Просмотр кода страницы Английская Википедия:Impact of Brexit on the European Union

{{Английская Википедия/Панель перехода}}
{{Politics of the European Union}}
In 2016, the '''impact of [[Brexit]] on the [[European Union]]''' (EU) was expected to result in social and economic changes to the Union, but also longer term political and institutional shifts. The extent of these effects remain somewhat speculative until the precise terms of the [[United Kingdom]]'s post-Brexit relationship with the EU becomes clear. With an end to British participation in the EU's policies on [[freedom of movement]] of goods, persons, services, and capital, and the [[European Union Customs Union]], as well as sharing criminal intelligence and other matters, there is a clear impact with consequences for both institutions.

==Size and wealth==
In 2018, the UK had the fifth highest nominal [[GDP]] in the world and the second largest in the EU.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Eurostat - Tables, Graphs and Maps Interface (TGM) table |url=https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/tgm/refreshTableAction.do;jsessionid=4H3uDEf0tiWM5A07YDfIOpvSpTMKlQTai3mwvriCt7TwL-7TZa3g!-1987023697?tab=table&plugin=1&pcode=tec00001&language=en |website=ec.europa.eu}}</ref>

Brexit resulted in the EU experiencing a net population decrease of 13% between 1 January 2019 and 1 January 2020. Eurostat data suggests that there would otherwise have been a net increase over the same period.<ref>{{Cite press release |title=First population estimates. EU population in 2020: almost 448 million. More deaths than births |date=10 July 2020 |publisher=European Commission |url=https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/documents/2995521/11081093/3-10072020-AP-EN.pdf/d2f799bf-4412-05cc-a357-7b49b93615f1}}</ref>

{|class="wikitable sortable" style="font-size:95%; white-space:nowrap"
|-
! Comparison (2018)
! Population<br />
! Area (km<sup>2</sup>)<br />
! Density<br /> (per km<sup>2</sup>)<br />
! [[GDP]] ([[Eur]])<br />
! [[GDP per capita]] ([[Eur]])<br />
|-
|style="text-align:left" |European Union (with the United Kingdom)
|style="text-align:right" |{{Nts|513}} million
|style="text-align:right" |{{Nts|4475757}}
|style="text-align:right" |{{Nts|117}}
|style="text-align:right" |{{Nts|15.9}} trillion
|style="text-align:right" |{{Nts|31000}} 
|-
|style="text-align:left" |European Union (without the United Kingdom)
|style="text-align:right" |{{Nts|447}} million
|style="text-align:right" |{{Nts|4232147}}
|style="text-align:right" |{{Nts|106}}
|style="text-align:right" |{{Nts|13.5}} trillion
|style="text-align:right" |{{Nts|30000}} 
|}

===Budget===
{{Brexit sidebar}}
The UK's contribution to the [[Budget of the European Union|EU budget]] in 2016, after accounting for its rebate, was €19.4 billion. After removing about €7 billion that the UK receives in EU subsidies, the loss to the EU budget comes to about 5% of the total. Unless the budget is reduced, Germany (already the largest net contributor) seems likely to be asked to provide the largest share of the cash, its share estimated at about €2.5 billion.<ref name="reuters">[https://uk.reuters.com/article/uk-britain-eu-economy-europe/from-trade-to-migration-how-brexit-may-hit-the-eu-economy-idUKKCN0ZA0KI From trade to migration - how Brexit may hit the EU economy], Reuters 24 June 2016</ref>

{{as of|March 2020}}, debate continues between those members who wish the budget to be limited to no more than 1% of members' combined GDP and those who want it to be 1.074%.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Abnett |first=Sabine Siebold, Kate |date=February 21, 2020 |title=Feuding EU fails to plug Brexit hole in new budget |work=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-eu-budget-idUSKBN20F13X |via=www.reuters.com}}</ref>

==Readiness==
In response to Brexit, the European Commission issued a communication on readiness named: "Communication on readiness at the end of the transition period between the European Union and the United Kingdom".<ref>{{Cite web |title=EUR-Lex - 52020DC0324 - EN - EUR-Lex |url=https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX:52020DC0324 |website=eur-lex.europa.eu}}</ref>

