them can affect the way they are viewed and studied.<ref name="Tosh-p168-169">{{cite book |title=The Pursuit of History|author=Tosh, John|publisher=Pearson Education Limited|year=2006 |pages=168–169}}</ref>

====Prehistoric periodization====
The field of history generally leaves prehistory to archeologists, who have entirely different sets of tools and theories. In [[archeology]], the usual method for periodization of the distant [[Prehistory|prehistoric]] past is to rely on changes in material culture and technology, such as the [[Stone Age]], [[Bronze Age]], and [[Iron Age]], with subdivisions that are also based on different styles of material remains. Here prehistory is divided into a series of "chapters" so that periods in history could unfold not only in a relative chronology but also narrative chronology.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Archaeology of Time|last=Lucas|first=Gavin|publisher=Routledge|year=2005|isbn=0415311977|location=Oxon|pages=50}}</ref> This narrative content could be in the form of functional-economic interpretation. There are periodizations, however, that do not have this narrative aspect, relying largely on relative chronology, and that are thus devoid of any specific meaning.

Despite the development over recent decades of the ability through [[radiocarbon dating]] and other scientific methods to give actual dates for many sites or artefacts, these long-established schemes seem likely to remain in use. In many cases neighboring cultures with writing have left some history of cultures without it, which may be used. Periodization, however, is not viewed as a perfect framework, with one account explaining that "cultural changes do not conveniently start and stop (combinedly) at periodization boundaries" and that different trajectories of change need to be studied in their own right before they get intertwined with cultural phenomena.<ref>{{Cite book|title=A Living Landscape: Bronze Age Settlement Sites in the Dutch River Area (c. 2000–800 BC)|last=Arnoldussen|first=Stijn|publisher=Sidestone Press|year=2007|isbn=978-9088900105|location=Leiden|pages=468}}</ref>

===Geographical locations===
Particular [[Geography|geographical]] locations can form the basis of historical study, for example, [[continent]]s, [[Country|countries]], and [[City|cities]]. Understanding why historic events took place is important. To do this, historians often turn to the methods and theory from the discipline of geography.<ref name="Bryce1">{{cite journal |last1=Bryce |first1=James |title=The Importance of Geography in Education |journal=The Geographical Journal |date=1902 |volume=23 |issue=3 |pages=29–32 |doi=10.2307/1775737|jstor=1775737 }}</ref> According to [[Jules Michelet]] in his book ''Histoire de France'' (1833), "without geographical basis, the people, the makers of history, seem to be walking on air".<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Relations of History and Geography: Studies in England, France and the United States|last=Darby|first=Henry Clifford|author-link=Clifford Darby|publisher=University of Exeter Press|year=2002|isbn=978-0859896993|location=Exeter|page=14}}</ref> Weather patterns, the water supply, and the landscape of a place all affect the lives of the people who live there. For example, to explain why the ancient Egyptians developed a successful civilization, studying the [[geography of Egypt]] is essential. Egyptian civilization was built on the banks of the Nile River, which flooded each year, depositing soil on its banks. The rich soil could help farmers grow enough crops to feed the people in the cities. That meant everyone did not have to farm, so some people could perform other jobs that helped develop the civilization. There is also the case of [[Environmental determinism|climate]], which historians like [[Ellsworth Huntington]] and [[Ellen Churchill Semple]] cited as a crucial influence on the course of history. Huntington and Semple further argued that climate has an impact on racial temperament.<ref>{{Cite book|title=World history from early times to AD 2000|last=Rao|first=B.V.|publisher=Sterling Publishers Pvt. Ltd.|year=2007|isbn=978-8120731882|location=New Delhi|page=5}}</ref>

====Regions====
[[File:Pedro I of Brazil and Charles Stuart .jpg|thumb|Allegory of the recognition of the [[Empire of Brazil]] and [[Independence of Brazil|its independence]]. The painting depicts British diplomat [[Charles Stuart, 1st Baron Stuart de Rothesay|Sir Charles Stuart]] presenting his letter of credence to Emperor [[Pedro I of Brazil]], who is flanked by his wife [[Maria Leopoldina of Austria|Maria Leopoldina]], their daughter Maria da Glória (later Queen [[Maria II of Portugal]]), and other dignitaries. At right, a winged figure, representing History, carving the "great event" on a stone tablet.<ref>{{Cite book|title=''As barbas do imperador : D. Pedro II, um monarca nos trópicos ''|last1=Schwarcz|first1=Lilia Moritz|date=1998|pages = 181|publisher=Companhia das Letras|isbn=85-7164-837-9|edition=|location=São Paulo|oclc=}}</ref>]]

