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{{Английская Википедия/Панель перехода}}
{{short description|President of Egypt from 1981 to 2011}}
{{redirect|Mubarak}}
{{pp-30-500|small=yes}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2020}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| honorific_prefix    = His Excellency<br>[[Marshal]]
| native_name         = {{nobold|حسني مبارك}}
| native_name_lang    = ar
| birth_name          = Muhammad Hosni El Sayed Mubarak
| image               = Hosni_Mubarak_-_Official_Photo.JPG
| caption             = Official portrait, 1985
| order               = 4th
| office              = President of Egypt
| primeminister       = {{List collapsed|title={{nobold|''See list''}}
| Himself (1981–1982)
| [[Ahmad Fuad Mohieddin]] (1982–1984)
| [[Kamal Hassan Ali]] (1984–1985)
| [[Aly Lotfy Mahmoud]] (1985–1986)
| [[Atef Sedky]] (1986–1996)
| [[Kamal Ganzouri]] (1996–1999)
| [[Atef Ebeid]] (1999–2004)
| [[Ahmed Nazif]] (2004–2011)
| [[Ahmed Shafik]] (2011)
}}
| vicepresident       = {{plainlist|
* ''None'' (1981–2011)
* [[Omar Suleiman (politician)|Omar Suleiman]] (<!-- Jan–Feb -->2011)
}}
| term_start          = 14 October 1981
| term_end            = 11 February 2011
| predecessor         = {{plainlist|
* [[Anwar Sadat]]
* [[Sufi Abu Taleb]] (acting)
}}
| successor           = {{plainlist|
* [[Mohamed Hussein Tantawi]] (interim){{Ref label|aaa|a}}
* [[Mohamed Morsi]]
}}
| office1             = [[Prime Minister of Egypt]]
| president1          = {{plainlist|
* Sufi Abu Taleb (acting)
* Himself
}}
| term_start1         = 7 October 1981
| term_end1           = 2 January 1982
| predecessor1        = [[Anwar Sadat]]
| successor1          = [[Ahmad Fuad Mohieddin]]
| office2             = [[Vice-President of Egypt]]
| president2          = Anwar Sadat
| term_start2         = 16 April 1975
| term_end2           = 14 October 1981
| predecessor2        = {{plainlist|
* [[Hussein el-Shafei]]
* [[Mahmoud Fawzi]]
}}
| successor2          = Omar Suleiman{{Ref label|bbb|b}}
| office3             = [[Secretary-General of the Non-Aligned Movement|Secretary-General of the {{nowrap|Non-Aligned Movement}}]]
| term_start3         = 16 July 2009
| term_end3           = 11 February 2011
| predecessor3        = [[Raúl Castro]]
| successor3          = Mohamed Hussein Tantawi (acting)
| office4             = Commander of the [[Egyptian Air Force|Air Force]]
| president4          = Anwar Sadat
| term_start4         = 23 April 1972
| term_end4           = 16 April 1975
| predecessor4        = [[Ali Mustafa Baghdady]]
| successor4          = [[Mahmoud Shaker]]
| office5             = Director of the [[Egyptian Air Academy]]
| term_start5         = November 1967
| term_end5           = June 1969<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Darraj |first1=Susan Muaddi |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UpaKe-R_0aYC&q=Hosni+Mubarak+1969&pg=PA48 |title=Hosni Mubarak |last2=Cox |first2=Vicki |year=2007 |publisher=Infobase |isbn=978-1-4381-0467-6}}</ref>
| predecessor5        = Yahia Saleh Al-Aidaros
| successor5          = Mahmoud Shaker
| birth_date          = {{birth date|df=y|1928|5|4}}
| birth_place         = [[Monufia Governorate|Kafr-El Meselha]], [[Kingdom of Egypt]]
| death_date          = {{death date and age|df=y|2020|2|25|1928|5|4}}
| death_place         = [[Cairo]], [[Egypt]]
| party               = [[National Democratic Party (Egypt)|NDP]] (1978–2011)<br>[[Arab Socialist Union (Egypt)|ASU]] (before 1978)
| spouse              = {{marriage|[[Suzanne Mubarak|Suzanne Thabet]]|1959}}
| children            = {{flatlist|
* [[Alaa Mubarak|Alaa]]
* [[Gamal Mubarak|Gamal]]
}}
| alma_mater          = {{plainlist|
* [[Egyptian Military Academy]]
* [[Egyptian Air Academy]]
* [[Frunze Military Academy]]
}}
| signature           = Hosni Mubarak Signature.svg
| allegiance          = <!-- Egypt -->
| branch              = [[Egyptian Air Force]]
| rank                = [[Air chief marshal]]<ref name="EAF" />{{Ref label|ccc|c}}
| serviceyears        = 1950–1975
| commands            = {{plainlist|
* Egyptian Air Force
* [[Egyptian Air Academy]]
* Beni Suef Air Base
* Cairo West Air Base
}}
| footnotes           = {{Ordered list |type=a |list_style=margin-left: 1.6em; text-align:left;
| {{note|aaa||<!-- as --> Chairman of the [[Egyptian Armed Forces|Supreme Council of the Armed Forces]]}}
| {{note|bbb||Office vacant from 14&nbsp;October 1981 to 29&nbsp;January 2011}}
| {{note|ccc||Military rank withdrawn after trial}}
}}
}}

'''Muhammad Hosni El Sayed Mubarak'''{{efn|{{lang-arz|محمد حسني السيد مبارك|Muḥammad Ḥusnī as-Sayyid Mubārak}}, {{IPA-arz|mæˈħæmmæd ˈħosni (ʔe)sˈsæjjed moˈbɑːɾɑk|lang}}}} ({{Lang-arz|محمد حسني مبارك}}{{lrm}}; 4 May 1928 – 25 February 2020) was an Egyptian politician and military officer who served as the fourth [[president of Egypt]] from 1981 to 2011.

Before he entered politics, Mubarak was a career officer in the [[Egyptian Air Force]]. He served as its commander from 1972 to 1975 and rose to the rank of [[air chief marshal]] in 1973.<ref name="EAF" /> In 1975, he was appointed vice president by President [[Anwar Sadat]] and assumed the presidency after his [[Assassination of Anwar Sadat|assassination]] in 1981. Mubarak's presidency lasted almost thirty years, making him Egypt's longest-serving ruler since [[Muhammad Ali of Egypt|Muhammad Ali Pasha]], who ruled the country for 43 years from 1805 to 1848.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Slackman |first=Michael |title=Hosni Mubarak |url=http://topics.nytimes.com/top/reference/timestopics/people/m/hosni_mubarak/index.html |work=[[The New York Times]] |date=8 March 2010 |access-date=25 January 2011}}</ref>

Less than two weeks after the assassination of President Sadat, Mubarak quickly assumed the presidency in the single-candidate [[1981 Egyptian presidential confirmation referendum|1981 referendum]], and renewed his term through single-candidate referendums in [[1987 Egyptian presidential confirmation referendum|1987]], [[1993 Egyptian presidential confirmation referendum|1993]], and [[1999 Egyptian presidential confirmation referendum|1999]]. Under United States pressure, Mubarak held the country's first multi-party election in [[2005 Egyptian presidential election|2005]], which he won. In 1989, he succeeded in reinstating Egypt's membership in the [[Arab League]], which had been frozen since the [[Camp David Accords]] with Israel, and in returning the Arab League's headquarters back to [[Cairo]]. He was known for his supportive stance on the [[Israeli–Palestinian peace process]], in addition to his role in the [[Gulf War]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-12301713|title=Profile: Hosni Mubarak|publisher=[[BBC News]]|date=24 March 2017}}</ref> Despite providing stability and reasons for economic growth, his rule was repressive. The [[Emergency law in Egypt|state of emergency]], which had not been lifted since the [[Six-Day War|1967 war]], stifled [[Opposition (politics)|political opposition]], the security services became known for their brutality, and corruption became widespread.<ref>{{cite web |title=Egypt profile – Overview |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-13313371 |publisher=BBC News |access-date=15 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180128142112/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-13313371 |date=6 November 2015 |archive-date=28 January 2018}}</ref>

Mubarak stepped down during the [[Egyptian Revolution of 2011]] after 18 days of demonstrations.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Kirkpatrick |first=David D. |title=Egypt Calls in Army as Protesters Rage |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2011/01/29/world/middleeast/29unrest.html |work=The New York Times |date=28 January 2011 |access-date=28 January 2011}}</ref> On 11 February 2011, then–Vice President [[Omar Suleiman (politician)|Omar Suleiman]] announced that both he and Mubarak had resigned and transferred authority to the [[Supreme Council of the Armed Forces]].<ref name="Kirkpatrick">{{Cite news |last1=Kirkpatrick |first1=David D. |last2=Shadid |first2=Anthony |last3=Cowell |first3=Alan |title=Mubarak Steps Down, Ceding Power to Military |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2011/02/12/world/middleeast/12egypt.html |work=The New York Times |date=11 February 2011 |access-date=11 February 2011}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-12433045 |title=Egypt crisis: President Hosni Mubarak resigns as leader |date=11 February 2010 |publisher=BBC News |access-date=11 February 2011}}</ref>

On 13 April 2011, a prosecutor ordered Mubarak and his two sons [[Alaa Mubarak|Alaa]] and [[Gamal Mubarak|Gamal]] to be detained for 15 days of questioning about allegations of corruption and abuse of power.<ref name="Detention">{{Cite news |last1=Kirkpatrick |first1=David D. |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2011/04/14/world/middleeast/14egypt.html |title=Prosecutors Order Mubarak and Sons Held |date=13 March 2011 |work=The New York Times |access-date=13 April 2011 |last2=Stack |first2=Liam}}</ref> Mubarak was then ordered to stand trial on charges of negligence for failing to halt the killing of peaceful protesters during the revolution.<ref name="reutersmurdercharges">{{Cite news |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-egypt-mubarak-idUSTRE74N3LG20110524 |title=Mubarak to be tried for murder of protesters |date=24 May 2011 |publisher=Reuters |access-date=24 May 2011}}</ref> These trials began on 3 August 2011,<ref>{{Cite news |title=Trial of Egypt's Hosni Mubarak starts |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-14384691 |date=3 August 2011 |publisher=BBC News}}</ref> making him the first Arab leader to be tried in his own country in an ordinary court of law.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.theguardian.com/world/2012/jun/02/hosni-mubarak-sentenced-life-prison |title=Hosni Mubarak sentenced to life in prison |date=2 June 2012 |website=the Guardian}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.hrw.org/news/2012/05/28/egypt-qa-trial-hosni-mubarak |title=Egypt: Q&A on the Trial of Hosni Mubarak |date=28 May 2012 |website=Human Rights Watch}}</ref> On 2 June 2012, an Egyptian court sentenced Mubarak to life imprisonment. After sentencing, he was reported to have suffered a series of health crises. On 13 January 2013, Egypt's [[Court of Cassation]] (the nation's high court of appeal) overturned Mubarak's sentence and ordered a retrial.<ref>[http://www.3news.co.nz/Egypts-Mubarak-to-get-retrial/tabid/417/articleID/282900/Default.aspx Egypt's Mubarak to get retrial] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130120191233/http://www.3news.co.nz/Egypts-Mubarak-to-get-retrial/tabid/417/articleID/282900/Default.aspx |date=20 January 2013}}. 3 News. Retrieved 16 January 2014.</ref> On retrial, Mubarak and his sons were convicted on 9 May 2015 of corruption and given prison sentences.<ref name="shout">{{Cite news |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-32672630 |title=Egypt's Hosni Mubarak jailed in corruption retrial |publisher=BBC News |date=9 May 2015 |access-date=9 May 2015}}</ref> Mubarak was detained in a military hospital while his sons were freed on 12 October 2015 by a Cairo court.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Jailed sons of Egypt's deposed leader Hosni Mubarak freed |url=https://www.bostonglobe.com/news/world/2015/10/12/jailed-sons-deposed-egypt-autocrat-mubarak-freed/VuNVDh0ucjGA5hNbzpnDLP/story.html |agency=Associated Press |date=13 October 2015}}</ref> Mubarak was acquitted on 2 March 2017 by the Court of Cassation and was released on 24 March 2017.<ref name="autogenerated1">{{Cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-39140887 |title=Egypt's Hosni Mubarak acquitted over 2011 protester deaths |date=3 March 2017}}</ref><ref name="release">{{Cite news |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-39378045 |title=Egypt's Hosni Mubarak freed after six years in detention |publisher=BBC News |date=24 March 2017 |access-date=24 March 2017}}</ref>