==Policy changes==
{{Quote box
|text=The years are over when Europe cannot follow a course because the British will object. Now the British are going, Europe can find a new élan.
|author=[[Christine Lagarde]], Director of the [[International Monetary Fund|IMF]] |source=<ref name="balance" /> |width=300px
}}
The UK was a major player in the EU which served as both an asset to the Union, but also a hindrance to those who supported a direction firmly opposed by the British government.<ref name="balance" />

===Ideological shift===
As the EU's third most populous state, with over 12% of the Union's population, the UK was an influential player in the [[European Parliament]] and the [[Council of the European Union]]. Its absence will impact the ideological balance within the EU institutions.<ref name="UCL">{{Cite web |author1=Oliver Patel |author2=Christine Reh |date=2016 |others=undated, but probably Spring 2016 as it describes itself as "intended to inform debate ahead of the UK referendum on EU membership on 23 June 2016 |title=Brexit: The Consequences for the EU's Political System |url=https://www.ucl.ac.uk/constitution-unit/research/europe/briefing-papers/Briefing-paper-2 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170512024234/http://www.ucl.ac.uk/constitution-unit/research/europe/briefing-papers/Briefing-paper-2 |url-status=dead |archive-date=May 12, 2017 |publisher=[[University College London]] (UCL) Constitution Unit}} </ref>
;Council
In the Council, during the UK's membership there were two blocs, each capable of forming a blocking minority against the other: the [[Protectionism|protectionist]] bloc of mainly southern states and the [[Economic liberalism|liberal]] bloc of mainly northern states. As a member of the latter, the UK's departure will weaken the liberal bloc as the UK has been a sizeable and fervent proponent of an economically liberal Europe, larger trade deals with third countries and of [[Future enlargement of the European Union|further EU enlargement]]. While weakening the liberal bloc, it will also strengthen Germany's individual position in the Council through the loss of a key counterweight. However, Germany remains uneasy about this role lest other member states anxious of German dominance may be more tempted to ally against it.<ref name="UCL" /><ref name="CER" />

;European Parliament
[[File:EP Group Change Brexit.png|thumb|UK seats in EP groups highlighted in red (seat numbers based on EP groups in December 2017]]
In the European Parliament, Brexit led to [[2019 European Parliament election#Changes in group representation|changes in group representation]]: Brexit gave 5 seats to the EPP and 3 seats to the ID, while 29 seats were lost by the NI (including Brexit party) 11 seats lost by the ''Renew Europe'' (LibDem) 7 seats losts by the green, and six seats lost by the alliance of socialists and democrats (S&D).

Similarly, a majority of the UK's representatives sat with [[Right-wing politics|right-leaning]] groups, namely the [[European Conservatives and Reformists]] and the [[Europe of Freedom and Direct Democracy]], both of which were built around, and led by members of, the British [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative Party]] and [[UKIP]]. The [[Progressive Alliance of Socialists and Democrats]] also lost its members from the UK's [[Labour Party (UK)|Labour Party]], but on the whole would be left strengthened by the greater loss to the right, and thus able to form majorities without seeking support from the (conservative) [[European People's Party]].<ref name="UCL" />

===Defence and foreign affairs===
The UK was a key asset for the EU in the fields of foreign affairs and defence given that the UK was (with France) one of the EU's two major military powers, and had significant intelligence capabilities, soft power and a far reaching diplomatic network. Without the UK, EU foreign policy could be less influential.<ref name="UCL" /> The US saw the UK as a bridge between the US and Europe, and the UK helped align the EU positions to the US and provide tougher policy towards Russia.<ref name="CER">[http://www.cer.eu/insights/impact-brexit-eu THE IMPACT OF BREXIT ON THE EU], Centre for European Reform - Charles Grant, 24 June 2016</ref>