* [[History of Africa]] begins with the first emergence of modern human beings on the continent, continuing into its modern present as a patchwork of diverse and politically developing states.
* [[History of the Americas]] is the collective history of North and South America, including the Caribbean and Central America.
** [[History of North America]] is the study of the past passed down from generation to generation on the continent in the Earth's Northern and Western Hemispheres.
** [[History of the Caribbean]] begins with the oldest evidence where 7,000-year-old remains have been found.
** [[History of Central America]] is the study of the past passed down from generation to generation on the continent in the Earth's Western Hemisphere.
** [[History of South America]] is the study of the past passed down from generation to generation on the continent in the Earth's Southern and Western Hemispheres.
* [[History of Eurasia]] is the collective history of several distinct peripheral coastal regions: the Middle East, South Asia, East Asia, Southeast Asia, and Europe, linked by the interior mass of the Eurasian Steppe of Central Asia and Eastern Europe.
** [[History of Europe]] describes the passage of time from humans inhabiting the European continent to the present day.
** [[History of Asia]] can be seen as the collective history of several distinct peripheral coastal regions, East Asia, South Asia, and the Middle East, linked by the interior mass of the Eurasian Steppe.
*** [[History of East Asia]] is the study of the past passed down from generation to generation in East Asia.
*** [[History of India]] is the study of the past passed down from generation to generation in the sub-Himalayan region.
*** [[History of the Middle East]] begins with the earliest civilizations in the region now known as the Middle East that were established around 3000 BC, in Mesopotamia (Iraq).
*** [[History of Southeast Asia]] has been characterized as interaction between regional players and foreign powers.
* [[History of Oceania]] is the collective history of Australia, New Zealand, and the Pacific Islands.
** [[History of Australia]] starts with the documentation of the Makassar trading with Indigenous Australians on Australia's north coast.
** [[History of New Zealand]] dates back at least 700 years to when it was discovered and settled by Polynesians, who developed a distinct Māori culture centered on kinship links and land.
** [[History of the Pacific Islands]] covers the history of the islands in the Pacific Ocean.
* [[History of Antarctica]] emerges from early Western theories of a vast continent known as Terra Australis, believed to exist in the far south of the globe.

===Political===
{{Main|Political history|Political history in the United States}}
Political history covers the type of government, the branches of government, leaders, legislation, political activism, political parties, and voting.

===Military===
{{Main|Military history}}

[[Military history]] concerns warfare, strategies, battles, weapons, and the psychology of combat.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Howard |first1=Michael |last2=Bond |first2=Brian |last3=Stagg |first3=J. C. A. |last4=Chandler |first4=David |last5=Best |first5=Geoffrey |last6=Terrine |first6=John |title=What is History Today{{nbsp}}... ? |chapter=What is Military History{{nbsp}}... ?  |editor=Juliet Gardiner |chapter-url=https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-1-349-19161-1_2  |publisher=Macmillan Education UK |access-date=20 January 2021 |pages=4–17  |doi=10.1007/978-1-349-19161-1_2 |date=1988 |isbn=978-0333422267 |s2cid=156592827 |archive-date=9 June 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180609030334/https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007%2F978-1-349-19161-1_2 |url-status=live }}</ref> The "new military history" since the 1970s has been concerned with soldiers more than generals, with psychology more than tactics, and with the broader impact of warfare on society and culture.<ref name=Pavkovic>{{Cite book | last1 =Pavkovic
 | first1 =Michael | last2 =Morillo | first2 =Stephen  | title =What is Military History? | location =Oxford | publisher =Polity Press | pages =3–4 | isbn =978-0745633909 | year =2006 }}</ref>

===Religious===
{{Main|History of religion}}

The history of religion has been a main theme for both secular and religious historians for centuries, and continues to be taught in seminaries and academe. Leading journals include ''[[Church History (journal)|Church History]]'', ''[[The Catholic Historical Review]]'', and ''[[History of Religions (journal)|History of Religions]]''. Topics range widely from political and cultural and artistic dimensions, to theology and liturgy.<ref>{{cite journal |first=Eric |last=Cochrane |title=What Is Catholic Historiography? |journal=Catholic Historical Review |volume=61 |issue=2 |year=1975 |pages=169–190 |jstor=25019673 }}</ref> This subject studies religions from all regions and areas of the world where humans have lived.<ref>For example, see {{cite journal |first1=Sofia Boesch |last1=Gajano |first2=Tommaso |last2=Caliò |title=Italian Religious Historiography in the 1990s |journal=Journal of Modern Italian Studies |year=1998 |volume=3 |issue=3 |pages=293–306 |doi=10.1080/13545719808454982 }}</ref>