Mubarak died in 2020, aged 91.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2020/02/egypt-president-hosni-mubarak-dies-91-200225105344417.html |title=Egypt's former president Hosni Mubarak dies at 91 |publisher=Al Jazeera |access-date=25 February 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-51630142 |title=Former Egyptian president Hosni Mubarak dies |date=25 February 2020 |publisher=BBC News |access-date=25 February 2020}}</ref> He was honoured with a [[state funeral]] and buried at a family plot outside Cairo.<ref name=GuardianBurial>{{cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/feb/26/hosni-mubarak-buried-with-full-military-honours|title=Hosni Mubarak buried with full military honours|date=26 February 2020|author=Ruth Michaelson|work=The Guardian|access-date=26 February 2020}}</ref>

==Early life and education==
Hosni Mubarak was born on 4 May 1928 in Kafr El-Meselha, [[Monufia Governorate]], Egypt.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://news.xinhuanet.com/english2010/world/2011-02/11/c_13726572.htm |title=Profile: Egyptian President Hosni Mubarak |date=10 February 2010 |website=Xinhua News |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110214024928/http://news.xinhuanet.com/english2010/world/2011-02/11/c_13726572.htm |archive-date=14 February 2011}}</ref> On 2 February 1949, he left the Military Academy and joined the [[Egyptian Air Academy|Air Force Academy]], gaining his commission as a pilot officer on 13 March 1950<ref name="EAF">{{cite web |url=http://www.mmc.gov.eg/branches/AIRFORCE/gg16.htm |title=Air Marshal Mohammed Hosni Mubarak |website=Egyptian Armed Forces Web Site |publisher=Egyptian Armed Forces |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100323064657/http://www.mmc.gov.eg/branches/AIRFORCE/gg16.htm |archive-date=23 March 2010}}</ref> and eventually receiving a bachelor's degree in aviation sciences.<ref name="madamasr">{{cite news |title=Hosni Mubarak (1928–2020): The rise and fall of Egypt's longest-ruling president |url=https://madamasr.com/en/2020/02/25/feature/politics/hosni-mubarak-1928-2020-the-rise-and-fall-of-egypts-longest-ruling-president/ |work=Mada |date=25 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200225171522/https://madamasr.com/en/2020/02/25/feature/politics/hosni-mubarak-1928-2020-the-rise-and-fall-of-egypts-longest-ruling-president/ |archive-date=25 February 2020}}</ref>

==Air Force career==
Mubarak served as an [[Egyptian Air Force]] officer in various formations and units; he spent two years in a [[Spitfire]] [[Fighter aircraft|fighter]] squadron.<ref name="EAF" /> Some time in the 1950s, he returned to the Air Force Academy as an instructor, remaining there until early 1959.<ref name="EAF" /> From February 1959 to June 1961, Mubarak undertook further training in the [[Soviet Union]], attending a Soviet pilot training school in [[Moscow]] and another at [[Kant Air Base]] near [[Bishkek]] in the [[Kirghiz Soviet Socialist Republic]].<ref name="PBS1">{{cite news |last=Epatko |first=Larisa |title=Timeline: Hosni Mubarak, Egypt's President for Three Decades, Resigns |url=https://www.pbs.org/newshour/world/egypts-president-resigns |access-date=26 February 2020 |date=11 February 2011}}</ref>

Mubarak undertook training on the [[Ilyushin Il-28]] and [[Tupolev Tu-16]] jet bombers. In 1964 he gained a place at the [[Frunze Military Academy]] in Moscow. On his return to Egypt, he served as a wing commander, then as a base commander; he commanded the Cairo West Air Base in October 1966 then briefly commanded the [[Beni Suef]] Air Base.<ref name="EAF" /> In November 1967, Mubarak became the Air Force Academy's commander when he was credited with doubling the number of Air Force pilots and navigators during the pre-[[Yom Kippur War|October War]] years.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.mmc.gov.eg/Academies/AFA/Aa10.htm |title=Staff Group Captain Mohammed Hosni Mubarak |website=Egyptian Armed Forces Web Site |publisher=Egyptian Armed Forces |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110429094717/http://www.mmc.gov.eg/Academies/AFA/Aa10.htm |archive-date=29 April 2011}}</ref> Two years later, he became Chief of Staff for the Egyptian Air Force.<ref name="madamasr"/>
[[File:General Hosni Mubarak.jpg|left|200px|thumb|General Mubarak as Commander of the Air Force]]
In 1972, Mubarak became Commander of the Air Force and Egyptian Deputy Minister of Defense. On 6 October 1973, at the breakout of the [[Yom Kippur War]], the Egyptian Air Force launched a surprise attack on Israeli soldiers on the east bank of the Suez Canal. Egyptian pilots hit 90% of their targets, making Mubarak a national hero.<ref name="Hosni Mubarak Fast Facts">CNN Library, [http://www.cnn.com/2013/01/07/world/meast/hosni-mubarak---fast-facts/ Hosni Mubarak Fast Facts]. 31 May 2014</ref> The next year he was promoted to [[Air Chief Marshal]] in recognition of service during the October War of 1973 against Israel.<ref name="EAF" /><ref>{{Cite news |last=de Borchgrave |first=Arnaud |url=http://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2011/feb/2/the-mubarak-legend/ |title=The Mubarak legend – Longtime strongman can't withstand media barrage |date=2 February 2011 |work=The Washington Times |access-date=3 February 2011 |author-link=Arnaud de Borchgrave |archive-date=28 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200228143340/https://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2011/feb/2/the-mubarak-legend/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> Mubarak was credited in some publications for Egypt's initial strong performance in the war.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/1400123/Middle-East-factfile-Key-figures.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220111/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/1400123/Middle-East-factfile-Key-figures.html |archive-date=11 January 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |title=Middle East factfile: Key figures |date=15 January 2002 |work=The Daily Telegraph |access-date=7 February 2011 |location=UK}}{{cbignore}}</ref> The Egyptian analyst [[Mohamed Hassanein Heikal]] said the Air Force played a mostly psychological role in the war, providing an inspirational sight for the Egyptian ground troops who carried out the crossing of the Suez Canal, rather than for any military necessity.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.masrawy.com/ketabat/ArticlesDetails.aspx?AID=89851&ref=hp |title=كتابات مصراوي – هيكل يفجر قنبلة مدوية حول لغز بقاء مبارك بشرم الشيخ |date=21 February 2011 |publisher=Masrawy |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110424031202/http://www.masrawy.com/ketabat/ArticlesDetails.aspx?AID=89851&ref=hp |archive-date=24 April 2011 }}</ref> However Mubarak's influence was also disputed by Shahdan El-Shazli, the daughter of the former Egyptian military Chief of Staff [[Saad el-Shazly]]. She said Mubarak exaggerated his role in the 1973 war. In a 2011 interview with the independent Egyptian newspaper ''[[Al-Masry Al-Youm]]'', El-Shazli said Mubarak altered documents to take credit from her father for the initial success of the Egyptian forces in 1973. She also said photographs pertaining to the discussions in the military command room were altered and Saad El-Shazli was erased and replaced with Mubarak. She stated she intended to take legal action.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.almasry-alyoum.com/article2.aspx?ArticleID=288933&IssueID=2058 |last=Khalid |first=Osama |date=26 February 2011 |website=Almasry Alyoum |language=ar |script-title=ar:ابنة الفريق سعدالدين الشاذلى لـ"المصري اليوم": "مبارك" زوّر التاريخ ووضع صورته مكان والدى فى "غرفة عمليات أكتوبر" |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110425231850/http://www.almasry-alyoum.com/article2.aspx?ArticleID=288933&IssueID=2058 |archive-date=25 April 2011 }}</ref>

==Vice President of Egypt==

In April 1975, President [[Anwar Sadat]] appointed Mubarak Vice President of Egypt.<ref name="fortuneobit">{{Cite news |last=El-Tablawy |first=Tarek |url=https://fortune.com/2020/02/25/egypt-hosni-mubarak-pharaoh-president-arab-spring-dies/ |title=Egypt's Hosni Mubarak, 'pharaoh' president ousted during Arab Spring, dies at 91 |work=Fortune |access-date=25 February 2020 |ref=fortuneobit}}</ref> In this position, he took part in government consultations that dealt with the future disengagement of forces agreement with Israel.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://aad.archives.gov/aad/createpdf?rid=118248&dt=2476&dl=1345 |title=Eilts to Kissinger, July&nbsp;22, 1975 |access-date=29 January 2011}}</ref> In September 1975, Mubarak went on a mission to [[Riyadh]] and [[Damascus]] to persuade the Saudi Arabian and Syrian governments to accept the disengagement agreement signed with the Israeli government ("Sinai II"), but was refused a meeting by the Syrian President [[Hafez Al-Assad]].<ref name="archive">{{Cite web |url=https://aad.archives.gov/aad/createpdf?rid=163165&dt=2476&dl=1345 |title=Eilts to Kissinger, September&nbsp;3, 1975 |access-date=29 January 2011}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://aad.archives.gov/aad/createpdf?rid=158852&dt=2476&dl=1345 |title=Hermann Eilts (US Ambassador to Egypt) to Henry Kissinger, September&nbsp;5, 1975 |access-date=29 January 2011}}</ref> During his meetings with the Saudi government, Mubarak developed a friendship with the nation's powerful [[Fahd of Saudi Arabia|Crown Prince Fahd]], whom Sadat had refused to meet or contact and who was now seen as a major player who could help mend the failing [[relationship between Egypt and Saudi Arabia]].<ref name=sadhos2/> Mubarak also developed friendships with several other important Arab leaders, including Saudi Foreign Minister [[Prince Saud]], Oman's [[Sultan Qaboos]], Morocco's [[King Hassan II]], and Sudan's President [[Jaafar Nimeiry]].<ref name=sadhos2/>
[[File:Mubarak_and_Mao_Zedong.jpg|alt=Mubarak_and_Mao_Zedong|thumb|Meeting Chinese Leader [[Mao Zedong]] in Beijing, 1976]]
Sadat also sent Mubarak to numerous meetings with foreign leaders outside the Arab world.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://aad.archives.gov/aad/createpdf?rid=217137&dt=2476&dl=1345 |title=Hermann Eilts to Henry Kissinger, December&nbsp;31, 1975 |access-date=29 January 2011}}</ref> Mubarak's political significance as Vice President can be seen from a conversation held on 23 June 1975 between Foreign Minister Fahmy and US Ambassador [[Hermann Eilts]]. Fahmy told Eilts that "Mubarak is, for the time being at least, likely to be a regular participant in all sensitive meetings" and he advised the ambassador not to antagonize Mubarak because he was Sadat's personal choice.<ref name="archive" /> Though supportive of Sadat's earlier efforts made to bring the [[Sinai Peninsula]] back into Egyptian control,<ref name="sadhos2" /> Mubarak agreed with the views of various Arab leaders and opposed the [[Camp David Accords]] for failing to address other issues relating to the [[Arab–Israeli conflict]].<ref name="sadhos2">{{Cite news |last=Olfat M. El Tohamy |url=http://www.csmonitor.com/1981/1014/101447.html/%28page%29/2 |title=Egypt's Hosni Mubarak picks up Sadat's reins: profile |date=14 October 1981 |work=The Christian Science Monitor |access-date=23 January 2013 |page=2}}</ref> Sadat even transferred his decision-making authority to Mubarak temporarily at times he went on vacations.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://aad.archives.gov/aad/createpdf?rid=251008&dt=2694&dl=2009|title=Hermann Eilts (US Ambassador to Egypt) to Cyrus Vance, 12 October 1978}}</ref>

==President of Egypt==
[[File:Egyptian presidential referendum 1981 Akhbar newspaper.jpeg|thumbnail|Egyptian presidential referendum 1981 Akhbar newspaper]]

Mubarak was injured during the assassination of President Sadat in October 1981 by soldiers led by Lieutenant [[Khalid Islambouli]].<ref>{{cite news |last1=Ajami |first1=Fouad |title=The Cop on the Banks of the Nile |url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052748704684604575381632573838138 |access-date=26 February 2020 |work=The Wall Street Journal |date=26 July 2010}}</ref> Following Sadat's death, Mubarak became the fourth president of Egypt.

