Просмотр кода страницы Английская Википедия:Hydrogen economy

{{Английская Википедия/Панель перехода}}
{{merge to|Low-carbon economy|discuss=Talk:Low-carbon_economy#Proposal_to_merge_hydrogen_economy_into_this_article|date=March 2024}}
{{Short description|Using hydrogen to decarbonize sectors which are hard to electrify}}
[[File:IRENA maturity of hydrogen solutions 2022.svg|thumb|Hydrogen has the most potential to reduce [[greenhouse gas emissions]] when used in chemical production, refineries, international shipping, and [[steelmaking]], according to the [[International Renewable Energy Agency]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=International Renewable Energy Agency |date=2022-03-29 |title=World Energy Transitions Outlook 1-5C Pathway 2022 edition |url=https://www.irena.org/publications/2022/mar/world-energy-transitions-outlook-2022 |access-date=2023-10-06 |website=IRENA |page=227 |language=en}}</ref>]]
The '''hydrogen economy''' is an umbrella term that draws together the roles [[hydrogen]] can play alongside [[low-carbon electricity]] to decarbonize those sectors and activities which may be technically difficult to decarbonize through other means, or where cheaper and more energy-efficient clean solutions are not available.<ref name=":0" /> In this context, ''hydrogen economy'' encompasses hydrogen's production through to end-uses in ways that substantively contribute to [[Fossil fuel phase-out|phasing-out fossil fuels]] and [[Climate change mitigation|limiting climate change]].

Most hydrogen produced today is ''gray hydrogen'', made from [[natural gas]] through [[Steam reforming|steam methane reforming]] (SMR) which accounted for 1.8% of global greenhouse gas emissions in 2021.<ref name="auto1">Greenhouse gas emissions totalled 49.3 Gigatonnes CO<sub>2</sub>e in 2021.{{Cite web |title=Global Greenhouse Gas Emissions: 1990–2020 and Preliminary 2021 Estimates |url=https://rhg.com/research/global-greenhouse-gas-emissions-2021/ |access-date=2023-09-21 |website=Rhodium Group |language=en-US}}</ref> Low-carbon hydrogen, which is made using SMR with [[carbon capture and storage]] (''blue hydrogen''), or through [[Green hydrogen|electrolysis of water using renewable power]] (''green hydrogen''), accounted for under 1% of production.<ref name=":23">{{Cite web |date=10 July 2023 |title=Hydrogen |url=https://www.iea.org/energy-system/low-emission-fuels/hydrogen |access-date=2023-09-21 |website=IEA |at="Energy" section |language=en-GB}}</ref> Virtually all hydrogen produced is used in oil refining (43% in 2021) and industry (57%), principally in the manufacture of [[ammonia]] for fertilizers, and [[methanol]].<ref name=":02">{{Cite book |last=IEA |url=https://www.iea.org/reports/global-hydrogen-review-2022 |title=Global Hydrogen Review 2022 |publisher=International Energy Agency |year=2022 |page= |language=en-GB |access-date=2023-08-25}}</ref>{{Rp|pages=18, 22, 29}}

In its contribution to limiting global warming to 1.5&nbsp;°C, it is broadly envisaged that the future hydrogen economy replaces gray hydrogen with blue and predominantly green hydrogen, produced in greater total volumes, to provide for an expanded set of end-uses.<ref name=":12">{{Cite book |author=IPCC |url=https://ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg3/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGIII_FullReport.pdf |title=Climate Change 2022: Mitigation of Climate Change |publisher=Cambridge University Press (In Press) |year=2022 |editor1-last=Shukla |editor1-first=P.R. |series=Contribution of Working Group III to the [[IPCC Sixth Assessment Report|Sixth Assessment Report]] of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change |place=Cambridge, UK and New York, NY, US |pages=91–92 |doi=10.1017/9781009157926 |isbn=9781009157926 |ref={{harvid|IPCC AR6 WG3|2022}} |author-link=IPCC |editor2-last=Skea |editor2-first=J. |editor3-last=Slade |editor3-first=R. |editor4-last=Al Khourdajie |editor4-first=A. |editor5-last=van Diemen |editor5-first=R. |editor6-last=McCollum |editor6-first=D. |editor7-last=Pathak |editor7-first=M. |editor8-last=Some |editor8-first=S. |editor9-last=Vyas |editor9-first=P. |display-editors=4 |editor10-first=R. |editor10-last=Fradera |editor11-first=M. |editor11-last=Belkacemi |editor12-first=A. |editor12-last=Hasija |editor13-first=G. |editor13-last=Lisboa |editor14-first=S. |editor14-last=Luz |editor15-first=J. |editor15-last=Malley}}</ref> These are likely to be in heavy industry (e.g. high temperature processes alongside electricity, feedstock for production of [[Ammonia|green ammonia]] and [[organic chemicals]], as alternative to coal-derived [[Coke (fuel)|coke]] for [[steelmaking]]), long-haul transport (e.g. shipping, aviation and to a lesser extent heavy goods vehicles), and long-term energy storage.<ref name=":12"/><ref name="IRENA 2021 95">{{Cite web |last=IRENA |date=2021 |title=World Energy Transitions Outlook: 1.5&nbsp;°C Pathway |url=https://www.irena.org/publications/2021/Jun/World-Energy-Transitions-Outlook |access-date=2023-09-21 |website=International Renewable Energy Agency |pages=95 |language=en |publication-place=Abu Dhabi}}</ref> Other applications, such as light duty vehicles and heating in buildings, are no longer part of the future hydrogen economy, primarily for economic and environmental reasons.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Plötz |first=Patrick |date=2022-01-31 |title=Hydrogen technology is unlikely to play a major role in sustainable road transport |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41928-021-00706-6 |journal=Nature Electronics |language=en |volume=5 |issue=1 |pages=8–10 |doi=10.1038/s41928-021-00706-6 |s2cid=246465284 |issn=2520-1131}}</ref><ref name=":62">{{Cite journal |last=Rosenow |first=Jan |date=September 2022 |title=Is heating homes with hydrogen all but a pipe dream? An evidence review |journal=Joule |language=en |volume=6 |issue=10 |pages=2225–2228 |doi=10.1016/j.joule.2022.08.015|s2cid=252584593 |doi-access=free }}</ref> These reasons include the difficulty of developing long-term storage, pipelines, and engine equipment, [[Hydrogen safety|safety]] concerns since hydrogen is highly explosive, and the inefficiency of hydrogen compared to direct [[Electrification|use of electricity]].

{{As of|2023}} there are no real alternatives to hydrogen for [[ammonia production]] for [[fertilizer]], [[hydrogenation]], [[hydrocracking]], and [[hydrodesulfurization]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Barnard |first=Michael |date=2023-10-22 |title=What's New On The Rungs Of Liebreich's Hydrogen Ladder? |url=https://cleantechnica.com/2023/10/22/whats-new-on-the-rungs-of-liebreichs-hydrogen-ladder/ |access-date=2024-02-17 |website=CleanTechnica |language=en-US}}</ref> The extent to which hydrogen will be used to decarbonise chemical feedstock, long haul aviation and shipping, and long-term energy storage is likely to be influenced by the evolving production costs of low- and zero-carbon hydrogen. Estimates of future costs face numerous uncertainties – such as the introduction of [[carbon taxes]], geography and geopolitics of energy, energy prices, technology choices, and their raw material requirements – but it is likely that green or ''white'' (underground<ref>{{Cite web |last=Paddison |first=Laura |date=2023-10-29 |title=They went hunting for fossil fuels. What they found could help save the world |url=https://www.cnn.com/2023/10/29/climate/white-hydrogen-fossil-fuels-climate/index.html |access-date=2024-02-17 |website=CNN |language=en}}</ref>) hydrogen will see the greatest reductions in production cost over time.<ref name="Goldman Sachs Research 4–6">{{Cite web |last=Goldman Sachs Research |title=Carbonomics: The Clean Hydrogen Revolution |url=https://www.goldmansachs.com/intelligence/pages/carbonomics-the-clean-hydrogen-revolution.html |access-date=2023-09-25 |website=Goldman Sachs |pages=4–6 |language=en-US}}</ref>