However, Brexit also produced new opportunities for the [[Common Security and Defence Policy|European defence cooperation]], as the UK consistently vetoed moves in this direction, arguing it would undermine [[NATO]]. It attempted to do so again{{snd}} even after its withdrawal referendum, in relation to the establishment of a [[Military Planning and Conduct Capability|military HQ]].<ref name="vetoarmy">[https://euobserver.com/institutional/135134 UK to veto EU 'defence union'], EUObserver 17 September 2016</ref> With the UK's withdrawal and a feeling that the US under [[Donald J. Trump]] may not honour NATO commitments, the [[European Council]] has put defence cooperation as a major project in its [post-Brexit vote] Bratislava and Rome declarations and moved forward with setting up a [[European Defence Fund]] and activating [[Permanent Structured Cooperation]] (a defence clause in the [[Lisbon Treaty]]).<ref name="sleeping beauty">[http://www.ecfr.eu/article/commentary_time_for_the_sleeping_beauty_to_wake Time for the Sleeping Beauty to wake], [[European Council on Foreign Relations|ECFR]] 15/NOV/17</ref><ref name="merkel rally">[https://www.theguardian.com/world/2017/may/28/merkel-says-eu-cannot-completely-rely-on-us-and-britain-any-more-g7-talks Angela Merkel: EU cannot completely rely on US and Britain any more], theguardian 28 May 2017</ref>

=== Freedom of movement ===
[[Freedom of movement for workers]] is an integral part of EU policy and is a foundation of European Union ideals. In addition, the [[Schengen agreement]] removes the necessity for passports and visas for travel within the [[Schengen Area]], thus allowing the [[open borders|free movement of people]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Marzocchi |first=Ottavio |date=October 2018 |title=Free movement of persons |url=http://www.europarl.europa.eu/factsheets/en/sheet/147/free-movement-of-persons |access-date=5 December 2018 |website=European Parliament}}</ref> This concept is designed to benefit the various member states' economy and society by allowing for business to thrive in Europe and also for the EU to be more culturally interconnected.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Anonymous |date=2016-12-06 |title=Schengen Area |url=https://ec.europa.eu/home-affairs/what-we-do/policies/borders-and-visas/schengen_en |access-date=2018-12-05 |website=Migration and Home Affairs - European Commission |language=en}}</ref> (Visitors from outside the Area are subject to the usual passport and visa controls at the external border of any Area member state. Not all members of the EU are members of Schengen, and not all members of Schengen are members of the EU).

===Eurozone===
{{Pie chart
| thumb = right
| caption = EU-28 GDP by currency group (2017)<ref name="EDJN" />
| other = 
| label1 = Eurozone
| value1 = 72.9
| color1 = blue
| label2 = Non-Eurozone (Minus UK)
| value2 = 12
| color2 = green
| label3 = United Kingdom
| value3 = 15.1 
| color3 = red
}}

The relationship between euro and non-euro states has been on debate both during the UK's membership (as a large opt-out state) and in light of its withdrawal from the EU. The question is how Brexit might impact the balance of power between those in and out of the euro, namely avoiding a eurozone caucus out-voting non-euro states.

The UK had called for the EU treaties to be amended to declare the EU to be a "multi-currency union", which sparked concerns that to do so might undermine the progress of euro adoption in remaining countries.<ref name="FTalarm">[https://www.ft.com/content/4ada3ce0-9aaa-11e5-be4f-0abd1978acaa UK call for ‘multicurrency’ EU triggers ECB alarm], Financial Times 4 December 2015</ref><ref name="handelsblatt">[https://global.handelsblatt.com/opinion/the-great-british-euro-conundrum-544800 The Great British Euro Conundrum] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180611074445/https://global.handelsblatt.com/opinion/the-great-british-euro-conundrum-544800 |date=2018-06-11 }}, Handelsblatt 20 June 2016</ref><ref name="LSE ins and outs">[http://blogs.lse.ac.uk/europpblog/2016/01/26/what-a-fair-relationship-between-euro-ins-and-euro-outs-could-look-like/ What a fair relationship between ‘euro ins’ and ‘euro outs’ could look like], London School of Economics 26 January 2016</ref><ref name="EDJN">[https://www.europeandatajournalism.eu/eng/News/Data-news/The-Eurozone-seeks-a-post-Brexit-balance The Eurozone seeks a post-Brexit balance], European Data Journalism Network 15 December 2017</ref>