===Egypt's return to the Arab League===
Until [[Libya|Libya's]] suspension from the [[Arab League]] at the beginning of the [[2011 Libyan Civil War|Libyan Civil War]], Egypt was the only state in the history of the organization to have had its membership suspended, because of President Sadat's peace treaty with Israel.<ref>{{cite book |title=American Foreign Policy Basic Documents 1977–1980 (Communiqué by Arab League Council, 31 March 1979) |date=1983 |publisher=Department of State |location=Washington DC |pages=687–690 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vLhIAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA687 |access-date=26 February 2020}}</ref> In June 1982, Mubarak met King [[Fahd of Saudi Arabia]], which marked a beginning of an Egyptian-Saudi rapprochement.<ref name="Islamic Imperialism 2006, p. 175">{{Cite book |last=Karsh |first=Efraim |title=Islamic imperialism: A History |date=2006 |publisher=Yale University Press |isbn=0-300-10603-3 |location=New Haven |page=175 |oclc=62408708}}</ref> Since Egypt is the most populous Arab country and Saudi Arabia the richest, the Saudi–Egyptian axis was a powerful force in the Arab world. At an Arab League summit later in 1982 in Fez, Saudi Arabia put forward an Egyptian peace plan where in exchange for Israel resolving the [[Israeli–Palestinian conflict]] by allowing a [[State of Palestine|Palestinian state]], the entire Arab world would make peace with Israel.<ref name="Islamic Imperialism 2006, p. 175" />

The Islamic Republic of Iran had, from 1979 onward, been making the claim to be the leader of the Islamic world, and in particular [[Ayatollah Khomeini]] had called for the overthrow of the governments of Iraq, Saudi Arabia, Kuwait and other Arab states along the southern shores of the Persian Gulf, calling these states illegitimate.<ref name="Islamic Imperialism 2006, p. 174">{{Cite book |last=Karsh |first=Efraim |title=Islamic Imperialism: A History |date=2006 |publisher=Yale University Press |isbn=0-300-10603-3 |location=New Haven |page=174 |oclc=62408708}}</ref> The claim of the Ayatollah Khomeini to be the rightful leader of the Islamic world and his attempts to export the Iranian revolution by working to overthrow governments that Khomeini deemed un-Islamic caused profound alarm and fear in the governments that were targeted like Iraq and Saudi Arabia.<ref name="Islamic Imperialism 2006, p. 174" /> In the face of the Iranian challenge, the other Arab states looked towards Egypt as an ally.<ref name="Islamic Imperialism 2006, p. 174" /> For King Fahd of Saudi Arabia and the other leaders of the Arab Gulf states, the Israeli–Palestinian conflict faded into the background and the main concern was resisting Iranian pretensions to be the leader of the Islamic world, meaning that Egypt could not be ignored.<ref name="Islamic Imperialism 2006, p. 174" />

During the [[Iran–Iraq War]] from 1980 to 1988, Egypt supported Iraq militarily and economically with one million Egyptians working in Iraq to take the place of Iraqi men serving on the front-line.<ref name="Islamic Imperialism 2006, p. 174" /> In December 1983, Mubarak welcomed [[Yasser Arafat]] of the PLO to a summit in Cairo, marking a rapprochement with the PLO, and from that time, Egypt became the PLO's main ally.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Karsh |first=Efraim |title=Islamic Imperialism: A History |date=2006 |publisher=Yale University Press |isbn=0-300-10603-3 |location=New Haven |page=176 |oclc=62408708}}</ref> In 1985, the [[Achille Lauro hijacking|''Achille Lauro'' hijacking]] caused a major crisis in relations when the U.S Air Force forced an EgyptAir plane carrying the ''Achille Lauro'' hijackers to [[Tunisia]] to land in [[Italy]]; otherwise the plane would have been shot down. Mubarak stated in a press conference on 12 October 1985: "I am very wounded. Now there is coolness and strain as a result of this incident."<ref name="Chilling">{{Cite news |last=Bernard Gwertzman |url=http://articles.sun-sentinel.com/1985-10-13/news/8502140433_1_egyptian-plane-achille-lauro-president-hosni-Mubarak |title=Hijacking Causes Chilling of U.S.-Egypt Relationship |date=13 October 1985 |work=The New York Times |access-date=5 June 2018 |archive-date=17 June 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180617215904/http://articles.sun-sentinel.com/1985-10-13/news/8502140433_1_egyptian-plane-achille-lauro-president-hosni-mubarak |url-status=dead }}</ref> Egypt had been ostracized by the other Arab states for signing the Camp David Accords in 1979, but Egypt's weight within the Arab world had led to Egypt regaining its "central place in the Arab world" by 1989.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Karsh |first=Efraim |title=Islamic Imperialism: A History |date=2006 |publisher=Yale University Press |isbn=0-300-10603-3 |location=New Haven |page=177 |oclc=62408708}}</ref> In 1989, Egypt was re-admitted as a full member to the Arab League and the League's headquarters were moved to their original location in [[Cairo]].<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle_east/country_profiles/737642.stm |title=Middle East – Country profiles – Country profile: Egypt |date=17 November 2009 |publisher=BBC News |access-date=19 June 2007}}</ref>

=== Governing style ===
Throughout the 1980s, Mubarak increased the production of affordable housing, clothing, furniture, and medicine. By the time he became President, Mubarak was one of a few Egyptian officials who refused to visit Israel and vowed to take a less enthusiastic approach to normalizing [[Egypt–Israel relations|relations with the Israeli government]].<ref name=sadhos2 /> Under Mubarak, Israeli journalists often wrote about the "cold peace" with Egypt, observing Israeli–Egyptian relations were frosty at best.<ref name="Islamic Imperialism 2006, p. 183">{{Cite book |last=Karsh |first=Efraim |title=Islamic Imperialism: A History |date=2006 |publisher=Yale University Press |isbn=0-300-10603-3 |location=New Haven |page=183 |oclc=62408708}}</ref> Mubarak was quick to deny that his policies would result in difficulties for Egyptian–Israeli dealings in the future.<ref name=sadhos2 />

The Israeli historian Major [[Efraim Karsh]] wrote in 2006 that in Egypt "...numberless articles, scholarly writings, books, cartoons, public statements, and radio and television programs, Jews are painted in the blackest terms imaginable".<ref name="Islamic Imperialism 2006, p. 184">{{Cite book |last=Karsh |first=Efraim |title=Islamic Imperialism: A History |date=2006 |publisher=Yale University Press |isbn=0-300-10603-3 |location=New Haven |page=184 |oclc=62408708}}</ref> Karsh accused Mubarak of being personally antisemitic, writing he "evidently shared the premises" of his propaganda.<ref name="Islamic Imperialism 2006, p. 183" />

Egypt's heavy dependence on US aid<ref>{{Cite book|last=Amin|first=Galal|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BUnbAgAAQBAJ&pg=PT55|title=Egypt in the Era of Hosni Mubarak|date=1 April 2011|publisher=American University in Cairo Press|isbn=978-1-61797-054-2|pages=55|language=en}}</ref> and its hopes for US pressure on Israel for a Palestinian settlement continued under Mubarak.<ref>{{Cite news|last1=Farrell|first1=William E.|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1982/08/24/world/lebanon-war-s-impact-on-egypt-back-to-square-one-news-analysis.html|title=Lebanon War's Impact on Egypt: 'back to Square One'; News Analysis|date=24 August 1982|work=The New York Times|access-date=26 February 2020|last2=Times|first2=Special To the New York|issn=0362-4331}}</ref> He quietly improved relations with the former Soviet Union. In 1987, Mubarak won an election to a second six-year term.<ref name="PBS1"/>

In his early years in power, Mubarak expanded the Egyptian [[State Security Investigations Service]] (''Mabahith Amn ad-Dawla'') and the [[Central Security Forces]] (anti-riot and containment forces).<ref>''Egypt on the Brink'' by Tarek Osman, Yale University Press, 2010, p. 170</ref> According to [[Tarek Osman]], the experience of seeing his predecessor assassinated "right in front of him" and his lengthy military career{{mdash}}which was longer than those of Nasser or Sadat{{mdash}}may have instilled in him more focus and absorption with security than seemed the case with the latter heads of state. Mubarak sought advice and confidence not in leading ministers, senior advisers or leading intellectuals, but from his security chiefs—"interior ministers, army commanders, and the heads of the ultra-influential intelligence services."<ref>''Egypt on the Brink'' by Tarek Osman, Yale University Press, 2010, pp. 170–1</ref> All through the 1980s, 1990s and 2000s, violations of human rights by the security services in Egypt were described as "systematic" by Amnesty International.<ref name="Economist">{{Cite news |url=https://www.economist.com/node/16564152 |title=No paradise |date=15 July 2010 |newspaper=The Economist |access-date=30 November 2016}}</ref> In 2007, Amnesty International reported that the Egyptian police routinely engaged in "beatings, electric shocks, prolonged suspension by the wrists and ankles in contorted positions, death threats and sexual abuse".<ref name="Economist" /> The state remained large under Mubarak employing 8 million people out of a population of 75 million.<ref name="Economist" />

Because of his positions against [[Islamic fundamentalism]] and his diplomacy towards Israel, Mubarak was the target of repeated assassination attempts. According to the BBC, Mubarak survived six attempts on his life.<ref>BBC News, [https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-12301713 Profile: Hosni Mubarak]. 22 August 2013.</ref> In June 1995, there was an alleged assassination attempt involving noxious gases and [[Egyptian Islamic Jihad]] while Mubarak was in Ethiopia for a conference of the [[Organization of African Unity]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Wright |first=Lawrence |url=https://archive.org/details/loomingtower00lawr/page/242 |title=The Looming Tower: Al Qaeda and the Road to 9/11 |publisher=Vintage Books |year=2007 |isbn=978-1-4000-3084-2 |location=New York |pages=[https://archive.org/details/loomingtower00lawr/page/242 242–244] |author-link=Lawrence Wright |url-access=registration}}</ref> He was also reportedly injured by a knife-wielding assailant in [[Port Said]] in September 1999.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Daniszewski |first=John |url=http://articles.latimes.com/1999/sep/07/news/mn-7572 |title=Man Killed After Injuring Mubarak |date=7 September 1999 |work=Los Angeles Times |access-date=1 February 2011}}</ref>

[[File:Bundesarchiv B 145 Bild-P115717, Berlin, Besuch ägyptischer Präsident Mubarak.jpg|thumb|left|Mubarak in [[West Berlin]] in 1989]]

===Gulf War of 1991===
[[File:Coalition of the Gulf War vs Iraq.png|thumb|Egypt was in the [[Coalition of the Gulf War|coalition]] against Iraq in the [[Gulf war]]]]

Egypt was a member of the allied coalition during the 1991 [[Gulf War]]; Egyptian infantry were some of the first to land in Saudi Arabia to remove Iraqi forces from Kuwait.<ref name="AAN1">{{cite news |last1=al-Shibeeb |first1=Dina |title=Top 21 faces of the Gulf War |url=http://english.alarabiya.net/en/perspective/features/2015/08/14/Top-21-faces-of-the-Gulf-War.html |access-date=26 February 2020 |publisher=Al-Arabiya News |date=14 August 2015}}</ref> Egypt's participation in the war solidified its central role in the Arab World and brought financial benefits for the Egyptian government.<ref name="AAN1"/> Reports of sums of up to {{USD|20 billion}} worth of debt forgiveness were published in the news media.<ref name="AAN1"/> According to ''[[The Economist]]'': <blockquote>The programme worked like a charm: a textbook case, says the [International Monetary Fund]. In fact, luck was on Hosni Mubarak's side; when the US was hunting for a military alliance to force Iraq out of Kuwait, Egypt's president joined without hesitation. After the war, his reward was that America, the Arab states of the Persian Gulf, and Europe forgave Egypt around $20 billion of debt.<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://www.economist.com/surveys/PrinterFriendly.cfm?story_id=319594 |title=The IMF's model pupil |date=18 March 1999 |newspaper=The Economist |access-date=19 June 2007}}</ref></blockquote>

===Stance on the invasion of Iraq in 2003===
[[File:President George W. Bush and President Hosni Mubarak of Egypt during a meeting at the Red Sea Summit.jpg|thumb|With the U.S. President, [[George W. Bush]] in Sharm El-Sheikh, June 2003]]

President Mubarak spoke out against the [[2003 invasion of Iraq]], arguing that the [[Israeli–Palestinian conflict]] should have been resolved first. He also said the war would cause "100 [[Bin Laden]]s".<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://edition.cnn.com/2003/WORLD/meast/03/31/iraq.egypt.mubarak.reut/ |title=Mubarak warns of '100 bin Ladens' |date=31 March 2003 |access-date=29 January 2011 |publisher=CNN}}</ref> However, as President he did not support an immediate [[US withdrawal from Iraq]] because he believed it would probably lead to chaos.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.usatoday.com/news/world/iraq/2006-04-09-egypt-comments_x.htm |title=Mubarak: "U.S withdrawal would hurt Iraq" |date=9 April 2006 |work=USA Today |access-date=29 January 2011}}</ref>

===2005 elections===
{{Main|2005 Egyptian presidential election}}
[[File:Sharm El Sheikh, Egypt, on September 14, 2010.jpg|thumb|Mubarak meeting with [[United States Secretary of State|U.S. State Secretary]] [[Hillary Clinton]], Palestinian President [[Mahmoud Abbas]], and Israeli Prime Minister [[Benjamin Netanyahu]] at [[Sharm el-Sheikh]] on 14 September 2010.]]