===Social===
{{Main|Social history}}
''Social history'', sometimes called the ''new social history'', is the field that includes history of ordinary people and their strategies and institutions for coping with life.<ref>Peter Stearns, ed. ''Encyclopedia of Social History'' (1994)</ref> In its "golden age" it was a major growth field in the 1960s and 1970s among scholars, and still is well represented in history departments. In two decades from 1975 to 1995, the proportion of professors of history in American universities identifying with social history rose from 31% to 41%, while the proportion of political historians fell from 40% to 30%.<ref>Diplomatic dropped from 5% to 3%, economic history from 7% to 5%, and cultural history grew from 14% to 16%. Based on full-time professors in U.S. history departments. {{cite journal|at=p. 42|jstor=2539326|title=Brothers under the Skin: Diplomatic History and International Relations|journal=International Security|volume=22|issue=1|last1=Haber|first1=Stephen H.|last2=Kennedy|first2=David M.|last3=Krasner|first3=Stephen D.|year=1997|doi=10.1162/isec.22.1.34|s2cid=57570041}}</ref> In the history departments of British universities in 2007, of the 5723 faculty members, 1644 (29%) identified themselves with social history while [[political history]] came next with 1425 (25%).<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.history.ac.uk/ihr/Resources/Teachers/a27.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060530073940/http://www.history.ac.uk/ihr/Resources/Teachers/a27.html|url-status=dead|title=Teachers of History in the Universities of the UK 2007 – listed by research interest|archive-date=30 May 2006}}</ref> The "old" social history before the 1960s was a hodgepodge of topics without a central theme, and it often included political movements, like Populism, that were "social" in the sense of being outside the elite system. Social history was contrasted with [[political history]], [[intellectual history]] and the history of [[Great Man theory|great men]]. English historian [[G. M. Trevelyan]] saw it as the bridging point between economic and political history, reflecting that, "Without social history, economic history is barren and political history unintelligible."<ref>{{cite book|title=English Social History: A Survey of Six Centuries from Chaucer to Queen Victoria|author=G.M. Trevelyan|publisher=Book Club Associates|year=1973|chapter=Introduction|page=i|isbn=978-0582484887|author-link=G.M. Trevelyan}}</ref> While the field has often been viewed negatively as history with the politics left out, it has also been defended as "history with the people put back in".<ref>{{cite book|title=The People's State: East German Society from Hitler to Honecker|author=Mary Fulbrook|location=London|publisher=[[Yale University Press]]|year=2005|chapter=Introduction: The people's paradox|page=17|isbn=978-0300144246}}</ref>

====Subfields====
The chief subfields of social history include:
* [[Black history (disambiguation)|Black history]]<!--Intentional link to DAB page-->
* [[Demographic history]]
* [[Ethnic history]]
* [[Gender history]]
* [[History of childhood]]
* [[History of education]]
* [[History of the family]]
* [[Labor history (discipline)|Labor history]]
* [[LGBT history]]
* [[Rural history]]
* [[Urban history]]
** [[American urban history]]
* [[Women's history]]

===Cultural===
{{Main|Cultural history}}
Cultural history replaced [[social history]] as the dominant form in the 1980s and 1990s. It typically combines the approaches of anthropology and history to look at language, popular cultural traditions and cultural interpretations of historical experience. It examines the records and narrative descriptions of past knowledge, customs, and arts of a group of people. How peoples constructed their memory of the past is a major topic. Cultural history includes the study of [[History of art|art in society]] as well is the study of images and human visual production ([[iconography]]).<ref>{{multiref2|1={{cite book |editor-last=Gervereau |editor-first=Laurent |title=Dictionnaire mondial des images |date=2006 |publisher=Nouveau monde éd |location=Paris |isbn=978-2847361858 |id=(With 275 specialists from all continents, all specialities, all periods from prehistory to nowadays)|trans-title=World Dictionary of Images |editor1-link=Laurent Gervereau}} |2={{cite book |last1=Gervereau |first1=Laurent |author1-link=Laurent Gervereau |title=Images: Une histoire mondiale |date=2008 |publisher=Nouveau monde éd |location=Paris |isbn=9782847363623 |language=fr}} }}</ref>