Professor [[Simon Hix]] contended that Brexit would strengthen the Eurozone, which may well replace the single market as the EU's core and driving force.{{citation needed|date=March 2019}} In the pre-referendum negotiation, David Cameron emphasised the importance (in his view) of keeping the Eurozone clearly distinct from the EU. Following a British withdrawal, such pressure may well dissipate.<ref name="UCL" />

===Speaking English in the European Parliament===

As a result of Brexit, there are now fewer native English speakers in the European Parliament and in workings groups. [[David McAllister]], a German politician, stated that his former British colleagues are missed for their pragmatism, humour, and rhetoric. McAllister said that English is still the most common language spoken by members of the European Parliament despite it having [[Official languages of the European Union|24 official languages]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=We miss British humour in European Parliament, says German MEP |url=https://www.shropshirestar.com/news/uk-news/2021/01/17/we-miss-british-humour-in-european-parliament-says-german-mep/ |website=www.shropshirestar.com}}</ref>

==Economic impacts==
===Trade with the UK===

After Brexit, the EU becomes UK's biggest trading partner, and the UK becomes EU's [[List of the largest trading partners of the European Union|third biggest trading partner]] after the United States and China.

Some member states, notably Belgium, Cyprus, Ireland, Germany and the Netherlands, are more exposed to a Brexit-induced [[shock (economics)|economic shock]]. The [[economy of the Republic of Ireland]] is particularly sensitive due to its [[Irish border|common land border with the United Kingdom]] and its close [[agribusiness]] integration with Northern Ireland.<ref>[https://www.telegraph.co.uk/business/2017/03/04/ireland-forgotten-frontier-brexit/ Ireland: The forgotten frontier of Brexit] Peter Foster, Europe Editor, The Daily Telegraph, 4 March 2017</ref>

The reintroduction of a customs border would have been economically and politically damaging to both sides,<ref name="chen">[https://medium.com/@rchen8/the-economic-impact-of-brexit-on-uk-and-eu-trade-464dd090f92e The Economic Impact of Brexit on UK and EU Trade], Richard Chen 14 June 2017</ref><ref name="globalcounsel">[https://www.global-counsel.co.uk/sites/default/files/special-reports/downloads/Global_Counsel_Impact_of_Brexit.pdf Brexit: the impact on the UK and the EU], Global Counsel 23 June 2015</ref> particularly because of the risk to the [[Northern Ireland peace process]] that a physical border presents.<ref>[https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-northern-ireland-41150206  Brexit 'puts NI peace process at risk' - Hain]  Mark Devenport [[BBC News]] NI Political Editor, 5 September 2017</ref> Despite protestations of good will on both sides, it was not obvious how border controls could have  been avoided unless the [[UK has a Customs Union with the EU]].<ref>[https://www.channel4.com/news/factcheck/factcheck-what-are-the-options-for-the-irish-border-after-brexit What are the options for the Irish border after Brexit?], Georgina Lee, [[Channel 4]], 29 Nov 2017</ref><ref>[https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/av/uk-wales-politics-42230485/brexit-customs-union-would-solve-irish-border-carwyn-jones-says Brexit: Customs union would solve Irish border, Carwyn Jones says] First Minister of Wales, [[Carwyn Jones]], speaking to BBC Wales, 04 Dec 2017</ref> Arising from the agreements made at the Phase 1 negotiations (after the [[Democratic Unionist Party|DUP]] intervention), any arrangements to be made to facilitate cross-border trade in Ireland will apply equally to cross-Channel trade but the details remain unclear.<ref>[https://www.irishtimes.com/news/ireland/irish-news/brexit-deal-allows-for-three-different-types-of-irish-border-1.3320497 Brexit deal allows for three different types of Irish Border] Katy Hayward, The [[Irish Times]], 8 Dec 2017</ref> In October 2019, [[Brexit withdrawal agreement#Revisions in 2019|the UK and EU renegotiated]] the [[Northern Ireland Protocol]] of the draft [[Brexit Withdrawal Agreement]] so as to keep open the border in Ireland and to have a customs border between the [[Ireland|island of Ireland]] and the [[Great Britain|island of Great Britain]] (leaving Northern Ireland 'de facto' in the EU Customs Union in some respects).