President Mubarak was re-elected by majority votes in a referendum for successive terms on four occasions in 1987, 1993, and 1999. Each time, Mubarak secured his position by having himself nominated by Parliament then confirmed without opposition in a referendum.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Bradley|first=John R.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=n1zgCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA162|title=Inside Egypt: The Land of the Pharaohs on the Brink of a Revolution|date=18 August 2009|publisher=Macmillan|isbn=978-0-230-61437-6|pages=162|language=en}}</ref>

The September 2005 ballot was a multiple-candidate election rather than a referendum, but the electoral institutions and security apparatus remain under the control of the President. On 28 July 2005, Mubarak announced his candidacy. The election was scheduled for 7 September 2005; according to civil organizations that observed the election it was marred by mass rigging activities.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.livepunjab.com/mubarak_opponents_take_to_streets_allege_rigging.html |title=Mubarak opponents take to streets, allege rigging |date=12 September 2005 |publisher=LivePunjab |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110211072401/http://www.livepunjab.com/mubarak_opponents_take_to_streets_allege_rigging.html |archive-date=11 February 2011 }}</ref> In a move widely seen as political persecution, [[Ayman Nour]], a dissident and candidate for the [[El-Ghad Party]] ("Tomorrow party") was convicted of forgery and sentenced to five years' hard labor on 24 December 2005.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Slackman |first=Michael |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2005/12/25/international/africa/25egypt.html |title=Testing Egypt, Mubarak Rival Is Sent to Jail |date=25 December 2005 |work=The New York Times |access-date=6 June 2009}}</ref>

===Widespread corruption ===
While in office, political corruption in the Mubarak administration's Ministry of the Interior rose dramatically. Political figures and young activists were imprisoned without trial.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.nbcnews.com/id/41285248 |title=Egyptian bloggers brave police intimidation |last=Suzanne Choney |date=27 January 2011 |publisher=[[NBC News]] |access-date=28 January 2011}}</ref> Illegal, undocumented, hidden detention facilities were established,<ref>{{Cite magazine |url=http://www.newyorker.com/archive/2006/10/30/061030ta_talk_mayer |title=The C.I.A.'s Travel Agent |last=Jane Mayer |date=30 October 2006 |magazine=The New Yorker |access-date=28 January 2011}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.trojkan.se/temp/Reportage/KF_Extraordinary_Rendition/English_version/The%20Broken%20Promise%20-%20%20How%20we%20did%20it.doc |title=Striptease brevpapperl Agent |last=Kalla Fakta |date=18 May 2004 |publisher=trojkan.se |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110304210612/http://www.trojkan.se/temp/Reportage/KF_Extraordinary_Rendition/English_version/The%20Broken%20Promise%20-%20%20How%20we%20did%20it.doc |archive-date=4 March 2011 }}</ref> and universities, mosques, and newspaper staff were rejected because of their political views.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Jack Shenker |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2010/nov/22/egypt-elections-muslim-brotherhood-ndp |title=Egyptian elections: independents fight for hearts and minds in 'fixed ballot' |date=22 November 2010 |work=The Guardian |access-date=28 January 2011 |location=UK}}</ref>

In 2005 [[Freedom House]], a non-governmental organization that conducts research into democracy, reported that the Egyptian government under Mubarak expanded bureaucratic regulations, registration requirements, and other controls that often feed corruption. Freedom House said, "corruption remained a significant problem under Mubarak, who promised to do much, but in fact never did anything significant to tackle it effectively".<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.freedomhouse.org/template.cfm?page=140&edition=2&ccrcountry=84&section=56&ccrpage=8 |title=Country Report – Egypt |year=2005 |publisher=freedomhouse.org |access-date=15 April 2011 |archive-date=23 April 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110423001907/http://www.freedomhouse.org/template.cfm?page=140&edition=2&ccrcountry=84&section=56&ccrpage=8 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

In 2010, [[Transparency International]]'s [[Corruption Perceptions Index]] report assessed Egypt with a CPI score of 3.1, based on perceptions of the degree of corruption from business people and country analysts, with 10 being very clean and 0 being highly corrupt. Egypt ranked 98th out of the 178 countries included in the report.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.transparency.org/policy_research/surveys_indices/cpi/2010/results |title=CPI 2010 table |website=Transparency International |access-date=26 October 2010 |archive-date=26 December 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181226144223/https://www.transparency.org/ |url-status=dead }}</ref>

===Wealth and allegations of personal corruption===
In February 2011, [[ABC News]] reported that experts believed the personal wealth of Mubarak and his family was between {{USD|40&nbsp;billion}} and {{USD|70&nbsp;billion}} from military contracts made during his time as an air force officer.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Kim |first=Susanna |url=https://abcnews.go.com/Business/egypt-mubarak-family-accumulated-wealth-days-military/story?id=12821073 |title=Egypt's Mubarak likely to retain vast wealth |date=2 February 2011 |publisher=ABC News |access-date=3 February 2011}}</ref> ''[[The Guardian]]'' reported that Mubarak and his family might be worth up to {{USD|70&nbsp;billion}} garnered from corruption, [[Bribery|bribes]] and legitimate business activities. The money was said to be spread out in various bank accounts, including some in Switzerland and the UK, and invested in foreign property. The newspaper said some of the information about the family's wealth might be ten years old.<ref>[https://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/feb/04/hosni-mubarak-family-fortune ''Mubarak family fortune could reach $70bn, say experts''], ''The Guardian''</ref> According to ''[[Newsweek]]'', these allegations are poorly substantiated and lack credibility.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Dickey, Christopher |title=The Tragedy of Mubarak |date=21 February 2011 |work=Newsweek |page=18}}</ref>

On 12 February 2011, the government of Switzerland announced it was freezing the Swiss bank accounts of Mubarak and his family.<ref>{{Cite journal |title=Switzerland freezes assets of Mubarak. |url=http://www.deccanherald.com/content/137153/switzerland-freezes-assets-mubarak.html |journal=Deccan Herald|date=12 February 2011 }}</ref> On 20{{nbs}}February 2011, the Egyptian Prosecutor General ordered the freezing of Mubarak's assets and those of his wife Suzanne, his sons Alaa and Gamal Mubarak, and his daughters-in-law Heidi Rasekh and Khadiga Gamal. The Prosecutor General also ordered the Egyptian Foreign Minister to communicate this to other countries where Mubarak and his family could have assets. This order came two days after Egyptian newspapers reported that Mubarak filed his financial statement.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.ahram.org.eg/451/2011/02/22/25/63908.aspx |title=ط§ظ"ط£ظˆظ"ظ‰ – ط§ظ"ظ†ط§ط¦ط¨ ط§ظ"ط¹ط§ظ… ظٹط·ظ"ط¨ طھط¬ظ…ظٹط¯ ط£ط±طµط¯ط ظ…ط¨ط§ط±ظƒ ظˆط¹ط§ط¦ظ"طھظ‡ |website=Ahram |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110407180637/http://www.ahram.org.eg/451/2011/02/22/25/63908.aspx |archive-date=7 April 2011 }}</ref> Egyptian regulations mandate government officials submit a financial statement listing their assets and sources of income while performing government work. On 21{{nbs}}February 2011, the Egyptian Military Council, which was temporarily given the presidential authorities following the [[2011 Egyptian Revolution|25{{nbs}}January 2011 revolution]], said it had no objection to a trial of Mubarak on charges of corruption.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.alwafd.news/ |title=بوابة الوفد الالكترونية |website=الوفد}}</ref>

On 23{{nbs}}February 2011, the Egyptian newspaper ''Eldostor'' reported that a "knowledgeable source" described the order of the Prosecutor General to freeze Mubarak's assets and the threats of a legal action as nothing but a signal for Mubarak to leave Egypt after a number of attempts were made to encourage him to leave willingly.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://dostor.org/politics/egypt/11/february/22/36815 |title=تجميد أرصدة مبارك إجراء لإجباره على الخروج من مصر بعد رفضه مطالبات مسبقة, الدستور |date=22 February 2011 |publisher=Dostor |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110419033301/http://dostor.org/politics/egypt/11/february/22/36815 |archive-date=19 April 2011 }}</ref> In February 2011, [[Voice of America]] reported that Egypt's top prosecutor had ordered a travel ban and an asset freeze for Mubarak and his family as he considered further action.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.voanews.com/english/news/Egypt-Issues-Travel-Ban-Asset-Freeze-on-Mubarak-117076003.html |title=Egypt Issues Travel Ban, Asset Freeze on Mubarak |date=28 February 2011 |website=VOA |access-date=15 April 2011}}</ref> On 21 May 2014 a Cairo court convicted Mubarak and his sons of embezzling the equivalent of {{USD|17.6 million}} of state funds which were allocated for renovation and maintenance of presidential palaces but were instead diverted to upgrade private family homes. The court ordered the repayment of {{USD|17.6 million}}, fined the trio {{USD|2.9 million}}, and sentenced Mubarak to three years in prison and each of his sons to four years.<ref name="EmbezzlementCharge" />

===Presidential succession===
[[File:Gamal Mubarak.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Gamal Mubarak]], son of Hosni Mubarak]]
The National Democratic Party of Egypt continued to state that Hosni Mubarak was to be the party's only candidate in the 2011 Presidential Election. Mubarak said on 1 February 2011 that he had no intention of standing in the 2011 presidential election. When this declaration failed to ease the protests, Mubarak's vice president stated that Gamal Mubarak would not run for president. With the escalation of the demonstration and the fall of Mubarak, [[Hamdy El-Sayed]], a former influential figure in the National Democratic Party, said Gamal Mubarak intended to usurp the presidency, assisted by then Interior Minister, [[Habib el-Adly|Habib El-Adly]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.shorouknews.com/ContentData.aspx?id=394434 |title=حمدى السيد: جمال مبارك كان يدبر لانقلاب على أبيه بدعم العادلى – بوابة الشروق |website=Shorouk News |access-date=15 April 2011}}</ref>