== History and contemporary rationale ==

=== Origins ===

The concept of the ''hydrogen economy'', though not the term, was by geneticist [[J.B.S. Haldane]] in 1923, who, anticipating the exhaustion of Britain's coal reserves for power generation, proposed a network of wind turbines to produce hydrogen for long-term energy storage through [[Electrolysis of water|electrolysis]], to help address renewable power's [[Variable renewable energy|variable output]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=''Daedalus or Science and the Future'', A paper read to the Heretics, Cambridge, on February 4th, 1923 – Transcript 1993 |url=http://bactra.org/Daedalus.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171115013540/http://bactra.org/Daedalus.html |archive-date=2017-11-15 |access-date=2016-01-16}}</ref> The term itself was coined by [[John Bockris]] during a talk he gave in 1970 at [[General Motors]] (GM) Technical Center.<ref name="timeline">{{cite web|url=http://www.hydrogenassociation.org/general/factSheet_history.pdf|title=The History of Hydrogen|author1=National Hydrogen Association|author2=United States Department of Energy|work=hydrogenassociation.org|publisher=National Hydrogen Association|page=1|access-date=17 December 2010|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100714141058/http://www.hydrogenassociation.org/general/factSheet_history.pdf|archive-date=14 July 2010}}</ref> Bockris viewed it as an economy in which hydrogen, underpinned by [[Nuclear power|nuclear]] and [[Solar power|solar]] power, would help address growing concern about fossil fuel depletion and environmental pollution, by serving as energy carrier for end-uses in which [[electrification]] was not suitable.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Yap |first1=Jiazhen |last2=McLellan |first2=Benjamin |date=6 January 2023 |title=A Historical Analysis of Hydrogen Economy Research, Development, and Expectations, 1972 to 2020 |journal=Environments |language=en |volume=10 |issue=1 |pages=11 |doi=10.3390/environments10010011 |issn=2076-3298 |doi-access=free |hdl=2433/284015 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>

A hydrogen economy was proposed by the [[University of Michigan]] to solve some of the negative effects of using [[hydrocarbon]] fuels where the carbon is released to the atmosphere (as carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, unburnt hydrocarbons, etc.). Modern interest in the hydrogen economy can generally be traced to a 1970 technical report by [[Lawrence W. Jones]] of the University of Michigan,<ref>{{cite conference|last1=Jones|first1=Lawrence W|date=13 March 1970|title=Toward a liquid hydrogen fuel economy|conference=University of Michigan Environmental Action for Survival Teach In|location=Ann Arbor, Michigan|publisher=[[University of Michigan]]|hdl=2027.42/5800}}</ref> in which he echoed Bockris' dual rationale of addressing energy security and environmental challenges. Unlike Haldane and Bockris, Jones only focused on nuclear power as the energy source for electrolysis, and principally on the use of hydrogen in transport, where he regarded aviation and heavy goods transport as the top priorities.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Jones |first=Lawrence W. |url=https://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/handle/2027.42/5800/bac5758.0001.001.pdf |title=Toward a Liquid Hydrogen Fuel Economy |date=March 13, 1970 |pages=2–3}}</ref>

=== Later evolution ===
[[File:IRENA hydrogen leadership opportunities.png|thumb|Contemporary{{Dubious|date=February 2024|reason=general world view of energy has changed since 2022 invasion of Ukraine so this is not really ‘contemporary’}} view of the hydrogen economy from the [[International Renewable Energy Agency]]]]
A spike in attention for the ''hydrogen economy'' concept during the 2000s was repeatedly described as hype by some [[The Hype about Hydrogen|critics]] and proponents of alternative technologies,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bakker |first1=Sjoerd |title=The car industry and the blow-out of the hydrogen hype |journal=Energy Policy |volume=38 |issue=11 |pages=6540–6544 |doi=10.1016/j.enpol.2010.07.019 |year=2010 |url=http://www.geo.uu.nl/isu/pdf/isu0914.pdf |access-date=2019-12-11 |archive-date=2018-11-03 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181103054549/http://www.geo.uu.nl/isu/pdf/isu0914.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Harrison|first1=James|title=Reactions: Hydrogen hype|journal=Chemical Engineer|volume=58|pages=774–775|url=https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.url?eid=2-s2.0-31644446919&partnerID=40&md5=774f9bad3596ab20fa4e09dd311650f9|access-date=2017-08-31|archive-date=2021-02-08|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210208150534/https://www.scopus.com/record/display.uri?eid=2-s2.0-31644446919&origin=inward&txGid=991e7333984829c38848e466307c1bde|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Rizzi, Francesco Annunziata, Eleonora Liberati, Guglielmo Frey, Marco|title=Technological trajectories in the automotive industry: are hydrogen technologies still a possibility?|journal=Journal of Cleaner Production|date=2014 |volume=66|pages=328–336 |doi=10.1016/j.jclepro.2013.11.069}}</ref> and investors lost money in the [[Economic bubble|bubble]].<ref name=":1">{{Cite news |title=Can a viable industry emerge from the hydrogen shakeout? |newspaper=The Economist |url=https://www.economist.com/business/2023/07/03/can-a-viable-industry-emerge-from-the-hydrogen-shakeout |access-date=2023-09-26 |issn=0013-0613}}</ref> Interest in the energy carrier resurged in the 2010s, notably with the forming of the [[World Hydrogen Council]] in 2017. Several manufacturers released hydrogen fuel cell cars commercially, with manufacturers such as Toyota, Hyundai, and industry groups in China having planned to increase numbers of the cars into the hundreds of thousands over the next decade.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Murai|first1=Shusuke|title=Japan's top auto and energy firms tie up to promote development of hydrogen stations|url=https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2018/03/05/business/japans-top-auto-energy-firms-tie-promote-development-hydrogen-stations/|newspaper=The Japan Times Online|publisher=Japan Times|access-date=16 April 2018|date=2018-03-05|archive-date=2018-04-17|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180417194850/https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2018/03/05/business/japans-top-auto-energy-firms-tie-promote-development-hydrogen-stations/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last1=Mishra|first1=Ankit|title=Prospects of fuel-cell electric vehicles boosted with Chinese backing|url=http://energypost.eu/fuel-cell-vehicles-help-drive-china-to-a-low-carbon-future/|publisher=Energy Post|access-date=16 April 2018|date=2018-03-29|archive-date=2018-04-17|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180417192045/http://energypost.eu/fuel-cell-vehicles-help-drive-china-to-a-low-carbon-future/|url-status=live}}</ref>

The global scope for hydrogen's role in cars is shrinking relative to earlier expectations.<ref name="role2">{{Cite journal |last=Plötz |first=Patrick |date=January 2022 |title=Hydrogen technology is unlikely to play a major role in sustainable road transport |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41928-021-00706-6 |journal=Nature Electronics |volume=5 |issue=1 |pages=8–10 |doi=10.1038/s41928-021-00706-6 |s2cid=246465284 |issn=2520-1131}}</ref><ref name="Collins l_collins2">{{Cite news |last=Collins (l_collins) |first=Leigh |date=2022-02-02 |title='Hydrogen unlikely to play major role in road transport, even for heavy trucks': Fraunhofer |url=https://www.rechargenews.com/energy-transition/-hydrogen-unlikely-to-play-major-role-in-road-transport-even-for-heavy-trucks-fraunhofer/2-1-1162055 |access-date=2023-09-08 |newspaper=Recharge &#124; Latest Renewable Energy News}}</ref>  By the end of 2022, 70,200 [[hydrogen vehicle]]s had been sold worldwide,<ref name="auto2">{{Cite book |last1=Chu |first1=Yidan |url=https://theicct.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/06/Global-EV-sales-2022_FINAL.pdf |title=Annual update on the global transition to electric vehicles: 2022 |last2=Cui |first2=Hongyang |publisher=International Council on Clean Transportation |pages=2–3 |access-date=2023-08-25}}</ref> compared with 26 million [[plug-in electric vehicle]]s.<ref name="Outlook2023">{{Cite book |url=https://www.iea.org/reports/global-ev-outlook-2023 |title=Global EV Outlook 2023 |publisher=IEA |pages=14–24 |access-date=2023-08-25}}</ref>

Contemporary takes on the hydrogen economy share earlier perspectives' emphasis on the complementarity of electricity and hydrogen, and the use of electrolysis as the mainstay of hydrogen production.<ref name=":12"/> They focus on the need to limit [[Climate change|global warming]] to 1.5&nbsp;°C and prioritize the production, transportation and use of [[green hydrogen]] for heavy industry (e.g. high-temperature processes alongside electricity,<ref name="Kjellberg-Motton">{{Cite web |last=Kjellberg-Motton |first=Brendan |date=2022-02-07 |title=Steel decarbonisation gathers speed {{!}} Argus Media |url=https://www.argusmedia.com/en//news/2299399-steel-decarbonisation-gathers-speed |access-date=2023-09-07 |website=www.argusmedia.com |language=en}}</ref> feedstock for production of [[green ammonia]] and organic chemicals,<ref name=":12"/> as alternative to coal-derived coke for [[steelmaking]]),<ref name="auto">{{Cite web |last1=Blank |first1=Thomas |last2=Molly |first2=Patrick |date=January 2020 |title=Hydrogen's Decarbonization Impact for Industry |url=https://rmi.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/01/hydrogen_insight_brief.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200922115313/https://rmi.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/01/hydrogen_insight_brief.pdf |archive-date=22 September 2020 |access-date= |publisher=[[Rocky Mountain Institute]] |pages=2, 7, 8}}</ref> long-haul transport (e.g. shipping, aviation and to a lesser extent heavy goods vehicles), and long-term energy storage.<ref name=":12" /><ref name="IRENA 2021 95"/>