The sectors across the EU that would be most hit by the UK's withdrawal are motor vehicles and parts (the UK is a large manufacturer and depends on an EU chain of supply for parts), electronics equipment and processed foods. Export of raw materials from the [[Ruhr valley]] would also be impacted.<ref name="chen" />

===Internal trade===
Ferry companies [[DFDS]] and [[CLdN]] have announced plans for new or additional direct services from [[Ireland]] to the mainland, avoiding anticipated delays and disruption on the traditional route via Great Britain.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Michelle McGlynn |date=27 November 2020 |title=Cork and Rosslare announce additional ferries to Europe ahead of Brexit. Long delays are expected in England once the Brexit transition period is over at the end of the year |work=[[Irish Examiner]] |location=Cork |url=https://www.irishexaminer.com/business/arid-40091360.html}}</ref>

===Fisheries===
In May 2021, France threatened to cut off electricity to the British [[Channel Islands|Channel Island]] of [[Jersey]] in a fight over post-Brexit fishing rights.<ref>{{Cite news |date=6 May 2021 |title=UK Royal Navy ships patrolling Jersey amid fishing row with France |publisher=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-57003069}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=6 May 2021 |title=French fishing fleet descends on Jersey as Royal Navy ships arrive on patrol |work=Sky News |url=https://news.sky.com/story/uk-to-send-two-royal-navy-boats-to-jersey-after-france-threatens-blockade-of-island-port-12297840}}</ref>

===People===
====EU migration or Freedom of movement====
The impact of this would be felt most on eastern European member states who have approximately 1.2 million workers in the UK by the end of 2015; the largest groups from Poland (853,000), Romania (175,000) and Lithuania (155,000).<ref name="reuters" /> A year after the Brexit vote, net annual immigration to the UK fell by 106,000 with most attributed to EU citizens leaving for other states, with the biggest drop among those from the western European states.<ref>[https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/home-news/uk-immigration-latest-brexit-eu-citizens-leave-vote-right-stay-talks-brussels-home-office-a8084086.html UK immigration latest: Net migration falls by more than 106,000 after Brexit vote as EU citizens flee], BBC 30 November 2017</ref>

The Polish government is encouraging its young emigrant workforce to return to Poland, but due to regulatory or political reasons many would either stay in the UK or move to other western cities such as Amsterdam or Berlin.<ref>[https://www.politico.eu/article/poland-hopes-brexit-will-lead-its-native-stars-home/ Poland hopes Brexit guides star natives home], Politico 2 January 2017</ref> Other western European member states may see much of the flow coming from eastern states in future. The influx of workers from the east would be economically beneficial to countries such as Germany, but may be politically problematic.<ref name="reuters" />

In a similar manner, in October 2019 the Romanian government was encouraging Romanian workers to go home. According to an interview done with the minister of labour at that time, he was saying "we want all Romanians to come home if possible" and that "the government in Bucharest has launched an advertising campaign to encourage workers home. It is putting in place a range of incentives made up of grants and loans". Apparently at that time, 4,452 Romanians worked for the NHS while Eastern European workers accounted for 67% of seasonal workers in British agriculture.<ref>{{Cite news |date= 11 October 2019 |title=Romanian workers go home - says Romania |url=https://www.itv.com/news/2019-10-11/romanian-workers-go-home-says-romania/ |work=ITV News}}</ref>