===Israeli–Palestinian conflict===

During his presidency, Mubarak upheld the U.S.-brokered [[Camp David Accords]] treaty signed between Egypt and Israel in 1978. Mubarak on occasion also hosted meetings relating to the Israeli-Palestinian conflict and made a number of attempts to serve as a broker between them.<ref>Jeremy M. Sharp, [https://books.google.com/books?id=oE-n2cLyQPcC Egypt: Background and U. S. Relations]. CRS, 2009. p.43.</ref> Mubarak was concerned that Rabbi [[Menachem M. Schneerson]] did not trust him on the issue and considered meeting him in New York.<ref>Joseph Telushkin, ''Rebbe: The Life and Teachings of Menachem M. Schneerson, the Most Influential Rabbi in Modern History''. HarperCollins, 2014. p. 209.</ref>
[[File:Summit_of_the_Peacemakers_in_Sharm_el-Sheikh,_March_13,_1996_II_Dan_Hadani_Archive.jpg|alt=Summit_of_the_Peacemakers_in_Sharm_el-Sheikh,_March_13,_1996_II_Dan_Hadani_Archive|thumb|Leaders of the world participated the Sharm El-Sheikh Peace Summit. From left: [[Hussein of Jordan|King Husein]] (Jordan), [[Shimon Peres]] (Israel), [[Bill Clinton]] (USA) Mubarak, [[Boris Yeltsin]] (Russia), [[Yasser Arafat]] (PLO).]]
In October 2000, Mubarak hosted an emergency summit meeting at [[Sharm el-Sheikh]] to discuss the Israeli-Palestinian conflict. In attendance were: U.S. President [[Bill Clinton]], P.L.O. Chairman [[Yasser Arafat]], Israeli Prime Minister [[Ehud Barak]], [[Abdullah II of Jordan|King Abdullah]] of Jordan, NATO Sec. General [[Javier Solana]], and U.N. Sec. General [[Kofi Annan]].<ref name="Hosni Mubarak Fast Facts" /> Mubarak was involved in the [[Arab League]], supporting Arab efforts to achieve a lasting peace in the region. At the [[Beirut Summit]] on 28 March 2002, the league adopted the [[Arab Peace Initiative]],<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.al-bab.com/arab/docs/league/peace02.htm |title=The Arab Peace Initiative, 2002 |last=Council of Arab States |date=1 October 2005 |website=Al-bab |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090604091304/http://www.al-bab.com//arab//docs//league//peace02.htm |archive-date=4 June 2009 }}</ref> a Saudi-inspired plan to end the [[Arab–Israeli conflict]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cnn.com/2002/WORLD/meast/03/28/arab.league/|title=Arab summit adopts Saudi peace initiative|date=28 March 2002|publisher=CNN|access-date=26 February 2020}}</ref> In 2006, Mubarak condemned the [[2006 Lebanon War|Israeli military attack in Lebanon]], but also indirectly criticised [[Hezbollah]] for harming Arab interests.<ref>[http://english.aljazeera.net/NR/exeres/1286D3D8-282D-48CE-B072-06064738C824.htm "World divided over Mideast conflict"], [[Al Jazeera Arabic|Al Jazeera]], 15 July 2006 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061024120921/http://english.aljazeera.net/NR/exeres/1286D3D8-282D-48CE-B072-06064738C824.htm |date=24 October 2006 }}</ref>

In June 2007, Mubarak held a summit meeting at [[Sharm el-Sheik]] with King [[Abdullah II of Jordan]], President [[Mahmoud Abbas]] and Prime Minister [[Ehud Olmert]]. On 19 June 2008, the Egypt-brokered [[2008 Israel–Hamas ceasefire|pause in hostilities between Israel and Hamas]] went into effect.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Isabel Kershner |url=http://www.iht.com/articles/2008/06/25/africa/25mideast.php |title=Rockets hit Israel, breaking Hamas truce |date=25 June 2008 |work=International Herald Tribune |access-date=16 August 2009 |archive-date=7 July 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080707053304/http://www.iht.com/articles/2008/06/25/africa/25mideast.php |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>[https://www.usatoday.com/news/world/2008-03-12-374518999_x.htm Hamas offering Israel truce, not peace]. ''USA Today''. 12 March 2008.</ref> According to ''[[The New York Times]]'', neither side fully respected the terms of the ceasefire.<ref name="nyt-truce">{{Cite news |last=Bronner |first=Ethan |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2008/12/20/world/middleeast/20mideast.html |title=Gaza Truce May Be Revived by Necessity |date=19 December 2008 |work=The New York Times |access-date=12 February 2009}}</ref>

The agreement required Hamas to end rocket attacks on Israel and to enforce the ceasefire throughout [[Gaza strip|Gaza]]. In exchange, Hamas expected the [[Blockade of the Gaza Strip|blockade]] to end, commerce in Gaza to resume, and truck shipments to be restored to 2005 levels.<ref name="nyt-truce" /><ref>[https://www.un.org/News/briefings/docs/2009/090115_Gaza.doc.htm Press Conference on Gaza humanitarian situation] UN. 2009.</ref> Israel tied an easing of the blockade to a reduction in rocket fire and gradually re-opened supply lines and permitted around 90 daily truck shipments to enter Gaza.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/7570605.stm Truce barely eases Gaza embargo.] Aleem Maqbool. BBC News. 19 August 2008.</ref> Hamas criticized Israel for its continued blockade<ref>Rory McCarthy. (5 November 2008). [https://www.theguardian.com/world/2008/nov/05/israelandthepalestinians]  ''The Guardian''.</ref> while Israel accused Hamas of continued weapons smuggling via tunnels to Egypt and pointed to continued rocket attacks.<ref name="nyt-truce" /> In 2009, Mubarak's government banned the [[Cairo Anti-war Conference]], which had criticised his lack of action against Israel.<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://www.socialistworker.co.uk/art.php?id=17897 |title=Mubarak blocks resistance Cairo conference |date=12 May 2009 |newspaper=Socialist Worker (Britain) |access-date=15 May 2009 |archive-date=24 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924103337/http://www.socialistworker.co.uk/art.php?id=17897 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

==Revolution and overthrow==
{{main|Egyptian Revolution of 2011}}
[[File:Tahrir Square - February 9, 2011.png|thumb|Massive protests centered on Cairo's [[Tahrir Square]] led to Mubarak's resignation in February 2011.]]
Protests against Mubarak and his regime erupted in Cairo and other Egyptian cities in January 2011. On 1 February, Mubarak announced he would not contest the [[2011 Egyptian presidential election|presidential election]] due in September. He also promised constitutional reform.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Kevin Connolly |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-12340923 |title=Egypt unrest: Hosni Mubarak vows to quit after polls |date=16 May 2009 |publisher=BBC |access-date=1 February 2011}}</ref> This did not satisfy most protesters, who expected Mubarak to depart immediately.<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://uk.reuters.com/article/uk-egypt-world-idUKTRE7113A920110202 |title=Factbox{{mdash}}World reaction to Egypt's Mubarak quitting in September |date=3 February 2011 |access-date=3 February 2011 |publisher=Reuters}}</ref> The demonstrations continued and on 2 February, violent clashes occurred between pro-Mubarak and anti-Mubarak protesters.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Wyre Davies |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-12351831 |title=Egypt unrest: PM apologises for Tahrir Square violence |date=3 February 2011 |publisher=BBC News |access-date=5 February 2011}}</ref>

On 10 February, contrary to rumours,<ref>{{Cite news |last=Paul Adams |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-12421000 |title=Egypt protests: Hosni Mubarak to make TV address |date=10 February 2011 |publisher=BBC |access-date=12 February 2011}}</ref> Mubarak said he would not resign until the September election, though he would be delegating responsibilities to Vice President [[Omar Suleiman (politician)|Omar Suleiman]]. The next day, Suleiman announced that Mubarak had resigned.<ref name="Kirkpatrick" /> The announcement sparked cheers, flag-waving, and celebrations from protesters in Egypt. Discussions about the nation's future direction began.<ref name="HMR1" /> It had been suggested that Egypt be put in the hands of a [[caretaker government]].<ref name="HMR2" />

===Protests===
On 25 January 2011, protests against Mubarak and his government erupted in Cairo and around Egypt calling for Mubarak's resignation.<ref name="HMR1">[https://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/world/crisis-in-egypt/egyptians-celebrate-a-moment-in-history/article1903754/ 'Egyptians celebrate a moment in history] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161125112441/http://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/world/crisis-in-egypt/egyptians-celebrate-a-moment-in-history/article1903754/ |date=25 November 2016 }}. Retrieved 12 February 2011.</ref> Mubarak stated in a speech that he would not leave, and would die on Egyptian soil. Opposition leader [[Mohamed ElBaradei]] paid no attention to Mubarak's remarks<ref name="HMR1" /> and labeled it as a trick designed to help Mubarak to stay in power.<ref name="HMR2">[https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-12340923 BBC on Mubarak]. Retrieved 12 February 2011.</ref> In a state televised broadcast on 1 February 2011, Mubarak announced that he would not seek re-election in September but would like to finish his current term and promised constitutional reform.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/middleeast/2011/02/201121191413252982.html|title=Defiant Mubarak vows to finish term|date=1 February 2011|publisher=Al Jazeera|access-date=26 February 2020}}</ref> This compromise was not acceptable for the protestors and violent demonstrations occurred in front of the Presidential Palace. On 11 February, then Vice President [[Omar Suleiman (politician)|Omar Suleiman]] announced Mubarak had resigned and that power would be turned over to the [[Military of Egypt|Egyptian military]].<ref>{{Cite news|last1=McGreal|first1=Chris|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/feb/11/hosni-mubarak-resigns-egypt-cairo|title=Hosni Mubarak resigns – and Egypt celebrates a new dawn|date=11 February 2011|work=The Guardian|access-date=26 February 2020|last2=Shenker|first2=Jack|issn=0261-3077}}</ref>

Two and a half hours after Mubarak's resignation, an Egyptian military member came on air and thanked Mubarak for "putting the interests of the country first." The statement, which said "The Supreme Council is currently studying the situation," did not state what the council would do next.<ref>[http://freeinternetpress.com/story.php?sid=28786 'President Obama hails Mubarak's Resignation, Cites 'Moral Force of Non-Violence: Uncensored News] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110427013308/http://freeinternetpress.com/story.php?sid=28786 |date=27 April 2011 }}. Retrieved 12 February 2011.</ref>

==Post-resignation life==
Mubarak made no media appearances after his resignation. Except for his family and a close circle of aides, he reportedly refused to talk to anyone{{mdash}}even his supporters. His health was speculated to be rapidly deteriorating; some reports said he was in a coma. Most sources said he was no longer interested in performing any duties and wanted to "die in Sharm El-Sheikh".<ref>[http://www.alarabiya.net/articles/2011/02/15/137787.html "Workers at Mubarak's palace plan 'Friday of Apology' Mubarak given up, wants to die in Sharm"] 15 February 2011, Al Arabiya News</ref><ref>[http://www.nydailynews.com/news/world/2011/02/15/2011-02-15_exegyptian_president_hosni_mubarak_in_a_coma_reports_protests_flare_up_in_bahrai.html "Ex-Egyptian President Hosni Mubarak near death"] 15 February 2011, ''Daily News'' (New York)</ref>

On 28 February 2011, the General Prosecutor of Egypt issued an order prohibiting Mubarak and his family from leaving Egypt. It was reported that Mubarak was in contact with his lawyer in case of possible criminal charges against him.<ref>[http://www.sis.gov.eg/En/Story.aspx?sid=53994 "General Prosecution: Mubarak and his family are not out of Egypt"] 4 March 2011, Egyptian State Information Service</ref> As a result, Mubarak and his family were placed under house arrest at a presidential palace in the Red Sea resort of Sharm el-Sheikh.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://news.yahoo.com/s/ap/ml_egypt;_ylt=AkfMsSH7NCWKBW5fcrH6GScV6w8F;_ylu=X3oDMTJzYjV0b3JxBGFzc2V0A2FwLzIwMTEwNDA4L21sX2VneXB0BGNjb2RlA21wX2VjXzhfMTAEY3BvcwM2BHBvcwM2BHNlYwN5bl90b3Bfc3RvcmllcwRzbGsDZWd5cHRpYW5wcm90
|title=Egypt army reconsiders cases of jailed protesters|work=Yahoo|access-date=15 April 2011}}</ref> On 13 April 2011, a prosecutor originally appointed by Mubarak ordered the former president and both his sons to be detained for 15 days of questioning about allegations of corruption and abuse of power amid growing suspicion that the Egyptian military was more aligned with the Mubaraks than with the revolution. Gamal and Alaa were jailed in [[Tora Prison]]; state television reported that Mubarak was in police custody in a hospital near his residence following a heart attack.<ref name="Detention" /> Former Israeli Cabinet minister Benjamin Ben Eliezer told Israeli Radio that he had offered Mubarak refuge in the southern Israeli city of [[Eilat]].<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://edition.cnn.com/2011/WORLD/meast/08/03/egypt.mubarak.trial/index.html |title=Ailing Mubarak wheeled into courtroom cage for trial |date=3 August 2011 |publisher=CNN |access-date=3 August 2011}}</ref>

On 11 May 2013, he told ''[[El-Watan]]'' in his first media appearance since his resignation said, "History will judge and I am still certain that the coming generations will view me fairly." He added that President Mohammed Morsi faced a tough time and that it was too early to judge him.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.aljazeera.com/news/middleeast/2013/05/2013512103642636596.html |title=Egypt paper publishes 'Mubarak interview' |publisher=Al Jazeera |access-date=29 April 2016}}</ref>