===Diplomatic===
{{Main|Diplomatic history}}
[[Diplomatic history]] focuses on the relationships between nations, primarily regarding diplomacy and the causes of wars.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Watt |first1=D. C. |last2=Adams |first2=Simon |last3=Bullen |first3=Roger |last4=Brauer |first4=Kinley |last5=Iriye |first5=Akira |title=What is History Today{{nbsp}}... ? |chapter=What is Diplomatic History{{nbsp}}... ? |chapter-url=https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-1-349-19161-1_12  |editor=Juliet Gardiner |publisher=Macmillan Education UK |access-date=20 January 2021 |pages=131–142 |language=en |doi=10.1007/978-1-349-19161-1_12 |date=1988 |isbn=978-0333422267 |archive-date=28 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210128015952/https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-1-349-19161-1_12 |url-status=live }}</ref> More recently it looks at the causes of peace and human rights. It typically presents the viewpoints of the foreign office, and long-term strategic values, as the driving force of continuity and change in history. This type of ''political history'' is the study of the conduct of [[International relations#History of international relations|international relations]] between states or across state boundaries over time. Historian [[Muriel Chamberlain]] notes that after the First World War, "diplomatic history replaced constitutional history as the flagship of historical investigation, at once the most important, most exact and most sophisticated of historical studies".<ref>Muriel E Chamberlain, ''Pax Britannica'? British Foreign Policy 1789–1914'' (1988) p. 1</ref> She adds that after 1945, the trend reversed, allowing social history to replace it.

===Economic===
{{main|Economic history|Business history}}
Although economic history has been well established since the late 19th century, in recent years academic studies have shifted more and more toward economics departments and away from traditional history departments.<ref>Robert Whaples, "Is Economic History a Neglected Field of Study?", Historically Speaking (April 2010) v. 11#2 pp. 17–20, with responses pp. 20–27</ref> [[Business history]] deals with the history of individual business organizations, business methods, government regulation, labour relations, and impact on society. It also includes biographies of individual companies, executives, and entrepreneurs. It is related to economic history. Business history is most often taught in business schools.<ref>Franco Amatori, and Geoffrey Jones, eds. ''Business History Around the World'' (2003) [https://www.questia.com/read/114846992 online edition] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090619213940/http://www.questia.com/read/114846992 |date=19 June 2009 }}</ref>

===Environmental===
{{main|Environmental history}}
Environmental history is a new field that emerged in the 1980s to look at the history of the environment, especially in the long run, and the impact of human activities upon it.<ref>J.D. Hughes, ''What is Environmental History'' (2006) [https://www.amazon.com/What-Environmental-History/dp/0745631886/  excerpt and text search] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160422092807/http://www.amazon.com/What-Environmental-History/dp/0745631886 |date=22 April 2016 }}</ref> It is an offshoot of the environmental movement, which was kickstarted by Rachel Carson's ''Silent Spring'' in the 1960s.

===World===
{{main|World history (field)}}
{{See also|Human history|Universal history (genre)}}
World history is the study of major civilizations over the last 3000 years or so. World history is primarily a teaching field, rather than a research field. It gained popularity in the United States,<ref>[[Ainslie Embree]] and Carol Gluck, eds., ''Asia in Western and World History: A Guide for Teaching''  (M.E. Sharpe, 1997)</ref> Japan<ref>Shigeru Akita, "World History and the Emergence of Global History in Japan", ''Chinese Studies in History'', Spring 2010, Vol. 43 Issue 3, pp. 84–96</ref> and other countries after the 1980s with the realization that students need a broader exposure to the world as globalization proceeds.

It has led to highly controversial interpretations by [[Oswald Spengler]] and [[Arnold J. Toynbee]], among others.

The World History Association publishes the ''Journal of World History'' every quarter since 1990.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.historycooperative.org/jwhindex.html |title=Journal of World History |website=The History Cooperative |access-date=7 February 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110501050602/http://www.historycooperative.org/jwhindex.html |archive-date=1 May 2011  }}</ref> The H-World discussion list<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.h-net.org/~world/|title=H-World|website=H-Net |access-date=7 February 2011|archive-date=10 March 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110310065155/http://www.h-net.org/%7Eworld/|url-status=live}}</ref> serves as a network of communication among practitioners of world history, with discussions among scholars, announcements, syllabi, bibliographies and book reviews.