==Current hydrogen market==
[[Hydrogen production]] globally was valued at over US$155 billion in 2022 and is expected to grow over 9% annually through 2030.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Hydrogen Generation Market Size, Share & Trends Analysis Report, 2023 – 2030 |url=https://www.grandviewresearch.com/industry-analysis/hydrogen-generation-market |access-date=2023-08-30 |website=www.grandviewresearch.com |language=en}}</ref>

In 2021, 94 million tonnes (Mt) of molecular hydrogen ({{chem2|H2}}) was produced.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Executive summary – Global Hydrogen Review 2022 – Analysis |url=https://www.iea.org/reports/global-hydrogen-review-2022/executive-summary |access-date=2023-09-21 |website=IEA |language=en-GB}}</ref> Of this total, approximately one sixth was as a by-product of [[petrochemical industry]] processes.<ref name=":23"/> Most hydrogen comes from dedicated production facilities, over 99% of which is from fossil fuels, mainly via steam reforming of natural gas (70%) and coal gasification (30%, almost all of which in China).<ref name=":23"/> Less than 1% of dedicated hydrogen production is low carbon: steam fossil fuel reforming with [[carbon capture and storage]], [[green hydrogen]] produced using electrolysis, and hydrogen produced from [[Biomass (energy)|biomass]].<ref name=":23"/> CO<sub>2</sub> emissions from 2021 production, at 915 MtCO<sub>2</sub>,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Hydrogen |url=https://www.iea.org/energy-system/low-emission-fuels/hydrogen |access-date=2023-09-21 |website=IEA |language=en-GB}}</ref> amounted to 2.5% of energy-related CO<sub>2</sub> emissions<ref>Energy-related emissions totalled 36.3 Gigatonnes CO<sub>2</sub> in 2021.{{Cite web |title=Global CO2 emissions rebounded to their highest level in history in 2021 – News |url=https://www.iea.org/news/global-co2-emissions-rebounded-to-their-highest-level-in-history-in-2021 |access-date=2023-09-21 |website=IEA |language=en-GB}}</ref> and 1.8% of global greenhouse gas emissions.<ref name="auto1"/>

Virtually all hydrogen produced for the current market is used in [[oil refining]] (40 Mt{{chem2|H2}} in 2021) and industry (54 MtH2).<ref name=":02"/>{{Rp|pages=18, 22}} In oil refining, hydrogen is used, in a process known as [[hydrocracking]], to convert heavy petroleum sources into lighter fractions suitable for use as fuels. Industrial uses mainly comprise [[ammonia]] production to make fertilisers (34 Mt{{chem2|H2}} in 2021), [[methanol]] production (15 Mt{{chem2|H2}}) and the manufacture of [[direct reduced iron]] (5 Mt{{chem2|H2}}).<ref name=":02" />{{Rp|pages=|page=29}}

==Production==
{{Excerpt|Hydrogen production}}

== Uses ==
[[File:The_Hydrogen_Ladder,_Version_5.0.jpg|thumb|Some projected uses in the medium term, but analysts disagree<ref>{{Cite web |last=Barnard |first=Michael |date=2023-10-22 |title=What's New On The Rungs Of Liebreich's Hydrogen Ladder? |url=https://cleantechnica.com/2023/10/22/whats-new-on-the-rungs-of-liebreichs-hydrogen-ladder/ |access-date=2024-03-10 |website=CleanTechnica |language=en-US}}</ref>]]
[[Image:Photo praxair plant.hydrogen.infrastructure.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Hydrogen fuel requires the development of a specific infrastructure for processing, transport and storage.]]
Hydrogen can be deployed as a fuel in two distinct ways: in [[fuel cells]] which produce electricity, and via combustion to generate heat.<ref name=":04">{{Cite journal |last=Lewis |first=Alastair C. |date=10 June 2021 |title=Optimising air quality co-benefits in a hydrogen economy: a case for hydrogen-specific standards for NO x emissions |journal=Environmental Science: Atmospheres |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=201–207 |doi=10.1039/D1EA00037C|s2cid=236732702 |doi-access=free }}{{Creative Commons text attribution notice|cc=by3|url=|authors=|vrt=|from this source=yes}}</ref> When hydrogen is consumed in fuel cells, the only emission at the point of use is water vapour.<ref name=":04" /> Combustion of hydrogen can lead to the thermal formation of harmful [[NOx|nitrogen oxides]] emissions.<ref name=":04" />

=== Industry ===
In the context of [[limiting global warming]], low-carbon hydrogen (particularly [[green hydrogen]]) is likely to play an important role in decarbonising industry.<ref name=":122">{{Cite book |author=IPCC |url=https://ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg3/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGIII_FullReport.pdf |title=Climate Change 2022: Mitigation of Climate Change |publisher=Cambridge University Press (In Press) |year=2022 |editor1-last=Shukla |editor1-first=P.R. |series=Contribution of Working Group III to the [[IPCC Sixth Assessment Report|Sixth Assessment Report]] of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change |place=Cambridge, UK and New York, NY, US |pages=1184 |doi=10.1017/9781009157926 |isbn=9781009157926 |ref={{harvid|IPCC AR6 WG3|2022}} |author-link=IPCC |editor2-last=Skea |editor2-first=J. |editor3-last=Slade |editor3-first=R. |editor4-last=Al Khourdajie |editor4-first=A. |editor5-last=van Diemen |editor5-first=R. |editor6-last=McCollum |editor6-first=D. |editor7-last=Pathak |editor7-first=M. |editor8-last=Some |editor8-first=S. |editor9-last=Vyas |editor9-first=P. |display-editors=4 |editor10-first=R. |editor10-last=Fradera |editor11-first=M. |editor11-last=Belkacemi |editor12-first=A. |editor12-last=Hasija |editor13-first=G. |editor13-last=Lisboa |editor14-first=S. |editor14-last=Luz |editor15-first=J. |editor15-last=Malley}}</ref> Hydrogen fuel can produce the intense heat required for industrial production of steel, cement, glass, and chemicals, thus contributing to the decarbonisation of industry alongside other technologies, such as [[electric arc furnace]]s for steelmaking.<ref name="Kjellberg-Motton"/> However, it is likely to play a larger role in providing industrial feedstock for cleaner production of ammonia and organic chemicals.<ref name=":122" /> For example, in [[steelmaking]], hydrogen could function as a clean energy carrier and also as a low-carbon catalyst replacing coal-derived [[Coke (fuel)|coke]].<ref name="auto"/>

The imperative to use low-carbon hydrogen to reduce greenhouse gas emissions has the potential to reshape the geography of industrial activities, as locations with appropriate hydrogen production potential in different regions will interact in new ways with logistics infrastructure, raw material availability, human and technological capital.<ref name=":122" />

=== Transport===
{{Main|Hydrogen vehicle}}
Much of the interest in the hydrogen economy concept is focused on [[hydrogen vehicle]]s, particularly [[Hydrogen plane|planes]].<ref>{{Cite news |title=Is the time now ripe for planes to run on hydrogen? |url=https://www.economist.com/science-and-technology/2020/12/08/is-the-time-now-ripe-for-planes-to-run-on-hydrogen |access-date=2024-02-17 |newspaper=The Economist |issn=0013-0613}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Yusaf |first1=Talal |last2=Faisal Mahamude |first2=Abu Shadate |last3=Kadirgama |first3=Kumaran |last4=Ramasamy |first4=Devarajan |last5=Farhana |first5=Kaniz |last6=A. Dhahad |first6=Hayder |last7=Abu Talib |first7=ABD Rahim |date=2024-01-02 |title=Sustainable hydrogen energy in aviation – A narrative review |journal=International Journal of Hydrogen Energy |volume=52 |pages=1026–1045 |doi=10.1016/j.ijhydene.2023.02.086 |issn=0360-3199|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Reid |first=Channing |date=2023-09-10 |title=H2FLY's Hydrogen-Powered Aircraft Has Completed Its First Flight |url=https://simpleflying.com/h2fly-hydrogen-plane-first-flight/ |access-date=2024-02-17 |website=Simple Flying |language=en}}</ref> Hydrogen vehicles produce significantly less local air pollution than conventional vehicles.<ref>{{cite web |date=2018-02-16 |title=This company may have solved one of the hardest problems in clean energy |url=https://www.vox.com/energy-and-environment/2018/2/16/16926950/hydrogen-fuel-technology-economy-hytech-storage |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191112094756/https://www.vox.com/energy-and-environment/2018/2/16/16926950/hydrogen-fuel-technology-economy-hytech-storage |archive-date=2019-11-12 |access-date=9 February 2019 |publisher=Vox}}</ref> By 2050, the energy requirement for transportation might be between 20% and 30% fulfilled by hydrogen and [[synthetic fuel]]s.<ref>{{Cite web |last=IRENA |title=The Hydrogen Factor |url=https://irena.org/DigitalArticles/2022/Jan/Hydrogen_Factor |access-date=2022-10-19 |website=irena.org |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Sustainable fuels and their role in decarbonizing energy {{!}} McKinsey |url=https://www.mckinsey.com/industries/oil-and-gas/our-insights/charting-the-global-energy-landscape-to-2050-sustainable-fuels |access-date=2022-10-19 |website=www.mckinsey.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Spiryagin |first1=Maksym |last2=Dixon |first2=Roger |last3=Oldknow |first3=Kevin |last4=Cole |first4=Colin |date=2021-09-01 |title=Preface to special issue on hybrid and hydrogen technologies for railway operations |journal=Railway Engineering Science |language=en |volume=29 |issue=3 |pages=211 |doi=10.1007/s40534-021-00254-x |issn=2662-4753 |s2cid=240522190 |doi-access=free}}</ref>