===Trial===
{{details|Trials and judicial hearings following the Egyptian Revolution of 2011#Mubarak family}}
On 24 May 2011, Mubarak was ordered to stand trial on charges of premeditated murder of peaceful protesters during the revolution and, if convicted, could face the death penalty. The decision to try Mubarak was made days before a scheduled protest in Tahrir Square. The full list of charges released by the public prosecutor was "intentional murder, attempted killing of some demonstrators&nbsp;...&nbsp;misuse of influence, deliberately wasting public funds and unlawfully making private financial gains and profits".<ref name="reutersmurdercharges" />

On 28 May, a Cairo administrative court found Mubarak guilty of damaging the national economy during the protests by shutting down the Internet and telephone services. He was fined LE200&nbsp;million{{mdash}}about {{USD|33.6 million}}{{mdash}}which the court ordered he must pay from his personal assets. This was the first court ruling against Mubarak, who would next have to answer to the murder charges.<ref>{{Cite news |last1=Hennessy-Fiske |first1=Molly |url=http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/world/la-fg-egypt-mubarak-fines-20110529,0,1157831.story |title=Mubarak, other former Egypt officials fined $91&nbsp;million for blocking cellphones, Internet |date=29 May 2011 |work=Los Angeles Times |access-date=29 May 2011 |last2=Hassan, Amro}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |url=http://213.158.162.45/~egyptian/index.php?action=news&id=18619&title=Mubarak%20fined%20for%20mobile,%20Internet%20cut |title=Mubarak fined for mobile, Internet cut |date=28 May 2011 |work=The Egyptian Gazette |access-date=29 May 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110720132720/http://213.158.162.45/~egyptian/index.php?action=news&id=18619&title=Mubarak%20fined%20for%20mobile,%20Internet%20cut |archive-date=20 July 2011 }}</ref>

The trial of Hosni Mubarak, his sons Ala'a and Gamal, former interior minister [[Habib el-Adly]] and six former top police officials began on 3 August 2011 at a temporary criminal court at the Police Academy in north Cairo. They were charged with corruption and the premeditated killing of peaceful protesters during the mass movement to oust the Mubarak government, the latter of which carries the death penalty.<ref>[http://english.aljazeera.net/news/middleeast/2011/06/201161131532286483.html Mubarak and sons to stand trial in August] Al Jazeera. Retrieved 1 June 2011</ref> The trial was broadcast on Egyptian television; Mubarak made an unexpected appearance{{mdash}}his first since his resignation. He was taken into the court on a hospital bed and held in a cage for the session. Upon hearing the charges against him, Mubarak pleaded not guilty. Judge Ahmed Refaat adjourned the court, ruling that Mubarak be transferred under continued arrest to the military hospital on the outskirts of Cairo. The second court session scheduled for 15 August.<ref>{{Cite news |last1=Afify |first1=Heba |last2=Fahim |first2=Kareem |title=Judge Says TV Will Show Mubarak on Trial |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2011/08/01/world/middleeast/01egypt.html |work=The New York Times |date=31 July 2011 |access-date=31 July 2011}}</ref> On 15 August, the resumed trial lasted three hours. At the end of the session, Rifaat announced that the third session would take place on 5 September and that the remainder of the proceedings would be off-limits to television cameras.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Hill |first=Evan |url=http://english.aljazeera.net/news/middleeast/2011/08/201181515749984797.html |title=Mubarak trial reined in at second hearing |date=15 August 2011 |publisher=Al Jazeera |access-date=16 August 2011 |quote=Lawyers were forced to take their seats and submit their requests in writing, and Rifaat adjourned the case until 5 September, after issuing a terse series of 10 decisions on how the trial would proceed.}}</ref>

[[File:Riot police outside Mubarak courthouse.jpg|thumb|Riot police outside the courthouse where Mubarak was being sentenced on 2 June 2012]]

The trial resumed in December 2011 and lasted until January 2012. The defense strategy was that Mubarak never actually resigned, was still president, and thus had [[Sovereign immunity|immunity]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2012/01/22/egypts-hosni-mubarak-trial_n_1221895.html |title=Egypt's Hosni Mubarak Trial: Defense Concludes, Argues Ousted Leader Still President |date=21 January 2012 |website=HuffPost |access-date=25 January 2012 |agency=Associated Press}}</ref> On 2 June 2012, Mubarak was found guilty of not halting the killing of protesters by the Egyptian security forces; he was sentenced to life imprisonment.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-18306126 |title=Mubarak jailed for protest deaths |date=2 June 2012 |publisher=BBC |access-date=2 June 2012}}</ref> The court found Mubarak not guilty of ordering the crackdown on Egyptian protesters. All other charges against Mubarak, including profiteering and economic fraud, were dismissed. Mubarak's sons, Habib el-Adly, and six senior police officials were all acquitted for their roles in the killing of demonstrators because of a lack of evidence.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Kirkpatrick |first=Patrick D. |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2012/06/03/world/middleeast/egypt-hosni-mubarak-life-sentence-prison.html |title=New Turmoil in Egypt Greets Mixed Verdict for Mubarak |date=2 June 2012 |work=The New York Times |access-date=2 June 2012}}</ref> According to ''[[The Guardian]]'', the relatives of those killed by Mubarak's forces were angered by the verdict.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2012/jun/02/hosni-mubarak-sentence-euphoria-anger |title=Hosni Mubarak's sentence greeted with initial euphoria, then anger |date=2 June 2012 |work=[[The Guardian]]}}</ref><ref name="ahram0602">{{Cite news |url=http://english.ahram.org.eg/NewsContent/1/64/43473/Egypt/Politics-/Live-updates-Egypt-awaits-Mubarak-verdict-in-histo.aspx |title=Live updates: Thousands take to Egypt street protesting 'political' ruling in Mubarak case |date=2 June 2012 |work=Ahram online |access-date=2 June 2012 |archive-date=5 June 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120605045425/http://english.ahram.org.eg/NewsContent/1/64/43473/Egypt/Politics-/Live-updates-Egypt-awaits-Mubarak-verdict-in-histo.aspx |url-status=dead}}</ref> Thousands of demonstrators protested the verdict in Tahrir Square, Arbein Square and Al-Qaed Ibrahim Square.<ref name=ahram0602/>

In January 2013, an appeals court overturned Mubarak's life sentence and ordered a retrial.<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://www.3news.co.nz/Egypts-Mubarak-to-get-retrial/tabid/417/articleID/282900/Default.aspx |title=Egypt's Mubarak to get retrial |date=14 January 2013 |work=3 News NZ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130120191233/http://www.3news.co.nz/Egypts-Mubarak-to-get-retrial/tabid/417/articleID/282900/Default.aspx |archive-date=20 January 2013}}</ref> He remained in custody and returned to court on 11 May 2013 for a retrial on charges of complicity in the murder of protesters.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-22491510 |title=Ousted Egyptian President Hosni Mubarak's retrial starts |publisher=BBC News |date=11 May 2013 |access-date=11 May 2013}}</ref> On 21 August 2013, a Cairo court ordered his release. Judicial sources confirmed that the court had upheld a petition from Mubarak's longtime lawyer that called for his release.<ref>[https://abcnews.go.com/blogs/headlines/2013/08/egyptian-court-orders-mubaraks-release/ "Egyptian Court Orders Mubarak's Release"]' ABC News</ref> A day later, interim prime minister [[Hazem El Beblawi]] ordered that Mubarak be put under house arrest.<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://www.timesofisrael.com/egypt-to-place-mubarak-under-house-arrest/ |title=Egypt to place Mubarak under house arrest |date=22 August 2013 |work=The Times of Israel |access-date=9 January 2014}}</ref>

On 21 May 2014, while awaiting retrial, Mubarak and his sons were convicted on charges of embezzlement; Mubarak was sentenced to three years in prison, while his sons received four-year sentences. The three were fined the equivalent of {{USD|2.9 million}}, and were ordered to repay {{USD|17.6 million}}.<ref name="EmbezzlementCharge">{{Cite news |url=http://www.middleeaststar.com/index.php/sid/222206769/scat/b8de8e630faf3631/ht/Egypts-Mubarak-gets-three-years-in-a-graft-case |title=Egypt's Mubarak gets three years in a graft case |work=Middle East Star |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140522105859/http://www.middleeaststar.com/index.php/sid/222206769/scat/b8de8e630faf3631/ht/Egypts-Mubarak-gets-three-years-in-a-graft-case |archive-date=22 May 2014}}</ref>

In November 2014, conspiracy to kill charges were dismissed by the Cairo Criminal Court on a technicality.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-30258537 |title=Hosni Mubarak: Egypt court drops murder charges over 2011 killings |date=29 November 2014 |publisher=BBC News |access-date=29 November 2014}}</ref> The court also cleared Mubarak of corruption charges.<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://edition.cnn.com/2014/11/29/world/meast/egypt-mubarak-trial/ |title=Egypt: Ex-ruler Hosni Mubarak, accused in deaths of hundreds, cleared of charges |date=29 November 2014 |access-date=29 November 2014 |publisher=CNN}}</ref> On 13 January 2015, Egypt's Court of Cassation overturned Mubarak's and his sons' embezzlement charges, the last remaining conviction against him, and ordered a retrial.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-egypt-mubarak-idUSKBN0KM0O620150113 Egypt's high court overturns last conviction against Mubarak]. Reuters. Retrieved 13 January 2015.</ref> A retrial on the corruption charges led to a conviction and sentencing to three years in prison in May 2015 for Mubarak, with four-year terms for his sons, [[Gamal Mubarak|Gamal]] and [[Alaa Mubarak|Alaa]].<ref name="shout" /> It was not immediately clear whether the sentence would take into account time already served—Mubarak and his sons have already spent more than three years in prison, so potentially will not have to serve any additional time.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/news/world/hosni-mubarak-sons-sentenced-3-years-prison-likely-go-free-n356581 |title=Hosni Mubarak and Sons Sentenced to 3 Years in Prison, Likely to Go Free |date=9 May 2015 |publisher=NBC News |access-date=10 May 2015 |agency=Reuters}}</ref> Supporters of Mubarak jeered the decision when it was announced in a [[Cairo]] courtroom on 9 May.<ref name="NPost">{{Cite news |last=Rohan |first=Brian |url=http://news.nationalpost.com/news/world/egyptian-court-sentences-former-president-hosni-mubarak-and-sons-to-three-years-in-prison-for-corruption |title=Egyptian court sentences former president Hosni Mubarak and sons to three years in prison for corruption |date=9 May 2015 |access-date=9 May 2015 |work=National Post}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Malsin |first=Jared |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/may/09/egypt-hosni-mubarak-sentenced-to-three-years-in-prison |title=Egypt: Hosni Mubarak sentenced to three years in prison |date=9 May 2015 |work=The Guardian |access-date=9 May 2015}}</ref> The sentence also included a 125 million Egyptian pound (US$16.3&nbsp;million) fine, and required the return of 21&nbsp;million embezzled Egyptian pounds (US$2.7&nbsp;million). These amounts were previously paid after the first trial.<ref name=NPost/>

===Support for Sisi===
Though mostly out of the public eye, Mubarak granted a rare interview in February 2014 with Kuwaiti journalist [[Fajer Al-Saeed]], expressing support for then-Minister of Defense and Commander-in-Chief of the [[Egyptian Armed Forces]] [[Abdel Fattah el-Sisi]] as the next President of Egypt, recognizing that Sisi was working to restore the confidence of the Egyptian people. "The people want Sisi, and the people's will shall prevail," Mubarak noted. Mubarak also expressed great admiration and gratitude towards the late Sheikh [[Zayed bin Sultan Al Nahyan]] of the [[United Arab Emirates]] and his children, for their continuous support of Egypt and its people.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://english.alarabiya.net/en/News/middle-east/2014/02/07/In-rare-interview-Mubarak-says-Egyptians-want-Sisi.html |title=In rare interview, Mubarak says Egyptians want Sisi |date=6 February 2014 |publisher=Al Arabiya}}</ref> However, Mubarak expressed his dislike of opposition politician [[Hamdeen Sabbahi]], a Nasserist following the policies of [[Gamal Abdel Nasser]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://thecairopost.com/news/104997/news/mubarak-supports-sisi-slams-sabbahi-in-phone-intervie |title=Mubarak supports Sisi, slams Sabbahi in phone interview |website=Cairo Post |access-date=29 April 2016}}</ref>