British residents in the European Union have lost their European Citizen rights but otherwise are to be unaffected  because of the terms of the Withdrawal Agreement. However, according to evidence presented by lobby group "British in Europe" (representing British citizens resident in EU countries) to the Brexit Select Committee of the House of Commons in June 2020, "as many as 23 EU member states [had] yet to implement systems to document the future rights of the estimated 1.2 million British citizens already living on the continent, who are in the dark over their future rights and obligations".<ref name="Graun200630">{{Cite news |last=Lisa O'Carroll |date=30 June 2020 |title=Rights of UK citizens in EU at risk as member states' legislation not yet in place. Experts express concern over the loss of Britons' free movement rights after Brexit |work=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2020/jun/30/uk-citizens-rights-eu-at-risk-brexit |access-date=30 June 2020}}</ref> "The UK launched its [registration] system for EU citizens last March [2020], with more than 3.3 million people granted pre-settled or settled status to remain in the country after Brexit", the Committee was told.<ref name=Graun200630 />

As notable impact, in May 2021 EU nationals (mostly young women) and from various countries such as Spain, Italy, France, Bulgaria and Greece were detained, sent to immigration detention centers and expelled as considered in breach of the post-Brexit travel terms .<ref>{{Cite web |date=May 13, 2021 |title=EU citizens arriving in UK being locked up and expelled |url=http://www.theguardian.com/politics/2021/may/13/eu-citizens-arriving-in-uk-being-locked-up-and-expelled |website=the Guardian}}</ref>

====Political asylum ====
At the end of the transition period, the EU's [[Dublin regulation]]{{snd}} which specifies that [[political asylum]] should be claimed at the first point of entry to the Union{{snd}} will cease to apply to the UK and with it any obligation on EU member states to accept return from the UK any asylum seekers that have transited that state en route to the UK.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Jenifer Rankin |date=20 August 2020 |title=EU rejects British plan for post-Brexit return of asylum seekers: UK set to lose right to transfer refugees to other EU countries under Dublin regulation |url=https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2020/aug/20/eu-rejects-british-plan-for-post-brexit-return-of-asylum-seekers |access-date=20 August 2020 |website=The Guardian}}</ref>

====Home Office hostile environment policy====

Originally the 'Hostile Environment Policy' was created in 2012 by Theresa May, the Conservative Home Secretary at that time with the purpose to create in Britain 'a really hostile environment for illegal immigrants'.<ref>{{Cite web |date=November 28, 2017 |title='Hostile environment': the hardline Home Office policy tearing families apart |url=http://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2017/nov/28/hostile-environment-the-hardline-home-office-policy-tearing-families-apart |website=The Guardian}}</ref> In practical terms, this policy "effectively outsources immigration control to civil society. Landlords, doctors, employers and others have come under a strict legal obligation to check people's documentation". In Brexit context 'up to 90,000 people may be left outside the system' and 'face the impact of the hostile environment': losing the right to work, access to medical care or stay in their home, or potentially put in a detention centre and removed from the country. <ref>{{Cite news |date= February 18, 2021 |title=The trapdoor opening up for EU citizens |url=http://www.theneweuropean.co.uk/brexit-news/hostile-environment-and-eu-citizens-7327020/ |work=The New European}}</ref>

===Company===

With the end of the transition period planned on 1 January 2021, companies operating business with British nations will need to change their trade mark, border and copyright policies to comply with new British procedures and their associated costs.<ref>{{Cite web |date=September 22, 2020 |title=Le Brexit va devenir une réalité le 1er janvier 2021. Par Evelyne Roux, Conseil en PI. |url=https://www.village-justice.com/articles/brexit-devenir-une-realite-1er-janvier-2021,36577.html |website=Village de la Justice}}</ref>

=== Duty and VAT===

The Brexit/trade agreement led to a change in duty and in VAT. For instance, EU buyers of British-made items now pay their national VAT rather than the (previously applicable) British one. Products sold by British vendors but made (for example) in China may be subject to additional import duties. These tax and duty charges are collected by the forwarding agent at the point of delivery.<ref>{{Cite web |date=January 7, 2021 |title=Customers in Europe hit by post-Brexit charges when buying from UK |url=http://www.theguardian.com/politics/2021/jan/07/customers-europe-hit-by-post-brexit-charges-buying-from-uk |website=the Guardian}}</ref>