Hydrogen used to decarbonise transportation is likely to find its largest applications in [[Hydrogen-powered ship|shipping]], aviation and to a lesser extent heavy goods vehicles, through the use of hydrogen-derived synthetic fuels such as [[Green ammonia|ammonia]] and [[Green methanol|methanol]], and fuel cell technology.<ref name=":12"/>  Hydrogen has been used in [[fuel cell bus]]es for many years. It is also used as a fuel for [[spacecraft propulsion]].

In the [[International Energy Agency]]'s 2022 Net Zero Emissions Scenario (NZE), hydrogen is forecast to account for 2% of rail energy demand in 2050, while 90% of rail travel is expected to be electrified by then (up from 45% today). Hydrogen's role in rail would likely be focused on lines that prove difficult or costly to electrify.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://www.iea.org/reports/world-energy-outlook-2022 |title=World energy outlook 2022 |publisher=International Energy Agency |pages=150}}{{Creative Commons text attribution notice|cc=by4|from this source=yes}}</ref> The NZE foresees hydrogen meeting approximately 30% of [[heavy truck]] energy demand in 2050, mainly for long-distance heavy freight (with battery electric power accounting for around 60%).<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Cozzi |first1=Laura |url=https://iea.blob.core.windows.net/assets/830fe099-5530-48f2-a7c1-11f35d510983/WorldEnergyOutlook2022.pdf |title=World Energy Outlook 2022 |last2=Gould |first2=Tim |publisher=International Energy Agency |pages=148}}{{Creative Commons text attribution notice|cc=by4|from this source=yes}}</ref>

Although hydrogen can be used in adapted [[Hydrogen internal combustion engine vehicle|internal combustion engines]], fuel cells, being [[electrochemical]], have an efficiency advantage over heat engines. Fuel cells are more expensive to produce than common internal combustion engines but also require higher purity hydrogen fuel than internal combustion engines.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Stępień |first=Zbigniew |date=January 2021 |title=A Comprehensive Overview of Hydrogen-Fueled Internal Combustion Engines: Achievements and Future Challenges |journal=Energies |language=en |volume=14 |issue=20 |pages=6504 |doi=10.3390/en14206504 |issn=1996-1073 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

In the light road vehicle segment including passenger cars, by the end of 2022, 70,200 fuel cell electric vehicles had been sold worldwide,<ref name="auto2" /> compared with 26 million plug-in electric vehicles.<ref name="Outlook2023" /> With the rapid rise of [[electric vehicle]]s and associated battery technology and infrastructure, hydrogen's role in cars is miniscule.<ref name="role2" /><ref name="Collins l_collins2" />

=== Energy system balancing and storage ===
[[Green hydrogen]], from [[electrolysis of water]], has the potential to address the [[Variable renewable energy|variability of renewable energy]] output. Producing green hydrogen can both reduce the need for renewable power [[Curtailment (electricity)|curtailment]] during periods of high renewables output and be [[Energy storage|stored]] long-term to provide for power generation during periods of low output.<ref name="Schrotenboer">{{Cite journal |last1=Schrotenboer |first1=Albert H. |last2=Veenstra |first2=Arjen A.T. |last3=uit het Broek |first3=Michiel A.J. |last4=Ursavas |first4=Evrim |date=October 2022 |title=A Green Hydrogen Energy System: Optimal control strategies for integrated hydrogen storage and power generation with wind energy |url=https://pure.rug.nl/ws/portalfiles/portal/230184233/1_s2.0_S1364032122006323_main.pdf |journal=Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews |language=en |volume=168 |pages=112744 |doi=10.1016/j.rser.2022.112744 |s2cid=250941369}}</ref><ref name="Lipták">{{Cite news |last=Lipták |first=Béla |date=January 24, 2022 |title=Hydrogen is key to sustainable green energy |work=Control |url=https://www.controlglobal.com/home/article/11288951/hydrogen-is-key-to-sustainable-green-energy |access-date=February 12, 2023}}</ref>

===Ammonia ===

{{Main|ammonia|ammonia production}}
 
{{see also|alkaline fuel cell}} 
An alternative to gaseous hydrogen as an energy carrier is to bond it with [[nitrogen]] from the air to produce ammonia, which can be easily liquefied, transported, and used (directly or indirectly) as a clean and [[Ammonia as a fuel|renewable fuel]].<ref>{{cite web |last=Agosta |first=Vito |date=July 10, 2003 |title=The Ammonia Economy |url=http://www.memagazine.org/contents/current/webonly/webex710.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080513030624/http://www.memagazine.org/contents/current/webonly/webex710.html |archive-date=May 13, 2008 |access-date=2008-05-09}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Renewable Energy |url=http://www.energy.iastate.edu/Renewable/ammonia/index.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080513191842/http://www.energy.iastate.edu/renewable/ammonia/index.htm |archive-date=2008-05-13 |access-date=2008-05-09 |publisher=Iowa Energy Center}}</ref>   Among disadvantages of ammonia as an energy carrier are its high toxicity, energy efficiency of {{chem2|NH3}} production from {{chem2|N2}} and {{chem2|H2}}, and poisoning of [[Fuel cell|PEM Fuel Cells]] by traces of non-decomposed {{chem2|NH3}} after {{chem2|NH3}} to {{chem2|N2}} conversion.

=== Buildings ===
Numerous industry groups (gas networks, [[gas boiler]] manufacturers) across the natural gas supply chain are promoting hydrogen combustion boilers for space and water heating, and hydrogen appliances for cooking, to reduce energy-related CO<sub>2</sub> emissions from residential and commercial buildings.<ref name=":5">{{Cite web |last=Collins |first=Leigh |date=2021-12-10 |title=Even the European gas lobby can't make a case for hydrogen boilers — so why does it say gases are needed to decarbonise heating? |url=https://www.rechargenews.com/energy-transition/even-the-european-gas-lobby-can-t-make-a-case-for-hydrogen-boilers-so-why-does-it-say-gases-are-needed-to-decarbonise-heating-/2-1-1120847 |access-date=2023-09-25 |website=Recharge {{!}} Latest renewable energy news |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":7">{{Cite web |last=Roth |first=Sammy |date=2023-02-09 |title=California declared war on natural gas. Now the fight is going national |url=https://www.latimes.com/environment/newsletter/2023-02-09/california-declared-war-on-natural-gas-now-the-fight-is-going-national-boiling-point |access-date=2023-09-25 |website=Los Angeles Times |language=en-US}}</ref><ref name=":62" /> The proposition is that current end-users of piped natural gas can await the conversion of and supply of hydrogen to existing [[Natural gas#Domestic use|natural gas grids]], and then swap heating and cooking appliances, and that there is no need for consumers to do anything now.<ref name=":5" /><ref name=":7" /><ref name=":62" />

A review of 32 studies on the question of hydrogen for heating buildings, independent of commercial interests, found that the economics and climate benefits of hydrogen for heating and cooking generally compare very poorly with the deployment of [[district heating]] networks, electrification of heating (principally through [[heat pump]]s) and cooking, the use of [[Solar thermal energy|solar thermal]], [[waste heat]] and the installation of [[Energy efficient building|energy efficiency]] measures to reduce energy demand for heat.<ref name=":62" /> Due to inefficiencies in hydrogen production, using blue hydrogen to replace natural gas for heating could require three times as much [[methane]], while using green hydrogen would need two to three times as much electricity as heat pumps.<ref name=":62" /> Hybrid heat pumps, which combine the use of an electric heat pump with a hydrogen boiler, may play a role in residential heating in areas where upgrading networks to meet peak electrical demand would otherwise be costly.<ref name=":62" />

The widespread use of hydrogen for heating buildings would entail higher energy system costs, higher heating costs and higher environmental impacts than the alternatives, although a niche role may be appropriate in specific contexts and geographies.<ref name=":62" />  If deployed, using hydrogen in buildings would drive up the cost of hydrogen for harder-to-decarbonise applications in industry and transport.<ref name=":62" />