===People's===
{{Main|People's history}}
A [[people's history]] is a type of historical work which attempts to account for historical events from the [[Populism|perspective of common people]]. A people's history is the history of the world that is the story of mass movements and of the outsiders. Individuals or groups not included in the past in other types of writing about history are the primary focus, which includes the [[Disfranchisement|disenfranchised]], the [[oppression|oppressed]], the [[poverty|poor]], the [[counterculture|nonconformist]]s, and the otherwise forgotten people. The authors are typically on the left and have a socialist model in mind, as in the approach of the [[History Workshop Journal|History Workshop]] movement in Britain in the 1960s.<ref>{{cite book|author=Wade Matthews|title=The New Left, National Identity, and the Break-up of Britain|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lfmZAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA20|year=2013|publisher=Brill|pages=20–21|isbn=978-9004253070|access-date=8 May 2016|archive-date=28 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200928073152/https://books.google.com/books?id=lfmZAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA20|url-status=live}}</ref>

===Intellectual===
{{Main|Intellectual history}}
Intellectual history and the history of ideas emerged in the mid-20th century, with the focus on the intellectuals and their books on the one hand, and on the other the study of ideas as disembodied objects with a career of their own.<ref>{{cite journal |first=Anthony |last=Grafton |title=The History of Ideas: Precept and Practice, 1950–2000 and beyond |journal=Journal of the History of Ideas |volume=67 |issue=1 |year=2006 |pages=1–32 |url=http://sydney.edu.au/intellectual-history/documents/grafton-history-ideas.pdf |s2cid-access=free |doi=10.1353/jhi.2006.0006 |s2cid=143746040 |access-date=6 December 2015 |archive-date=3 June 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160603130940/http://sydney.edu.au/intellectual-history/documents/grafton-history-ideas.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |editor-first=Maryanne Cline |editor-last=Horowitz |title=New Dictionary of the History of Ideas |volume=6 |year=2004 }}</ref>

===Gender===
{{Main|Gender history|LGBT history}}
[[Gender history]] is a subfield of History and [[Gender studies]], which looks at the past from the perspective of [[gender]]. The outgrowth of gender history from [[women's history]] stemmed from many non-[[Feminism|feminist]] historians dismissing the importance of women in history. According to Joan W. Scott, "Gender is a constitutive element of social relationships based on perceived differences between the sexes, and gender is a primary way of signifying relations of power",<ref>{{Cite book|last=Wallach Scott|first=Joan|title=Gender and the Politics of History|publisher=Columbia University Press|year=1988|isbn=0231188013|location=New York|pages=28–50|chapter=Gender: A Useful Category of Analysis}}</ref> meaning that gender historians study the social effects of perceived differences between the sexes and how all genders use allotted power in societal and political structures. Despite being a relatively new field, gender history has had a significant effect on the general study of history. Gender history traditionally differs from women's history in its inclusion of all aspects of gender such as masculinity and femininity, and today's gender history extends to include people who identify outside of that binary.
[[LGBT history]] deals with the first recorded instances of same-sex love and sexuality of [[Ancient history|ancient civilizations]], and involves the history of [[lesbian]], [[gay]], [[Bisexuality|bisexual]] and [[transgender]] ([[LGBT]]) peoples and cultures around the world.<ref>{{cite web |title=History of Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual and Transgender Social Movements |url=https://www.apa.org/pi/lgbt/resources/history |website=American Psychological Association |first1=Bonnie J. |last1=Morris |access-date=20 January 2021 |archive-date=11 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210111182438/https://www.apa.org/pi/lgbt/resources/history |url-status=live }}</ref>

===Public===
{{Main|Public history}}
[[Public history]] describes the broad range of activities undertaken by people with some training in the discipline of history who are generally working outside of specialized academic settings. Public history practice has quite deep roots in the areas of historic preservation, archival science, oral history, museum curatorship, and other related fields. The term itself began to be used in the United States and Canada in the late 1970s, and the field has become increasingly professionalized since that time. Some of the most common settings for public history are museums, historic homes and [[historic site]]s, parks, battlefields, archives, film and television companies, and all levels of government.<ref>{{Cite journal |jstor = 3377910|title = Public History and the Study of Memory|journal = The Public Historian|volume = 18|issue = 2|pages = 7–23|last1 = Glassberg|first1 = David|year = 1996|doi = 10.2307/3377910 }}</ref>

==Historians==
{{Main list|List of historians}}
[[File:B.Croce.jpg|thumb|upright|right|[[Benedetto Croce]]]]
[[File:Ban Zhao.jpg|alt=Ban Zhao, courtesy name Huiban, was the first known female Chinese historian. |thumb|upright=0.6|[[Ban Zhao]], courtesy name Huiban, was the first known female Chinese historian.]]
Professional and amateur historians discover, collect, organize, and present information about past events. They discover this information through archeological evidence, written primary sources, verbal stories or oral histories, and other archival material. In [[list of historians|lists of historians]], historians can be grouped by order of the historical period in which they were writing, which is not necessarily the same as the period in which they specialized. [[Chronicle]]rs and [[annals|annalists]], though they are not historians in the true sense, are also frequently included.