==Institutional changes==
[[File:2020 European Medicines Agency.jpg|150px|thumb|European Medicines Agency offices in Amsterdam (April 2020)]]

===Agencies located in the UK===
Until 2017, the UK had been hosting the [[European Medicines Agency]] and the [[European Banking Authority]] for many years. As an EU agency could not be located outside the Union, the Council began a process to identify new host cities for the agencies. Hosting an agency is seen as a valuable prize for a city, so the process was hotly contested by nearly two dozen cities not just on the objective criteria, but on political grounds. By November 2017, it was agreed that they would relocate to [[Amsterdam]] and [[Paris]].<ref name="agencyroad">{{Cite news |date=28 December 2017 |title=EU agencies: The road to 'douze points' |work=EUObserver |url=https://euobserver.com/europe-in-review/139716}}</ref>

The backup data centre for the security behind the [[Galileo (satellite navigation)|Galileo satellite navigation system]] was also relocated from the UK to Spain due to Brexit.<ref>[https://www.politico.eu/article/uk-loses-space-data-center-to-spain-amid-post-brexit-security-concerns/ UK loses space data center to Spain amid post-Brexit security concerns], Politico 18 January 2018</ref>

===European Parliament seats===
{{See also|Apportionment in the European Parliament}}
The UK was allotted 73 seats in the 751 seat European Parliament, which became vacant upon its withdrawal in 2020. 27 of these seats were redistributed to other countries, with the remaining 46 reserved for potential new member states, reducing the number of MEPs to 705.<ref>{{Cite web |date=31 January 2020 |title=Redistribution of seats in the European Parliament after Brexit |url=https://www.europarl.europa.eu/news/en/press-room/20200130IPR71407/redistribution-of-seats-in-the-european-parliament-after-brexit |access-date=1 February 2020 |publisher=European Parliament}}</ref>

Under normal procedures, the UK's seats would have been redistributed between the remaining members according to the standard formula, but there were a number of alternative proposals. The European Parliament originally proposed that 22 seats would be redistributed and the remaining 50 would be reserved either for new members, or an additional transnational list of MEPs which would be elected across the Union in an effort to deepen a direct democratic link. This was a long-standing proposal, notably supported by the [[European Green Party]] and [[French President]] [[Emmanuel Macron]]. However, due to the legal uncertainty around Brexit, any bold moves were opposed by constitutional affairs committee chair [[Danuta Huebner]].<ref name="transnat ep">[http://www.europarl.europa.eu/news/en/press-room/20170911IPR83572/meps-want-to-reduce-the-size-of-the-european-parliament  MEPs want to reduce the size of the European Parliament], European Parliament 12 September 2017</ref><ref name="transnat euo">[https://euobserver.com/institutional/138970 EU parliament wary of pan-European lists], EU Observer 12 September 2017</ref> Computations were proposed in a paper titled "The Composition of the European Parliament" on 30 January 2017.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Composition of the European Parliament |url=http://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/IDAN/2017/583117/IPOL_IDA%282017%29583117_EN.pdf}}</ref> The constitutional affairs committee eventually decided on 23 January 2018 that 27 of the UK's seats would be redistributed and 46 reserved for new member states and transnational lists.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Teffer |first=Peter |date=23 January 2018 |title=MEPs to keep 27 UK seats after Brexit |url=https://euobserver.com/institutional/140654 |access-date=1 February 2020}}</ref> On 7 February 2018, MEPs approved the redistribution of 27 seats, but voted against the introduction of transnational lists.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Barbière |first=Cécile |date=7 February 2018 |title=European Parliament votes against transnational lists |work=Euractiv |url=https://www.euractiv.com/section/elections/news/ep-votes-against-transnational-lists/1211433/ |access-date=1 February 2020 |translator-last=Kirk |translator-first=Freya}}</ref> On 31 January 2020, all British MEPs vacated their seats; reallocation began on 1 February 2020.

===European Commissioners===
Since [[Von der Leyen Commission]] the number of Commissioners has reduced to 27 from 28.