===Health problems===
In July 2010, the media said Egypt was about to undergo dramatic change because Mubarak was thought to have cancer and because of the scheduled [[2011 Egyptian presidential election|2011 presidential election]]. Intelligence sources said he had esophageal cancer,<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://www.jpost.com/MiddleEast/Article.aspx?id=180682 |title=Report: Mubarak has fallen ill |date=7 July 2010 |work=The Jerusalem Post |access-date=14 February 2011}}</ref> stomach or pancreatic cancer; this was denied by Egyptian authorities.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Evan Hill |url=http://english.aljazeera.net/indepth/2010/11/2010111681527837704.html |title=The Muslim Brotherhood in flux – In Depth |date=21 November 2010 |publisher=Al Jazeera |access-date=28 January 2011}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.upi.com/Top_News/World-News/2010/07/19/Report-Egypts-Mubarak-dying-of-cancer/UPI-63291279547386/ |title=Report: Egypt's Mubarak dying of cancer |date=19 July 2010 |work=United Press International |access-date=1 February 2011}}</ref> Speculation about his ill health increased after his resignation from the presidency.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Norman, Joshua |url=http://www.cbsnews.com/8301-503543_162-20031716-503543.html |title=Mubarak Mystery: In Egypt, in Germany, in Coma? |date=13 February 2011 |publisher=CBS |access-date=14 February 2011 |archive-date=14 February 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110214081706/http://www.cbsnews.com/8301-503543_162-20031716-503543.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> According to Egyptian media, Mubarak's condition worsened after he went into exile in Sharm el-Sheikh. He was reportedly depressed, refused to take medications, and was slipping in and out of consciousness. According to the source{{mdash}}an unnamed Egyptian security official{{mdash}}"Mubarak wants to be left alone and die in his homeland". The source denied that Mubarak was writing his memoirs, stating that he was almost completely unconscious.<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-4029095,00.html |title=Mubarak ailing, wants to die in Egypt |date=15 February 2011 |website=Ynetnews |access-date=5 January 2012|last1=Nahmias |first1=Roee }}</ref> After his resignation, Egypt's ambassador to the United States [[Sameh Shoukry]] reported that his personal sources said Mubarak "is possibly in somewhat of bad health", while several Egyptian and Saudi Arabian newspapers reported that Mubarak was in a coma and close to death.<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://www.nydailynews.com/news/world/2011/02/15/2011-02-15_exegyptian_president_hosni_mubarak_in_a_coma_reports_protests_flare_up_in_bahrai.html |title=Ex-Egyptian President Hosni Mubarak near death: reports; protests flare up in Bahrain, Yemen |date=15 February 2011 |work=Daily News |access-date=15 April 2011 |location=New York}}</ref> On 12 April 2011, it was reported that he had been hospitalized after suffering a heart attack during questioning over possible corruption charges.<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://www.cnn.com/2011/WORLD/africa/04/12/egypt.mubarak.hospitalized/index.html |title=Former Egyptian President Mubarak hospitalized |date=13 April 2011 |publisher=CNN |access-date=15 April 2011}}</ref>

In June 2011, Mubarak's lawyer Farid el-Deeb said his client "has stomach cancer, and the cancer is growing".<ref name=tel/> Mubarak had undergone surgery for the condition in Germany in 2010 and also suffered from circulatory problems with an irregular heart beat.<ref name="tel">{{Cite news |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/egypt/8588211/Hosni-Mubarak-has-cancer.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220111/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/egypt/8588211/Hosni-Mubarak-has-cancer.html |archive-date=11 January 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |title=Hosni Mubarak Has Cancer |date=21 June 2011 |work=The Telegraph |access-date=21 June 2011 |location=London}}{{cbignore}}</ref> On 13 July 2011, unconfirmed reports stated that Mubarak had slipped into a coma at his residence after giving his final speech, and on 17 July, el-Deeb confirmed the reports.<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://www.alarabiya.net/articles/2011/02/14/137565.html |title=Mubarak falls into coma after final speech: report |date=13 July 2011 |publisher=Al Arabiya |access-date=17 July 2001}}</ref> On 26 July 2011, Mubarak was reported to be depressed and refusing solid food while in hospital being treated for a heart condition and in custody awaiting trial.<ref>{{Cite news |last=News Desk |url=http://www.globalpost.com/dispatch/news/regions/middle-east/egypt/110727/hosni-mubarak-egypt-food-hospital-trial |title=Egypt's ousted president Hosni Mubarak is reportedly depressed and refusing solid food |date=26 July 2011 |work=Global Post |access-date=5 January 2012 |archive-date=3 January 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120103143652/http://www.globalpost.com/dispatch/news/regions/middle-east/egypt/110727/hosni-mubarak-egypt-food-hospital-trial |url-status=dead}}</ref>

On 2 June 2012, Mubarak was reported as have suffered a health crisis while being transported to prison after his conviction on the charges of complicity in the killing of protestors. Some sources reported he had had a heart attack.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/egypt/9307456/Hosni-Mubarak-has-a-heart-attack-while-taken-to-prison.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220111/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/egypt/9307456/Hosni-Mubarak-has-a-heart-attack-while-taken-to-prison.html |archive-date=11 January 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |title=Hosni Mubarak 'has a heart attack' while taken to prison |date=2 June 2012 |website=The Daily Telegraph |access-date=2 June 2012}}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.news24.com/Africa/News/Mubarak-has-heart-attack-on-way-to-jail-report-20120602 |title=Mubarak has heart attack on way to jail |date=2 June 2012 |publisher=AP via News24 |access-date=2 June 2012 |archive-date=13 May 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130513141236/http://www.news24.com/Africa/News/Mubarak-has-heart-attack-on-way-to-jail-report-20120602 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Further reports stated that Mubarak's health continued to decline; some said he had to be treated with a [[defibrillator]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://montreal.ctv.ca/servlet/an/local/CTVNews/20120611/egypts-hosni-mubarak-health-deteriorates-further-120611/20120611/ |title=Doctors twice use defibrillator on Egypt's Mubarak |date=11 June 2012 |publisher=CTV Montreal |access-date=11 June 2012}}{{dead link|date=July 2021|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/egypt/9324508/Hosni-Mubarak-defibrillated-after-heart-stops.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220111/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/egypt/9324508/Hosni-Mubarak-defibrillated-after-heart-stops.html |archive-date=11 January 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |title=Hosni Mubarak 'defibrillated after heart stops' |date=11 June 2012 |website=Daily Telegraphl |access-date=11 June 2012}}{{cbignore}}</ref> On 20 June 2012, as Mubarak's condition continued to decline, state-run media erroneously reported that the former president had been declared "clinically dead", causing widespread confusion. Officials later clarified that Mubarak was in a critical condition.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://edition.cnn.com/2012/06/19/world/meast/egypt-mubarak/ |title=Conflicting reports about whether Mubarak has died |date=19 June 2012 |publisher=CNN |access-date=24 March 2017}}</ref>

On 27 December 2012, Mubarak was taken from [[Tora Prison]] to the Cairo military hospital after falling and breaking a rib. He was released from prison in August 2013.<ref>[https://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/jan/14/hosni-mubarak-asks-vote-egypts-constitutional-referendum Hosni Mubarak asks to vote in Egypt's constitutional referendum]. ''The Guardian''. Retrieved 16 January 2014.</ref>

On 19 June 2014, Mubarak slipped in the bathroom at the military hospital in [[Cairo]] where he was being held and broke his left leg, also fracturing his left thighbone, requiring surgery. Mubarak was serving a three-year sentence for corruption, and also awaiting [[retrial]] regarding the killing of protesters during his regime. At one time, his release was ordered. However, Mubarak had remained at the military hospital since January 2014 due to his ongoing health issues.<ref name="theguardian.com">{{Cite web |title=Hosni Mubarak breaks leg in jail |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/jun/19/hosni-mubarak-breaks-leg-jail |website=The Guardian |date=19 June 2014 |access-date=29 April 2016}}</ref>

===Acquittal===
On 2 March 2017, the [[Court of Cassation]], Egypt's top appeals court, acquitted Mubarak of conspiring in the killing of protesters during the 2011 uprising.<ref name="autogenerated1" /> He was subsequently released on 24 March 2017.<ref name="release" />

== Death ==
Hosni Mubarak died on 25 February 2020, in a Cairo military hospital, at the age of 91.<ref name="obit">{{Cite news |date=25 February 2020 |title=Former Egyptian president Hosni Mubarak dies |publisher=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-51630142 |access-date=25 February 2020}}</ref> A full-honour [[state funeral]] was held for him at the Tantawi Mosque in eastern Cairo and he was later buried in a cemetery in [[Heliopolis, Cairo|Heliopolis]]. Egyptian president [[Abdel Fattah el-Sisi]] participated at the funeral and extended his condolences to Mubarak's widow, Suzanne, and his sons Alaa and Gamal; three days of [[national mourning]] were subsequently proclaimed.<ref name="aljazeera.com">{{Cite web |title=In Pictures: Egypt holds funeral for Hosni Mubarak |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/gallery/2020/2/26/in-pictures-egypt-holds-funeral-for-hosni-mubarak |publisher=[[Al Jazeera Arabic|Al Jazeera]] |date=26 February 2020 |access-date=}}</ref>

Following his death, President El-Sisi praised Mubarak for his role in the [[Yom Kippur War]], but remained silent over his role as president. The government-controlled newspaper ''[[Al-Ahram]]'' eulogized Mubarak for his military and political career.<ref name="aljazeera.com"/>

==Personal life==
[[File:Hosni Mubarak and Suzanne Mubarak in 2008.jpg|thumb|Mubarak with his wife [[Suzanne Mubarak]] in 2008]]

Hosni Mubarak was married to [[Suzanne Mubarak]] and together they had two sons: [[Alaa Mubarak|Alaa]] and [[Gamal Mubarak|Gamal]]. Both sons served four years in Egyptian jail for corruption and were released in 2015.<ref name="theguardian.com" /> Through his son Alaa, Mubarak has two grandsons, Mohammed and Omar; and through his son Gamal, he has a granddaughter Farida. Mohammed died in 2009 from a cerebral hemorrhage.<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://articles.latimes.com/2009/may/20/world/fg-mubarak-death20 |title=Hosni Mubarak's grandson, 12, dies suddenly |date=20 May 2009 |work=Los Angeles Times |access-date=13 January 2017 |agency=Associated Press}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Dickey |first=Christopher |url=http://www.newsweek.com/tragedy-hosni-mubarak-68769 |title=The Tragedy of Hosni Mubarak |date=13 February 2011 |work=Newsweek |access-date=13 January 2017}}</ref>

In April 2016, Alaa Mubarak was named in the [[Panama Papers]] as someone with financial interests that intersect with that of [[Mossack Fonseca]], the firm implicated in that scandal.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Lily Kuo |url=http://qz.com/653937/africa-loses-more-money-to-illicit-financial-flows-than-it-receives-in-foreign-aid/ |title=Africa loses more money to illicit financial flows than it receives in foreign aid |date=4 April 2016 |work=Quartz |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160417060158/http://qz.com/653937/africa-loses-more-money-to-illicit-financial-flows-than-it-receives-in-foreign-aid/ |archive-date=17 April 2016 }}</ref>

==Awards==
[[File:Coat of Arms of Hosni Mubarak (Order of the Seraphim).svg|thumb|right|175px|Coat of arms as Knight of the [[Royal Order of the Seraphim]] ]]

=== National ===
*[[File:EGY_Order_of_the_Republic_-_Grand_Cordon_BAR.png|55px]] Grand Cordon of the [[Order of the Republic (Egypt)|Order of the Republic]]
*[[File:EGY_Order_of_the_Nile_-_Grand_Cordon_BAR.svg|55px]] Grand Cordon of the [[Order of the Nile]], 1st class
*[[File:Order_of_the_Sinai_Star_1st_class.png|55px]] Recipient of the [[Order of the Sinai Star]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.upi.com/Archives/1986/09/11/Personality-SpotlightNEWLNHosni-Mubarak-Egyptian-president/2582526795200/|title=Personality Spotlight;NEWLN:Hosni Mubarak: Egyptian president|website=UPI|accessdate=10 August 2021}}</ref>
*[[File:Noribbon.svg|55px]] [[Order of Honor Star|Honor Star Medal]], twice<ref name="mmc">{{Cite web |url=http://www.mmc.gov.eg/branches/AIRFORCE/gg16.htm |title=Egyptian Air Force – Air Marshal Mohammed Hosni Mubarak |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081223232009/http://www.mmc.gov.eg/branches/AIRFORCE/gg16.htm |archive-date=23 December 2008}}</ref>
*[[File:Noribbon.svg|55px]] Military Training Medal<ref name="mmc" />