===Bio-SNG===
{{As of|2019}} although technically possible [[Syngas#Carbon dioxide and hydrogen|production of syngas from hydrogen and carbon-dioxide]] from [[bio-energy with carbon capture and storage]] (BECCS) via the [[Sabatier reaction]] is limited by the amount of sustainable bioenergy available:<ref>{{Harvnb|UKCCC H2|2018|p=79}}: The potential for bio-gasification with CCS to be deployed at scale is limited by the amount of sustainable bioenergy available. .... "</ref> therefore any [[bio-SNG]] made may be reserved for production of [[aviation biofuel]].<ref>{{Harvnb|UKCCC H2|2018|p=33}}: production of biofuels, even with CCS, is only one of the best uses of the finite sustainable bio-resource if the fossil fuels it displaces cannot otherwise feasibly be displaced (e.g. use of biomass to produce aviation biofuels with CCS)."</ref>

== Storage ==
{{Excerpt|Hydrogen storage}}

== Infrastructure ==
{{Excerpt|Hydrogen infrastructure}}

== Safety ==
[[File:Hydrogen Flame Broom Test NASA.jpg|thumb|A NASA engineer sweeps an area with a corn broom to find the location of a hydrogen fire. Hydrogen burns with a nearly-invisible flame.]]
{{excerpt|Hydrogen safety|paragraphs=1-2|file=no}}

==Costs==
{{Update section|date=February 2024|reason=current prices need updating and white hydrogen adding}}
More widespread use of hydrogen in economies entails the need for investment and costs in its production, storage, distribution and use. Estimates of hydrogen's cost are therefore complex and need to make assumptions about the cost of energy inputs (typically gas and electricity), production plant and method (e.g. green or blue hydrogen), technologies used (e.g. [[Alkaline electrolysis|alkaline]] or [[Proton exchange membrane electrolysis|proton exchange membrane]] electrolysers), storage and distribution methods, and how different cost elements might change over time.<ref name=":4">{{Cite book |url=https://www.energy-transitions.org/publications/making-clean-hydrogen-possible/ |title=Making the Hydrogen Economy Possible: Accelerating Clean Hydrogen in an Electrified Economy |date=April 2021 |publisher=Energy Transitions Commission |page= |language=en-GB |access-date=2023-08-25}}</ref>{{Rp|page=|pages=49–65}} These factors are incorporated into calculations of the levelized costs of hydrogen (LCOH). The following table shows a range of estimates of the levelized costs of gray, blue, and green hydrogen, expressed in terms of US$ per kg of H<sub>2</sub> (where data provided in other currencies or units, the average exchange rate to US dollars in the given year are used, and 1&nbsp;kg of H<sub>2</sub> is assumed to have a calorific value of 33.3kWh).
{|
|'''Production method'''
|'''Note'''
|'''Current cost (2020–2022)'''
|'''Projected 2030 cost'''
|'''Projected 2050 cost'''
|-
| colspan="5" |'''Gray hydrogen (not including a carbon tax)'''
|-
| rowspan="2" |[[International Energy Agency]]<ref name=":03">{{Cite book |url=https://www.iea.org/reports/global-hydrogen-review-2022 |title=Global Hydrogen Review 2022 |publisher=IEA |page=93 |language=en-GB |access-date=2023-08-25}}</ref>
| rowspan="2" |2022 costs estimated for June, when gas prices peaked in the wake of Russia's invasion of Ukraine
|2021: 1.0–2.5
| rowspan="2" | –
| rowspan="2" | –
|-
|2022: 4.8–7.8
|-
|[[PwC|PWC]]<ref name=":15">{{Cite web |last=PricewaterhouseCoopers |title=Green hydrogen economy – predicted development of tomorrow |url=https://www.pwc.com/gx/en/industries/energy-utilities-resources/future-energy/green-hydrogen-cost.html |access-date=2023-08-25 |website=PwC |language=en-gx}}</ref>
|
|2021: 1.2–2.4
|
|
|-
| colspan="5" |'''Blue hydrogen'''
|-
| rowspan="2" |International Energy Agency<ref name=":03" />
| rowspan="2" |2022 costs estimated for June, when gas prices peaked in the wake of Russia's invasion of Ukraine
|2021: 1.5–3.0
| rowspan="2" | –
| rowspan="2" | –
|-
|2022: 5.3–8.6
|-
|[[Department for Energy Security and Net Zero|UK government]]<ref name=":22">{{Cite web |title=Hydrogen Production Costs 2021 annex: Key assumptions and outputs for production technologies |url=https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/hydrogen-production-costs-2021 |access-date=2023-08-25 |website=GOV.UK |language=en}}</ref>
|Range dependent on gas price
|2020: 1.6–2.7
|1.6–2.7
|1.6–2.8
|-
|GEP<ref name=":3">{{Cite web |last=Saini |first=Anshuman |date=January 12, 2023 |title=Green & Blue Hydrogen: Current Levelized Cost of Production & Outlook {{!}} GEP Blogs |url=https://www.gep.com/blog/strategy/Green-and-blue-hydrogen-current-levelized-cost-of-production-and-outlook |access-date=2023-08-25 |website=www.gep.com |language=en}}</ref>
|
|2022: 2.8–3.5
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|-
|[[Energy Transitions Commission]]<ref name=":4" />{{Rp|page=28}}
|
|2020: 1.5–2.4
|1.3–2.3
|1.4–2.2
|-
| colspan="5" |'''Green hydrogen'''
|-
| rowspan="2" |International Energy Agency<ref name=":03" />
| rowspan="2" |2030 and 2050 estimates are using solar power in regions with good solar conditions
|2021: 4.0–9.0
| rowspan="2" |<1.5
| rowspan="2" |<1.0
|-
|2022: 3.0-4.3
|-
| rowspan="2" |UK government<ref name=":22" />
|Using grid electricity, UK specific; range dependent on electricity price, and electrolyser technology and cost
|2020: 4.9–7.9
|4.4–6.6
|4.0–6.3
|-
|Using otherwise curtailed renewable electricity, UK specific; range dependent on electrolyser technology and cost
|2020: 2.4–7.9
|1.7–5.6
|1.5–4.6
|-
|[[International Renewable Energy Agency|IRENA]]<ref>IRENA (2020), [https://www.irena.org/-/media/Files/IRENA/Agency/Publication/2020/Dec/IRENA_Green_hydrogen_cost_2020.pdf Green Hydrogen Cost Reduction: Scaling up Electrolysers to Meet the 1.5&nbsp;°C Climate Goal], International Renewable Energy Agency, Abu Dhabi, p. 91.</ref>
|
|2020: 2.2–5.2
|1.4–4.1
|1.1–3.4
|-
|GEP<ref name=":3" />
|Source notes green H<sub>2</sub> production cost has fallen by 60% since 2010
|2022: 3.0–6.0
|
|
|-
|[[Lazard]]<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://www.lazard.com/research-insights/2023-levelized-cost-of-energyplus/ |title=2023 Levelized Cost Of Energy+ |date=April 12, 2023 |publisher=Lazard |page=27 |language=en |access-date=2023-08-25}}</ref>
|
|2022: 2.8–5.3
|
|
|-
|PWC<ref name=":15" />
|
|2021: 3.5–9.5
|1.8–4.8
|1.2–2.4
|-
|Energy Transitions Commission<ref name=":4" />{{Rp|page=28}}
|
|2020: 2.6–3.6
|1.0–1.7
|0.7–1.2
|}
The range of cost estimates for commercially available hydrogen production methods is broad, As of 2022, gray hydrogen is cheapest to produce without a tax on its CO<sub>2</sub> emissions, followed by blue and green hydrogen. Blue hydrogen production costs are not anticipated to fall substantially by 2050,<ref name=":22" /><ref name=":4" />{{Rp|page=28}} can be expected to fluctuate with natural gas prices and could face [[carbon tax]]es for uncaptured emissions.<ref name=":4" />{{Rp|page=79}} The cost of [[Electrolysis|electrolysers]] fell by 60% from 2010 to 2022,<ref name=":3" /> before rising slightly due to an increasing [[cost of capital]].<ref name=":1" /> Their cost is projected to fall significantly to 2030 and 2050,<ref name=":52">{{Cite book |last1=Patonia |first1=Aliaksei |url=https://www.oxfordenergy.org/publications/cost-competitive-green-hydrogen-how-to-lower-the-cost-of-electrolysers/ |title=Cost-competitive green hydrogen: how to lower the cost of electrolysers? |last2=Poudineh |first2=Rahmat |date=January 2022 |publisher=Oxford Institute for Energy Studies |page= |language=en |access-date=2023-08-25}}</ref>{{Rp|page=26}} driving down the cost of green hydrogen alongside the falling cost of renewable power generation.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Roser |first=Max |date=2023-09-01 |title=Why did renewables become so cheap so fast? |url=https://ourworldindata.org/cheap-renewables-growth |journal=Our World in Data}}</ref><ref name=":4" />{{Rp|page=28}} It is cheapest to produce green hydrogen with surplus renewable power that would otherwise be [[Curtailment (electricity)|curtailed]], which favours electrolysers capable of responding to low and [[Variable renewable energy|variable power levels]].<ref name=":52" />{{Rp|page=5}}

A 2022 [[Goldman Sachs]] analysis anticipates that globally green hydrogen will achieve cost parity with grey hydrogen by 2030, earlier if a global carbon tax is placed on gray hydrogen.<ref name="Goldman Sachs Research 4–6"/> In terms of cost per unit of energy, blue and gray hydrogen will always cost more than the fossil fuels used in its production, while green hydrogen will always cost more than the renewable electricity used to make it.