==Judgement==
{{see also|Ash heap of history}}
Since the 20th century, Western historians have disavowed the aspiration to provide the "judgement of history".<ref name="Curran2000p413">Curran, Vivian Grosswald (2000) ''Herder and the Holocaust: A Debate About Difference and Determinism in the Context of Comparative Law'' in F.C. DeCoste, Bernard Schwartz (eds.) ''Holocaust's Ghost: Writings on Art, Politics, Law and Education'' [https://books.google.com/books?id=lLnBSq7YP0gC&pg=PA413 pp. 413–415] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150912190241/https://books.google.com/books?id=lLnBSq7YP0gC&pg=PA413&lpg=PA413 |date=12 September 2015 }}</ref> The goals of historical judgements or interpretations are separate to those of [[Judgment (law)|legal judgements]], that need to be formulated quickly after the events and be final.<ref name="Curran2000p415">Curran, Vivian Grosswald (2000) ''Herder and the Holocaust: A Debate About Difference and Determinism in the Context of Comparative Law'' in F.C. DeCoste, Bernard Schwartz (eds.) ''Holocaust's Ghost: Writings on Art, Politics, Law and Education'' [https://books.google.com/books?id=lLnBSq7YP0gC&pg=PA415 p. 415] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150912184555/https://books.google.com/books?id=lLnBSq7YP0gC&pg=PA415&lpg=PA415 |date=12 September 2015 }}</ref> A related issue to that of the judgement of history is that of [[collective memory]].

==Pseudohistory==
{{Main|Pseudohistory}}

[[Pseudohistory]] is a term applied to texts which purport to be historical in nature but which depart from standard [[Historical method|historiographical conventions]] in a way which undermines their conclusions. It is closely related to deceptive [[Historical negationism|historical revisionism]]. Works which draw controversial conclusions from new, speculative, or disputed historical evidence, particularly in the fields of national, political, military, and religious affairs, are often rejected as pseudohistory.

==Teaching==

===Scholarship vs teaching===
A major intellectual battle took place in Britain in the early twentieth century regarding the place of history teaching in the universities. At Oxford and Cambridge, scholarship was downplayed. Professor [[Charles Harding Firth]], Oxford's Regius Professor of history in 1904 ridiculed the system as best suited to produce superficial journalists. The Oxford tutors, who had more votes than the professors, fought back in defense of their system saying that it successfully produced Britain's outstanding statesmen, administrators, prelates, and diplomats, and that mission was as valuable as training scholars. The tutors dominated the debate until after the Second World War. It forced aspiring young scholars to teach at outlying schools, such as Manchester University, where [[Thomas Frederick Tout]] was professionalizing the History undergraduate programme by introducing the study of original sources and requiring the writing of a thesis.<ref>Ivan Roots, "Firth, Sir Charles Harding (1857–1936)", ''Oxford Dictionary of National Biography'' (Oxford University Press, 2004) [http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/33137, Online; accessed 10 Nov 2014] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220730035753/https://www.oxforddnb.com/view/10.1093/ref:odnb/9780198614128.001.0001/odnb-9780198614128-e-33137;jsessionid=715D4DE77EF65011A2FFC9D5B4B69210 |date=30 July 2022 }}</ref><ref>[[Reba Soffer]], "Nation, duty, character and confidence: history at Oxford, 1850–1914." ''Historical Journal'' (1987) 30#01 pp. 77–104.</ref>

In the United States, scholarship was concentrated at the major PhD-producing universities, while the large number of other colleges and universities focused on undergraduate teaching. A tendency in the 21st century was for the latter schools to increasingly demand scholarly productivity of their younger tenure-track faculty. Furthermore, universities have increasingly relied on inexpensive part-time adjuncts to do most of the classroom teaching.<ref>Frank Donoghue, ''The Last Professors: The Corporate University and the Fate of the Humanities'' (2008)</ref>

===Nationalism===
From the origins of national school systems in the 19th century, the teaching of history to promote national sentiment has been a high priority. In the United States after World War I, a strong movement emerged at the university level to teach courses in Western Civilization, so as to give students a common heritage with Europe. In the U.S. after 1980, attention increasingly moved toward teaching [[World history (field)|world history]] or requiring students to take courses in non-western cultures, to prepare students for life in a globalized economy.<ref>Jacqueline Swansinger, "Preparing Student Teachers for a World History Curriculum in New York", ''History Teacher'', (November 2009), 43#1 pp. 87–96</ref>

At the university level, historians debate the question of whether history belongs more to social science or to the humanities. Many view the field from both perspectives.