===Foreign honours===
*{{flag|Brunei}}: Member of the [[Family Order of Laila Utama]]
*{{flag|Bulgaria}}: First Class of the [[Order of Stara Planina|Order of the Balkan Mountains]]
*{{flag|Central African Republic}}: Grand Officer of the Order of Recognition
*{{flag|Democratic Republic of Congo}}: Grand Officer of the [[National Order of the Leopard]] ([[Zaire]])
*{{flag|Denmark}}: Knight of the [[Order of the Elephant]]
*{{flag|France}}: Grand Cross of the [[Legion of Honour]]
*{{flag|Germany}}: Grand Cross of the [[Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany]]
*{{flag|Greece}}: Grand Cross of the [[Order of the Redeemer]]
*{{flag|India}}: Recipient of the [[Jawaharlal Nehru Award]]<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.iccrindia.net/jnawardlist.html |title=Indian Council for Cultural Relations, Universe of Culture, Promoting Indian Culture, Showcasing World Cultures |publisher=Iccrindia |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130901175835/http://www.iccrindia.net/jnawardlist.html |archive-date=1 September 2013 }}</ref>
*{{flag|Indonesia}}: First Class (Adipurna) of the [[Star of the Republic of Indonesia]], 1st class
*{{Flag|Pahlavi dynasty|1964}}:
** First Class of the [[Order of Zolfaghar]]
** Recipient of the [[Hamayon Merit]]<ref name="mmc" />
*{{flag|Italy}}: Knight Grand Cross of the [[Order of Merit of the Italian Republic]]
*{{flag|Japan}}: Grand Cordon of the [[Order of the Chrysanthemum]]
*{{flag|Kazakhstan}}: Recipient of the [[Order of the Golden Eagle]]
*{{flag|Kuwait}}: Collar of the [[Order of Mubarak the Great]]
*{{flag|Mali}}: Grand Cross of the [[National Order of Mali]]
*{{flag|Mexico}}: Grand Cross of the [[Order of the Aztec Eagle]]
*{{flag|Nepal}}: Member First Class of the [[Order of the Star of Nepal]]
*{{flag|Niger}}: Grand Cross of the National Order of Niger
*{{flag|North Korea}}: First Class of the [[Order of the National Flag]]
*{{flag|Oman}}:
**1st Class of the [[Order of Oman]], civil
**Recipient of the Civil Order of Oman
*{{flag|Palestine}}: Honor Star Medal<ref name="mmc" />
*{{flag|Poland}}: Grand Cross of the [[Order of Merit of the Republic of Poland]]
*{{flag|Portugal}}: Grand Collar of the [[Order of Prince Henry]]
*{{flag|Saudi Arabia}}:
**First Class of the [[Order of King Abdulaziz]]
**Second Class of the [[Order of King Abdulaziz]]
**Excellent Degree<ref name="mmc" />
*{{flag|South Africa}}: Grand Officer of the [[Order of Good Hope]]
*{{flag|Spain}}: Knight of the Collar of [[Order of Isabella the Catholic]]<ref>[https://boe.es/buscar/doc.php?id=BOE-A-1985-19855 BOE, Spanish Official Journal A-1985-19855 (In Spanish)]</ref>
*{{flag|Sudan}}: Recipient of the [[Collar of Honour]]
*{{flag|Sweden}}: Knight of the [[Royal Order of the Seraphim]]<ref>Nordenvall, Per (1998) [1998]. Kungliga Serafimerorden 1748 – 1998. Stockholm: Kungl. Maj:ts orden. {{ISBN|91-630-6744-7}}</ref>
*{{flag|Syria}}:
** Member First Class of the [[Order of the Umayyads]]
** Knight of the [[Syrian_Armed_Forces#Awards and decorations|Military Honor Medal]]<ref name="mmc" />
*{{flag|Tunisia}}:
** Grand Cross of the [[Order of the Republic (Tunisia)|Order of the Republic]]
** Grand Cross of the Order of 7 November 1987 
*{{flag|Turkey}}: First Class of the [[Order of the State of Republic of Turkey]]<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.haberler.com/dostluk-iliskilerine-katkinin-altin-sembolu-devlet-4331381-haberi/ |title=Dostluk İlişkilerine Katkının Altın Sembolü: Devlet ve Cumhuriyet Nişanları (Turkish) – The Gold Symbol Contribution of Friendly Relations : State and Republic Orders |date=February 2013 |publisher=Haberler.com |access-date=26 October 2015}}</ref>
*{{flag|United Kingdom}}: Honorary Knight Grand Cross of the [[Order of St Michael and St George]]
*{{flag|Yugoslavia}}: [[Order of the Yugoslav Great Star]] on 26 February 1984<ref>{{Cite journal |date=27 February 1984 |title=Špiljak - Mubarak u srdačnoj atmosferi |url=https://arhiv.slobodnadalmacija.hr/pvpages/pvpages/viewPage/?pv_page_id=623743 |journal=Slobodna Dalmacija |issue=12083 |pages=1}}</ref>

==References==
{{notelist}} 
{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==
* Amin, Galal. ''Egypt in the Era of Hosni Mubarak'' (American University in Cairo Press, 2011), a major scholarly overview
* Anagondahalli, Deepa. "Prior reputation and the transition from image repair to image makeover: The case of Hosni Mubarak." ''Public relations review'' 39.3 (2013): 241-244.
* Arafat, Alaa Al-Din. ''Hosni Mubarak and the future of democracy in Egypt'' (Springer, 2011).
* Beinin, Joel. "Workers and Egypt's January 25 Revolution." ''International Labor and Working-Class History'' 80.1 (2011): 189-196.
* Brownlee, Jason. "Democratization in the Arab World? The Decline of Pluralism in Mubarak's Egypt." ''Journal of democracy'' 13.4 (2002): 6-14. [https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Jason-Brownlee/publication/236831112_The_Decline_of_Pluralism_in_Mubarak's_Egypt/links/5416f9230cf2bb7347db83e6/The-Decline-of-Pluralism-in-Mubaraks-Egypt.pdf online].
* Cook, Steven A. ''The Struggle for Egypt: From Nasser to Tahrir Square (Oxford UP, 2011)
* Darraj, Susan Muaddi, and Vicki Cox. ''Hosni Mubarak'' (Infobase Publishing, 2007).
* Heiss, Andrew. "The failed management of a dying regime: Hosni Mubarak, Egypt's National Democratic Party, and the January 25 revolution." ''Journal of Third World Studies'' 29.1 (2012): 155-171. [https://www.andrewheiss.com/research/articles/heiss-2012/2011-heiss-failed-management-arab-spring.pdf online] 
* Joya, Angela. ''The Roots of Revolt: A Political Economy of Egypt from Nasser to Mubarak'' (Cambridge University Press, 2020).
* Ketchley, Neil. ''Egypt in a Time of Revolution: Contentious Politics and the Arab Spring'' (Cambridge UP, 2017)
* Masoud, Tarek. "The upheavals in Egypt and Tunisia: The road to (and from) Liberation Square." ''Journal of Democracy'' 22.3 (2011): 20-34. [https://muse.jhu.edu/article/444757/summary excerpt]
* Osman, Tarek. ''Egypt on the brink: from the rise of Nasser to the fall of Mubarak'' (Yale University Press, 2011)
* Piazza, Bárbara Azaola. "The foreign policy of post-Mubarak Egypt and the strengthening of relations with Saudi Arabia: balancing between economic vulnerability and regional and regime security." ''Journal of North African Studies'' 24.3 (2019): 401-425. [https://www.academia.edu/download/56217816/The_foreign_policy_of_post_Mubarak_Egypt.pdf online]{{dead link|date=July 2022|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}
* Roccu, Roberto. ''The political economy of the Egyptian revolution: Mubarak, economic reforms and failed hegemony'' (Springer, 2013).
* Rougier, Bernard, and Stéphane Lacroix (eds.) ''Egypt’s Revolutions: Politics, Religion, and Social Movements'' (Palgrave, 2016)
* Shama, Nael. ''Egyptian foreign policy from Mubarak to Morsi: Against the national interest'' (Routledge, 2013).
* Sharp, Jeremy M. ''Egypt: The January 25 Revolution and implications for US foreign policy'' (Diane Publishing, 2011).

* Soliman, Samer. ''The Autumn of Dictatorship: Fiscal Crisis and Political Change in Egypt under Mubarak'' (Stanford University Press, 2011)

* Springborg, Robert. ''Mubarak’s Egypt: Fragmentation of the Political Order'' (Routledge, 2019)
* Tripp, Charles, and Roger Owen, eds. ''Egypt under Mubarak'' (Routledge, 1989).

==External links==
{{sisterlinks|c=Category:Hosni Mubarak|d=yes|q=yes|n=yes|s=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|wikt=no|species=no}}

* {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070107054512/http://www.presidency.gov.eg/html/the_president.html |date=7 January 2007 |title=President Mubarak }} at the official Egyptian government site
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20100323064657/http://www.mmc.gov.eg/branches/AIRFORCE/gg16.htm Air Marshal Hosni Mubarak] at the official Egyptian Air Force site
* {{C-SPAN|6897}}
* {{Charlie Rose view|1180}}
* {{IMDb name|0610804}}
* {{Aljazeeratopic|person/hosni-mubarak}}
* {{Guardian topic}}
* {{NYTtopic|people/m/hosni_mubarak}}
* [http://www.life.com/image/first/in-gallery/55221/hosni-mubarak-the-last-pharaoh#index/0 Hosni Mubarak: The Last Pharaoh] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110205085253/http://www.life.com/image/first/in-gallery/55221/hosni-mubarak-the-last-pharaoh#index/0 |date=5 February 2011 }}, slideshow by ''Life'' magazine
* [http://www.europarl.europa.eu/sides/getDoc.do?pubRef=-//EP//TEXT+MOTION+P6-RC-2008-0023+0+DOC+XML+V0//EN European Parliament Resolution on Egypt's Human Rights Situation], 16 January 2008

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{{EgyptPresidents}}
{{EgyptPMs}}
{{Egyptian Revolution of 2011}}
{{Arab Spring}}
{{African Union chairpersons}}
{{NAMSecretary-General}}
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{{DEFAULTSORT:Mubarak, Hosni}}
[[Category:1928 births]]
[[Category:2020 deaths]]
[[Category:20th-century presidents of Egypt]]
[[Category:20th-century prime ministers of Egypt]]
[[Category:21st-century presidents of Egypt]]
[[Category:Candidates in the 2005 Egyptian presidential election]]
[[Category:Egyptian Air Academy alumni]]
[[Category:Egyptian Air Force air marshals]]
[[Category:Egyptian Military Academy alumni]]
[[Category:Egyptian people of the Yom Kippur War]]
[[Category:20th-century Egyptian military personnel]]
[[Category:Egyptian billionaires]]
[[Category:Egyptian politicians convicted of crimes]]
[[Category:Egyptian prisoners sentenced to life imprisonment]]
[[Category:Egyptian Sunni Muslims]]
[[Category:Frunze Military Academy alumni]]
[[Category:Heads of government who were later imprisoned]]
[[Category:Honorary Knights Grand Cross of the Order of St Michael and St George]]
[[Category:Grand Crosses Special Class of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany]]
[[Category:Collars of the Order of Isabella the Catholic]]
[[Category:Grand Cross of the Legion of Honour]]
[[Category:Knights Grand Cross of the Order of Merit of the Italian Republic]]
[[Category:Grand Crosses of the National Order of Mali]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Order of the Star of Nepal]]
[[Category:Grand Crosses of the Order of Merit of the Republic of Poland]]
[[Category:Grand Collars of the Order of Prince Henry]]
[[Category:Mubarak family|Hosni]]
[[Category:National Democratic Party (Egypt) politicians]]
[[Category:People convicted of attempted murder]]
[[Category:People from Monufia Governorate]]
[[Category:People of the Egyptian revolution of 2011]]
[[Category:Prisoners sentenced to life imprisonment by Egypt]]
[[Category:Secretaries-General of the Non-Aligned Movement]]
[[Category:Vice-presidents of Egypt]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Order of the Sinai Star]]
[[Category:Burials in Egypt]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Collar of Honour]]
[[Category:20th-century presidents in Africa]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Order of the National Flag]]
{{Навигационная таблица/Портал/Английская Википедия}}
[[Категория:Английская Википедия]]
[[Категория:Википедия]]
[[Категория:Статья из Википедии]]
[[Категория:Статья из Английской Википедии]]