Subsidies for clean hydrogen production are much higher in the US and EU than in India.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Martin |first=Polly |date=2023-06-29 |title=India to offer green hydrogen production subsidy of up to $0.60/kg — for three years only |url=https://www.hydrogeninsight.com/production/india-to-offer-green-hydrogen-production-subsidy-of-up-to-0-60-kg-for-three-years-only/2-1-1477425 |access-date=2023-09-26 |website=Hydrogen news and intelligence {{!}} Hydrogen Insight |language=en}}</ref>

== Examples and pilot programs ==
{{Update|section|date=February 2019}}
<!-- This section is linked from [[Iceland]] -->
[[File:Brno, Autotec, Mercedes Citaro na palivové články II.jpg|thumb|A [[Mercedes-Benz O530 Citaro]] powered by hydrogen fuel cells, in [[Brno]], [[Czech Republic]].]]

The distribution of hydrogen for the purpose of transportation is being tested around the world, particularly in the US ([[California Hydrogen Highway|California]], [[Massachusetts Fuel Cell Bus Project|Massachusetts]]), [[BC hydrogen highway|Canada]], [[Japan hydrogen fuel cell project|Japan]], the EU ([[Portugal]], [[Hynor|Norway]], Denmark, [[Germany]]), and [[Iceland]].

An indicator of the presence of large natural gas infrastructures already in place in countries and in use by citizens is the number of natural gas vehicles present in the country. The countries with the largest amount of natural gas vehicles are (in order of magnitude):<ref>{{Cite web |title=Worldwide NGV statistics |url=http://www.ngvjournal.com/worldwide-ngv-statistics/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150206153839/http://www.ngvjournal.com/worldwide-ngv-statistics/ |archive-date=2015-02-06 |access-date=2019-09-29}}</ref>
[[Iran]], [[China]], [[Pakistan]], [[Argentina]], [[India]], [[Brasil]], [[Italy]], [[Colombia]], [[Thailand]], [[Uzbekistan]], [[Bolivia]], [[Armenia]], [[Bangladesh]], [[Egypt]], [[Peru]], [[Ukraine]], [[United States]]. Natural gas vehicles can also be [[Hydrogen internal combustion engine vehicle#Adaptation of existing engines|converted to run on hydrogen]].

Also, in some private homes, [[Micro combined heat and power#Fuel cells|fuel cell micro-CHP]] plants can be found, which can operate on hydrogen, or other fuels as natural gas or LPG.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Fuel Cell micro CHP |url=http://www.pace-energy.eu/micro-cogeneration/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191106175546/http://www.pace-energy.eu/micro-cogeneration/ |archive-date=2019-11-06 |access-date=2019-10-23}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Fuel cell micro Cogeneration |url=https://www.cogeneurope.eu/events/past-events/cogen-event/fuel-cell-micro-cogeneration-generating-sustainable-heat-and-power-for-your-home |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191023131059/https://www.cogeneurope.eu/events/past-events/cogen-event/fuel-cell-micro-cogeneration-generating-sustainable-heat-and-power-for-your-home |archive-date=2019-10-23 |access-date=2019-10-23}}</ref> When running on natural gas, it relies on [[Methane reformer|steam reforming]] of natural gas to convert the natural gas to hydrogen prior to use in the fuel cell. This hence still emits {{CO2}} (see reaction) but (temporarily) running on this can be a good solution until the point where the hydrogen is starting to become distributed through the (natural gas) piping system.{{Original research inline|date=February 2024}}

=== Australia ===
Western [[Australia]]'s Department of Planning and Infrastructure operated three Daimler Chrysler Citaro fuel cell buses as part of its Sustainable Transport Energy for Perth Fuel Cells Bus Trial in Perth.<ref>{{cite web |date=13 April 2007 |title=Perth Fuel Cell Bus Trial |url=http://www.dpi.wa.gov.au/ecobus/1206.asp |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080607172715/http://www.dpi.wa.gov.au/ecobus/1206.asp |archive-date=7 June 2008 |access-date=2008-05-09 |publisher=Department for Planning and Infrastructure, Government of [[Western Australia]]}}</ref> The buses were operated by Path Transit on regular Transperth public bus routes. The trial began in September 2004 and concluded in September 2007. The buses' fuel cells used a proton exchange membrane system and were supplied with raw hydrogen from a BP refinery in Kwinana, south of Perth. The hydrogen was a byproduct of the refinery's industrial process. The buses were refueled at a station in the northern Perth suburb of Malaga.

In October 2021, [[Queensland]] Premier [[Annastacia Palaszczuk]] and [[Andrew Forrest]] announced that Queensland will be home to the world's largest hydrogen plant.<ref>{{Cite news |date=October 11, 2021 |title='Green industrial revolution': Queensland announces plans to mass produce green ammonia |newspaper=ABC News |url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2021-10-11/queensland-hydrogen-twiggy-forrest-ammonia-feasiblity/100528732 |url-status=live |access-date=2021-10-12 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211012192350/https://www.abc.net.au/news/2021-10-11/queensland-hydrogen-twiggy-forrest-ammonia-feasiblity/100528732 |archive-date=2021-10-12 |via=www.abc.net.au}}</ref>

In Australia, the [[Australian Renewable Energy Agency|Australian Renewable Energy Agency (ARENA)]] has invested $55 million in 28 hydrogen projects, from early stage research and development to early stage trials and deployments. The agency's stated goal is to produce hydrogen by electrolysis for $2 per kilogram, announced by Minister for Energy and Emissions Angus Taylor in a 2021 Low Emissions Technology Statement.<ref>{{Cite web |date=30 November 2020 |title=Australia's pathway to $2 per kg hydrogen – ARENAWIRE |url=https://arena.gov.au/blog/australias-pathway-to-2-per-kg-hydrogen/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201215065859/https://arena.gov.au/blog/australias-pathway-to-2-per-kg-hydrogen/ |archive-date=2020-12-15 |access-date=2021-01-06 |website=Australian Renewable Energy Agency |language=en-AU}}</ref>

=== European Union ===
Countries in the [[EU]] which have a relatively large natural gas pipeline system already in place include [[Belgium]], [[Germany]], [[France]], and the [[Netherlands]].<ref name="Hydrogen transport & distribution">{{Cite web |title=Hydrogen transport & distribution |url=https://hydrogeneurope.eu/hydrogen-transport-distribution |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190929110509/https://hydrogeneurope.eu/hydrogen-transport-distribution |archive-date=2019-09-29 |access-date=2019-09-29}}</ref> In 2020, The EU launched its European Clean Hydrogen Alliance (ECHA).<ref>{{Cite web |last=Pollet |first=Mathieu |date=2020 |title=AExplainer: Why is the EU Commission betting on hydrogen for a greener future? |url=https://www.euronews.com/2020/07/10/explainer-why-is-the-eu-commission-betting-on-hydrogen-for-a-cleaner-future |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200807130615/https://www.euronews.com/2020/07/10/explainer-why-is-the-eu-commission-betting-on-hydrogen-for-a-cleaner-future |archive-date=2020-08-07 |access-date=2020-08-14 |website=euronews}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=ECHA |url=https://ec.europa.eu/growth/industry/policy/european-clean-hydrogen-alliance_en |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200812182627/https://ec.europa.eu/growth/industry/policy/european-clean-hydrogen-alliance_en |archive-date=2020-08-12 |access-date=2020-08-14}}</ref>

==== France ====
Green hydrogen has become more common in France. A €150 million Green Hydrogen Plan was established in 2019, and it calls for building the infrastructure necessary to create, store, and distribute hydrogen as well as using the fuel to power local transportation systems like buses and trains. Corridor H2, a similar initiative, will create a network of hydrogen distribution facilities in [[Occitania]] along the route between the Mediterranean and the North Sea. The Corridor H2 project will get a €40 million loan from the [[European Investment Bank|EIB]].<ref name=":77">{{Cite web |title=French port bets big on floating wind farms planned in Mediterranean |url=https://www.eib.org/en/essays/floating-wind-farms |access-date=2022-09-26 |website=European Investment Bank |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=23 June 2022 |title=Green Hydrogen: A key investment for the energy transition |url=https://blogs.worldbank.org/ppps/green-hydrogen-key-investment-energy-transition |access-date=2022-09-26 |website=blogs.worldbank.org |language=en}}</ref>