The teaching of history in French schools was influenced by the ''[[Nouvelle histoire]]'' as disseminated after the 1960s by ''Cahiers pédagogiques and Enseignement'' and other journals for teachers. Also influential was the Institut national de recherche et de documentation pédagogique (INRDP). Joseph Leif, the Inspector-general of teacher training, said pupils children should learn about historians' approaches as well as facts and dates. Louis François, Dean of the History/Geography group in the Inspectorate of National Education advised that teachers should provide historic documents and promote "active methods" which would give pupils "the immense happiness of discovery". Proponents said it was a reaction against the memorization of names and dates that characterized teaching and left the students bored. Traditionalists protested loudly it was a postmodern innovation that threatened to leave the youth ignorant of French patriotism and national identity.<ref>Abby Waldman, " The Politics of History Teaching in England and France during the 1980s", ''History Workshop Journal''  Issue 68, Autumn 2009 pp. 199–221  [http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/history_workshop_journal/v068/68.waldman.html online]</ref>

===Bias in school teaching===
[[File:Historybooks.JPG|thumb|History books in a bookstore]]
In several countries history textbooks are tools to foster nationalism and patriotism, and give students the official narrative about national enemies.<ref>Jason Nicholls, ed. ''School History Textbooks across Cultures: International Debates and Perspectives'' (2006)</ref>

In many countries, history textbooks are sponsored by the national government and are written to put the national heritage in the most favorable light. For example, in Japan, mention of the [[Nanking Massacre]] has been removed from textbooks and the entire Second World War is given cursory treatment. Other countries have complained.<ref>Claudia Schneider, "The Japanese History Textbook Controversy in East Asian Perspective", ''Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science'', May 2008, Vol. 617, pp. 107–122</ref> Another example includes Turkey, where there is no mention of the [[Armenian Genocide]] in Turkish textbooks as a result of the denial of the genocide.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Guillory |first1=John |author-link=John Guillory |title=The Common Core and the Evasion of Curriculum |date=2015 |publisher=PMLA |pages=666–672 |edition=vol 130}}</ref>

It was standard policy in communist countries to present only a rigid Marxist historiography.<ref>"Problems of Teaching Contemporary Russian History", ''Russian Studies in History'', Winter 2004, Vol. 43 Issue 3, pp. 61–62</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|title=Blackwell-Synergy.com |journal=International Affairs |volume=84 |issue=2 |pages=365–370 |doi = 10.1111/j.1468-2346.2008.00708.x|year = 2008|last1 = Wedgwood Benn|first1 = David}}</ref>

In the [[United States]], textbooks published by the same company often differ in content from state to state.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2020/01/12/us/texas-vs-california-history-textbooks.html|title=Two States. Eight Textbooks. Two American Stories.|first=Dana|last=Goldstein|newspaper=The New York Times|date=12 January 2020|access-date=5 May 2020|archive-date=5 May 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200505140015/https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2020/01/12/us/texas-vs-california-history-textbooks.html|url-status=live}}</ref> An example of content that is represented different in different regions of the country is the history of the [[Southern United States|Southern states]], where [[Slavery in the United States|slavery]] and the [[American Civil War]] are treated as controversial topics. [[McGraw-Hill Education]] for example, was criticized for describing Africans brought to American plantations as "workers" instead of slaves in a textbook.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Fernandez|first1=Manny|last2=Hauser|first2=Christine|date=5 October 2015|title=Texas Mother Teaches Textbook Company a Lesson on Accuracy|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2015/10/06/us/publisher-promises-revisions-after-textbook-refers-to-african-slaves-as-workers.html?_r=0|work=The New York Times|access-date=14 July 2018|archive-date=15 July 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180715011315/https://www.nytimes.com/2015/10/06/us/publisher-promises-revisions-after-textbook-refers-to-african-slaves-as-workers.html?_r=0|url-status=live}}</ref>

Academic historians have often fought against the politicization of the textbooks, sometimes with success.<ref>"Teaching History in Schools: the Politics of Textbooks in India", ''History Workshop Journal'', April 2009, Issue 67, pp. 99–110</ref><ref>Tatyana Volodina, "Teaching History in Russia After the Collapse of the USSR", ''History Teacher'', February 2005, Vol. 38 Issue 2, pp. 179–188</ref>