==== Germany ====
German car manufacturer [[BMW]] has been working with hydrogen for years.{{quantify|date=October 2021}}.<ref>{{Cite web |date=24 October 2007 |title=E3B1C256-BFCB-4CEF-88A6-1DCCD7666635<!-- Bot generated title --> |url=https://www.scmp.com/article/612717/test-drive-bmws-car-future-its-gas |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211029174424/https://www.scmp.com/article/612717/test-drive-bmws-car-future-its-gas |archive-date=2021-10-29 |access-date=2021-10-12}}</ref>

==== Iceland ====
[[Iceland]] has committed to becoming the world's first hydrogen economy by the year 2050.<ref>{{cite web |last=Hannesson |first=Hjálmar W. |date=2007-08-02 |title=Climate change as a global challenge |url=http://www.mfa.is/speeches-and-articles/nr/3800 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140107205851/http://www.mfa.is/news-and-publications/nr/3800 |archive-date=2014-01-07 |access-date=2008-05-09 |publisher=[[Iceland]] [[Minister for Foreign Affairs of Iceland|Ministry for Foreign Affairs]]}}</ref> Iceland is in a unique position. Presently,{{when|date=June 2019}} it imports all the petroleum products necessary to power its automobiles and [[fishing fleet]]. Iceland has large geothermal resources, so much that the local price of electricity actually is ''lower'' than the price of the hydrocarbons that could be used to produce that electricity.

Iceland already converts its surplus electricity into exportable goods and hydrocarbon replacements. In 2002, it produced 2,000&nbsp;tons of hydrogen gas by electrolysis, primarily for the production of [[anhydrous ammonia|ammonia]] (NH<sub>3</sub>) for fertilizer. Ammonia is produced, transported, and used throughout the world, and 90% of the cost of ammonia is the cost of the energy to produce it.

Neither industry directly replaces hydrocarbons. [[Reykjavík]], Iceland, had a small pilot fleet of city buses running on compressed hydrogen,<ref name="detnews">{{cite news |last=Doyle |first=Alister |date=January 14, 2005 |title=Iceland's hydrogen buses zip toward oil-free economy |agency=Reuters |url=http://www.detnews.com/2005/autosinsider/0501/14/autos-60181.htm |url-status=dead |access-date=2008-05-09 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120724042846/http://www.detnews.com/2005/autosinsider/0501/14/autos-60181.htm |archive-date=July 24, 2012}}</ref> and research on powering the nation's fishing fleet with hydrogen is under way (for example by companies as [[Icelandic New Energy]]). For more practical purposes, Iceland might process imported oil with hydrogen to extend it, rather than to replace it altogether.

The Reykjavík buses are part of a larger program, HyFLEET:CUTE,<ref>{{cite web |title=What is HyFLEET:CUTE? |url=http://www.global-hydrogen-bus-platform.com/index.php |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080224165308/http://www.global-hydrogen-bus-platform.com/index.php |archive-date=2008-02-24 |access-date=2008-05-09}}</ref> operating hydrogen fueled buses in eight European cities. HyFLEET:CUTE buses were also operated in Beijing, China and Perth, Australia (see below). A pilot project demonstrating a hydrogen economy is operational on the [[Norway|Norwegian]] island of [[Utsira]]. The installation combines wind power and hydrogen power. In periods when there is surplus wind energy, the excess power is used for generating hydrogen by [[electrolysis]]. The hydrogen is stored, and is available for power generation in periods when there is little wind.{{citation needed|date=December 2011}}

=== India ===
[[India]] is said to adopt hydrogen and H-CNG, due to several reasons, amongst which the fact that a national rollout of natural gas networks is already taking place and natural gas is already a major vehicle fuel. In addition, India suffers from extreme air pollution in urban areas.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Hydrogen vehicles and refueling infrastructure in India |url=https://www.energy.gov/sites/prod/files/2014/03/f10/cng_h2_workshop_11_das.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170612130231/https://energy.gov/sites/prod/files/2014/03/f10/cng_h2_workshop_11_das.pdf |archive-date=2017-06-12 |access-date=2019-09-28}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Das |first1=L |date=1991 |title=Exhaust emission characterization of hydrogen-operated engine system: Nature of pollutants and their control techniques |journal=International Journal of Hydrogen Energy |volume=16 |issue=11 |pages=765–775 |doi=10.1016/0360-3199(91)90075-T}}</ref> According to some estimates, nearly 80% of India's hydrogen is projected to be green, driven by cost declines and new production technologies.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bridgeindia.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2021/03/Bridge-India-UK-India-Energy-Report-2021.pdf|title=UK-India Energy Collaborations report}}</ref>
 
Currently however, hydrogen energy is just at the Research, Development and Demonstration (RD&D) stage.<ref>{{Cite web |title=MNRE: FAQ |url=https://mnre.gov.in/file-manager/UserFiles/faq_hydrogenenergy.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190921111217/https://mnre.gov.in/file-manager/UserFiles/faq_hydrogenenergy.htm |archive-date=2019-09-21 |access-date=2019-09-28}}</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20120927155111/http://www1.eere.energy.gov/hydrogenandfuelcells/pdfs/cng_h2_workshop_9_chenoy.pdf Overview of Indian Hydrogen Programme]</ref> As a result, the number of hydrogen stations may still be low,<ref>{{Cite web |title=H2 stations worldwide |url=https://www.netinform.net/h2/h2stations/h2stations.aspx |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190921111217/https://www.netinform.net/h2/h2stations/h2stations.aspx |archive-date=2019-09-21 |access-date=2019-09-28}}</ref> although much more are expected to be introduced soon.<ref>{{Cite web |date=23 February 2016 |title=India working on more H2 stations |url=https://www.gasworld.com/india-working-on-hydrogen-fuel-stations/2010006.article |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190921111210/https://www.gasworld.com/india-working-on-hydrogen-fuel-stations/2010006.article |archive-date=2019-09-21 |access-date=2019-09-28}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |title=Shell plans to open 1200 fuel stations in India, some of which may include H2 refilling |newspaper=The Economic Times |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/industry/energy/oil-gas/shell-plans-opening-1200-retail-stations-in-india-in-10-years/articleshow/65660768.cms |url-status=live |access-date=2019-09-28 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190922161455/https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/industry/energy/oil-gas/shell-plans-opening-1200-retail-stations-in-india-in-10-years/articleshow/65660768.cms |archive-date=2019-09-22}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Hydrogen Vehicles and Refueling Infrastructure in India |url=https://www.energy.gov/sites/prod/files/2014/03/f10/cng_h2_workshop_11_das.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170612130231/https://energy.gov/sites/prod/files/2014/03/f10/cng_h2_workshop_11_das.pdf |archive-date=2017-06-12 |access-date=2019-09-28}}</ref>

=== Saudi Arabia ===
Saudi Arabia as a part of the [[Neom|NEOM project]], is looking to produce roughly 1.2 million tonnes of green ammonia a year, beginning production in 2025.<ref>{{Cite web |date=21 April 2021 |title=Saudi Arabia's $5bn green hydrogen-based ammonia plant to begin production in 2025 |url=https://energy-utilities.com/saudi-arabia-s-5bn-green-hydrogenbased-ammonia-news111872.html |access-date=2022-01-13 |website=Energy & Utilities |language=en}}</ref>

=== Turkey ===
The [[Ministry of Energy and Natural Resources (Turkey)|Turkish Ministry of Energy and Natural Resources]] and the [[UNIDO|United Nations Industrial Development Organization]] created the [[International Centre for Hydrogen Energy Technologies]] (UNIDO-ICHET) in [[Istanbul]] in 2004 and it ran to 2012.<ref>{{cite web |date=31 August 2009 |title=Independent Mid-Term Review of the UNIDO Project: Establishment and operation of the International Centre for Hydrogen Energy Technologies (ICHET), TF/INT/03/002 |url=http://www.unido.org/fileadmin/user_media/About_UNIDO/Evaluation/TORs/TOR%20ICHET%20final.PDF |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100601075325/http://www.unido.org/fileadmin/user_media/About_UNIDO/Evaluation/TORs/TOR%20ICHET%20final.PDF |archive-date=1 June 2010 |access-date=2010-07-20 |publisher=[[UNIDO]] |df=dmy-all}}</ref> In 2023 the ministry published a Hydrogen Technologies Strategy and Roadmap.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Announcement – Republic of Türkiye Ministry of Energy and Natural Resources |url=https://enerji.gov.tr/announcements-detail?id=20349 |access-date=2024-02-14 |website=enerji.gov.tr}}</ref>