In 21st-century Germany, the history curriculum is controlled by the 16 states, and is characterized not by superpatriotism but rather by an "almost pacifistic and deliberately unpatriotic undertone" and reflects "principles formulated by international organizations such as UNESCO or the Council of Europe, thus oriented towards human rights, democracy and peace." The result is that "German textbooks usually downplay national pride and ambitions and aim to develop an understanding of citizenship centered on democracy, progress, human rights, peace, tolerance and Europeanness."<ref>Simone Lässig and Karl Heinrich Pohl, "History Textbooks and Historical Scholarship in Germany", ''History Workshop Journal'' Issue 67, Spring 2009 pp. 128–129 [http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/history_workshop_journal/v067/67.lassig.html online at project MUSE]</ref>

==See also==
{{Portal|History}}
* [[Glossary of history]]
* [[Outline of history]]

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==Further reading==
{{refbegin|30em}}
* {{cite book|editor-last1=Norton|editor-first1=Mary Beth|editor-link1=Mary Beth Norton|editor-last2=Gerardi|editor-first2=Pamela|title=The American Historical Association's Guide to Historical Literature|edition=3rd|publisher=Oxford U.P.|date=1995|postscript=;}} Annotated guide to 27,000 of the most important English language history books in all fields and topics.
* {{cite book|last=Benjamin|first=Jules R.|title=A Student's Guide to History|date=2009}}
* {{cite book|last=Carr|first=E.H.|title=What is History?|location=Basingstoke|publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan]]|date=2001|isbn=0333977017|others=With a new introduction by Richard J. Evans}}
* {{cite journal|last=Cronon|first=William|title=Storytelling|journal=American Historical Review|volume=118|number=1|date=2013|pages=1–19|doi=10.1093/ahr/118.1.1|url=http://www.williamcronon.net/aha-writings.htm|access-date=24 July 2016|archive-date=23 July 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160723044136/http://www.williamcronon.net/aha-writings.htm|url-status=live|postscript=;|doi-access=free}} Discussion of the impact of the end of the Cold War upon scholarly research funding, the impact of the Internet and Wikipedia on history study and teaching, and the importance of storytelling in history writing and teaching.
* {{cite book|last=Evans|first=Richard J.|title=In Defence of History|publisher=W.W. Norton & Company|date=2000|isbn=0393319598}}
* {{cite book|last1=Furay|first1=Conal|last2=Salevouris|first2=Michael J.|title=The Methods and Skills of History: A Practical Guide|date=2010}}
* {{cite book|last=Kelleher|first=William|title=Writing History: A Guide for Students|date=2008|postscript=;}} [https://www.amazon.com/dp/0195337557/  excerpt and text search].
* {{cite book|last=Lingelbach|first=Gabriele|chapter=The Institutionalization and Professionalization of History in Europe and the United States|title=The Oxford History of Historical Writing|volume=4: 1800–1945|date=2011|pages=78–|publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0199533091|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xVrwFT6zAFoC&pg=PA78|access-date=2 July 2015|archive-date=15 September 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150915192900/https://books.google.com/books?id=xVrwFT6zAFoC&pg=PA78|url-status=live}}
* {{cite book|last=Presnell|first=Jenny L.|title=The Information-Literate Historian: A Guide to Research for History Students|date=2006|postscript=;}} [https://www.amazon.com/dp/0195176510/  excerpt and text search].
* {{cite book|last=Tosh|first=John|title=The Pursuit of History|date=2006|publisher=Pearson Longman |isbn=1405823518}}
* {{cite book|last=Woolf|first=D.R.|title=A Global Encyclopedia of Historical Writing|publisher=Garland Reference Library of the Humanities|volume=2|date=1998|postscript=;}} [https://www.amazon.com/Encyclopedia-Historical-Writing-Reference-Humanities/dp/0815315147/ excerpt and text search].
* {{cite book|editor-last=Williams|editor-first=H.S.|date=1907|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=g5sFAAAAIAAJ|title=The Historians' History of the World|volume=Book 1|access-date=2 July 2015|archive-date=15 September 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150915174251/https://books.google.com/books?id=g5sFAAAAIAAJ|url-status=live|postscript=;}} This is Book 1 of 25 Volumes.
* {{cite book
  | last1 = Schwarcz
  | first1 = Lilia Moritz
  | year = 1998
  | language = pt
  | title = As barbas do imperador: D. Pedro II, um monarca nos trópicos
  | publisher = Companhia das Letras
  | location = São Paulo
  | isbn = 85-7164-837-9
  }}
{{refend}}

==External links==
<!-- Please discuss on the talk page before adding more external links.-->
* {{official website|http://www.besthistorysites.net/}} of BestHistorySites
* {{official website|https://www.bbc.co.uk/history}} of BBC History
* [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/ Internet History Sourcebooks Project] See also [[Internet History Sourcebooks Project]] (Collections of public domain and copy-permitted historical texts for educational use)

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