=== United Kingdom ===
The [[United Kingdom|UK]] started a fuel cell pilot program in January 2004, the program ran two Fuel cell buses on route&nbsp;25 in [[London]] until December 2005, and switched to route RV1 until January 2007.<ref>{{cite web | url= http://www.tfl.gov.uk/corporate/projectsandschemes/environment/2017.aspx#routes | title= Hydrogen buses |publisher= Transport for London | access-date= 2008-05-09 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080323064054/http://www.tfl.gov.uk/corporate/projectsandschemes/environment/2017.aspx#routes |archive-date = March 23, 2008}}</ref> The Hydrogen Expedition is currently working to create a hydrogen fuel cell-powered ship and using it to circumnavigate the globe, as a way to demonstrate the capability of hydrogen fuel cells.<ref>{{cite web | url= http://www.atti-info.org/HydrogenVeh/prospectus.pdf | title= The Hydrogen Expedition | date= January 2005 | access-date= 2008-05-09 | url-status= dead | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20080527234233/http://www.atti-info.org/HydrogenVeh/prospectus.pdf | archive-date= 2008-05-27 }}</ref> In August 2021 the UK Government claimed it was the first to have a Hydrogen Strategy and produced a document.<ref>{{Cite web|date=August 2021|title=UK Hydrogen Strategy|url=https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/1011283/UK-Hydrogen-Strategy_web.pdf|url-status=live|website=UK Government|access-date=2021-08-19|archive-date=2021-08-19|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210819205309/https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/1011283/UK-Hydrogen-Strategy_web.pdf}}</ref>

In August 2021, Chris Jackson quit as chair of the UK Hydrogen and Fuel Cell Association, a leading hydrogen industry association, claiming that UK and Norwegian oil companies had intentionally inflated their cost projections for blue hydrogen in order to maximize future [[transfer payment|technology support payments]] by the UK government.<ref name="ambrose-2021">{{cite news |last1=Ambrose |first1=Jillian |date=20 August 2021 |title=Oil firms made 'false claims' on blue hydrogen costs, says ex-lobby boss |work=The Guardian |location=London, United Kingdom |url=http://www.theguardian.com/environment/2021/aug/20/oil-firms-made-false-claims-on-blue-hydrogen-costs-says-ex-lobby-boss |url-status=live |access-date=2021-08-24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210824075238/https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2021/aug/20/oil-firms-made-false-claims-on-blue-hydrogen-costs-says-ex-lobby-boss |archive-date=2021-08-24 |issn=0261-3077}}</ref>

=== United States ===
Several domestic [[Automotive industry in the United States|U.S. automobile companies]] have developed vehicles using hydrogen, such as GM and Toyota.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Are hydrogen fuel cell vehicles the future of autos? |url=https://abcnews.go.com/Business/hydrogen-fuel-cell-vehicles-future-autos/story?id=74583475 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210117010939/https://abcnews.go.com/Business/hydrogen-fuel-cell-vehicles-future-autos/story?id=74583475 |archive-date=2021-01-17 |access-date=2021-01-18 |website=ABC News |language=en}}</ref> However, as of February 2020, infrastructure for hydrogen was underdeveloped except in some parts of California.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Siddiqui |first=Faiz |title=The plug-in electric car is having its moment. But despite false starts, Toyota is still trying to make the fuel cell happen. |language=en-US |newspaper=Washington Post |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/technology/2020/02/26/hydrogen-fuel-cell-cars/ |url-status=live |access-date=2021-01-18 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210119142059/https://www.washingtonpost.com/technology/2020/02/26/hydrogen-fuel-cell-cars/ |archive-date=2021-01-19 |issn=0190-8286}}</ref> The [[United States]] have their own [[United States Hydrogen Policy|hydrogen policy]].{{citation needed|date=June 2019}} A joint venture between [[NREL]] and [[Xcel Energy]] is combining wind power and hydrogen power in the same way in Colorado.<ref>{{cite web |date=January 8, 2007 |title=Experimental 'wind to hydrogen' system up and running |url=http://www.physorg.com/news87494382.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130126092957/http://phys.org/news87494382.html |archive-date=2013-01-26 |access-date=2008-05-09 |publisher=Physorg.com}}</ref> [[Newfoundland and Labrador Hydro|Hydro]] in [[Newfoundland and Labrador]] are converting the current [[Wind-Diesel Hybrid Power Systems|wind-diesel Power System]] on the remote island of [[Ramea]] into a [[Wind-Hydrogen Hybrid Power Systems]] facility.<ref>{{cite web |date=May 16, 2006 |title=Hydrogen Engine Center Receives Order for Hydrogen Power Generator 250kW Generator for Wind/Hydrogen Demonstration |url=http://www.hydrogenenginecenter.com/userdocs/NRCan_Press_Release_Final_05.16.06.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080527234233/http://www.hydrogenenginecenter.com/userdocs/NRCan_Press_Release_Final_05.16.06.pdf |archive-date=May 27, 2008 |access-date=2008-05-09 |publisher=Hydrogen Engine Center, Inc.}}</ref>

A similar pilot project on [[Stuart Island (Washington)|Stuart Island]] uses [[solar power]], instead of [[wind power]], to generate electricity. When excess electricity is available after the batteries are fully charged, hydrogen is generated by electrolysis and stored for later production of electricity by fuel cell.<ref>{{cite web |title=Stuart Island Energy Initiative |url=http://www.siei.org |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130618081052/http://siei.org/ |archive-date=2013-06-18 |access-date=2008-05-09}}</ref> The US also have a large natural gas pipeline system already in place.<ref name="Hydrogen transport & distribution" />

== Timeline of results for research and development ==
{{Excerpt|Timeline of sustainable energy research 2020–present|Hydrogen energy}}

== See also ==
{{colbegin}}
* [[Alternative fuel]]
* [[Combined cycle hydrogen power plant]]
* [[Energy development]]
* [[Hydrogen damage]]
* [[Hydrogen fuel cell power plant]]
* [[Hydrogen internal combustion engine vehicle]]
* [[Hydrogen prize]]
* [[Hydrogen-powered aircraft]]
* [[Lolland Hydrogen Community]]
* [[Methane pyrolysis]]
{{colend}}
{{Portalbar|Energy|Renewable energy}}

==References==
{{reflist|30em|refs=

<ref name="bmwi-2020">{{cite book
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 | title = The national hydrogen strategy
 | date = June 2020
 | publisher = Federal Ministry for Economic Affairs and Energy (BMWi)
 | location = Berlin, Germany
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 | access-date = 2020-11-27
 | archive-date = 2020-12-13
 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20201213170320/https://www.bmbf.de/files/bmwi_Nationale%20Wasserstoffstrategie_Eng_s01.pdf
 | url-status = live
 }}</ref>

<ref name="van-de-graaf-etal-2020">{{cite journal |last1=Van de Graaf |first1=Thijs |last2=Overland |first2=Indra |last3=Scholten |first3=Daniel |last4=Westphal |first4=Kirsten |title=The new oil? The geopolitics and international governance of hydrogen |journal=Energy Research & Social Science |date=December 2020 |volume=70 |pages=101667 |doi=10.1016/j.erss.2020.101667 |pmid=32835007 |pmc=7326412 }}</ref>

<ref name="sansom-etal-2020">{{cite book
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 | first5 = Ian
 | title = Transitioning to hydrogen: assessing the engineering risks and uncertainties
 | date = 2020
 | publisher = The Institution of Engineering and Technology (IET)
 | location = London, United Kingdom
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 | access-date = 2020-03-22
 | archive-date = 2020-05-08
 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20200508054016/https://www.theiet.org/media/4095/transitioning-to-hydrogen.pdf
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<ref name="bruce-etal-2018">{{cite book
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 | archive-date = 2020-12-08
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}} <!-- reflist -->

===Sources===
*{{cite book |ref = {{harvid|UKCCC H2|2018}}
 |publisher = UK [[Committee on Climate Change]]     
 |title = Hydrogen in a low-carbon economy
 |year = 2018
 |url = https://www.theccc.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2018/11/Hydrogen-in-a-low-carbon-economy.pdf
}}

*{{cite book |ref = {{harvid|IEA H2|2019}}
 | publisher=[[International Energy Agency]]
 | title=The Future of Hydrogen  
 | year=2019 
 | url-access=registration 
 | url=https://www.iea.org/reports/the-future-of-hydrogen
}}

==External links==
{{Commons}}
{{wikiquote}}
* [http://www.iphe.net/ International Partnership for the Hydrogen Economy]
* [https://www.iea.org/reports/hydrogen Hydrogen]. International Energy Agency. 2022
* [http://www.h2euro.org/ European Hydrogen Association]
* [https://model.energy/products/ Online calculator for green hydrogen production and transport costs]

{{emerging technologies|energy=yes}}
{{Alternative propulsion}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Hydrogen Economy}}
[[Category:Fuel technology]]
[[Category:Hydrogen economy]]
[[Category:Hydrogen technologies]]
[[Category:Industrial gases]]
[[Category:Renewable fuels|*]]
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[[Категория:Википедия]]
[[Категория:Статья из Википедии]]
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