==Costs and benefits==
===Five billion euro adjustment fund===

[[Charles Michel]] proposed a five billion euro fund which could be used to reduce the shock of the British divorce when the British transition period ends. This reserve is a part of the €1,074 billion European Union budget.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Economie. L'UE propose un fonds de 5 milliards d'euros pour absorber le choc du Brexit |url=https://www.lejsl.com/economie/2020/07/10/l-ue-propose-un-fonds-de-5-milliards-d-euros-pour-absorber-le-choc-du-brexit |website=www.lejsl.com |language=fr}}</ref>

Ireland and the Netherlands are the countries which will have greatest benefit from the shock absorber.<ref>{{Cite news |date=13 January 2021 |title=Irlande et Pays-Bas, principaux bénéficiaires du fonds d'ajustement post-Brexit |language=fr |agency=Agence France-Presse |url=https://www.mediapart.fr/journal/fil-dactualites/130121/irlande-et-pays-bas-principaux-beneficiaires-du-fonds-d-ajustement-post-brexit?onglet=full}}</ref> According to the [[Scottish National Party]] leader in the [[House of Commons (UK)|House of Commons]], Ireland "has received" [the equivalent of] one billion [[pound sterling|pounds]] from the reserve.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Daniel O'Donoghue |date=13 January 2021 |title=Brexit: Fisheries minister did not read deal as she was 'very busy organising local Nativity trail' |work=Evening Express |location=Aberdeen |url=https://www.eveningexpress.co.uk/fp/news/scotland/brexit-fisheries-minister-did-not-read-deal-as-she-was-very-busy-organising-local-nativity-trail/}}</ref> Other sources put the figure at €991.2 million.<ref name="Euractiv dotees" />

For the Netherlands, the allocation is 713,7 million euros.<ref name="Euractiv dotees">{{Cite news |last=Valentina Iorio |date=14 January 2021 |title=Réserve d'ajustement au Brexit : l'Allemagne et la France parmi les mieux dotées |url=https://www.euractiv.fr/section/royaume-uni-en-europe/news/reserve-dajustement-au-brexit-lallemagne-et-la-france-parmi-les-mieux-dotees/ |translator=Sandra Moro}}</ref>

For Germany, the allocation is €429.1 million.<ref name="Euractiv dotees" />

For France it is €396.5 million.<ref name="Euractiv dotees" /> Other sources suggest that France may receive more than €420 million.<ref>{{Cite news |date=13 January 2021 |title=La France devrait recevoir plus de 420 millions pour amortir le Brexit |work=La Tribune |url=https://www.latribune.fr/economie/international/la-france-devrait-recevoir-plus-de-420-millions-pour-amortir-le-brexit-871857.html}}</ref>

Belgium should receive up to €325 million euros from the EU budget for the impact of Brexit. This includes €200 million from the first tranche for [[Flanders]].<ref>{{Cite news |date=13 January 2021 |title=200 millions de la première tranche de la réserve Brexit iront à la Flandre |agency=Belga |url=https://www.rtl.be/info/belgique/politique/200-millions-de-la-premiere-tranche-de-la-reserve-brexit-iront-a-la-flandre-1271745.aspx}}</ref>

===Brexit Adjustment Reserve===
On 12 January 2021, the European Commission published a detailed breakdown by Member State
of the pre-financing allocation under the Brexit Adjustment Reserve in 2021.

==Public opinion==
In the wake of the UK's vote to withdraw, opinion polls showed that support for the EU surged across Europe. Surveying shows that the EU has the highest support in 35 years.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-05-23 |title=Eurobarometer survey: highest support for the EU in 35 years {{!}} News {{!}} European Parliament |url=http://www.europarl.europa.eu/news/en/headlines/eu-affairs/20180522STO04020/eurobarometer-survey-highest-support-for-the-eu-in-35-years |access-date=2018-12-05 |website=www.europarl.europa.eu |language=en}}</ref> The UK has also seen a resurgence of EU based support with polls showing that in September 2018 more British residents thought Brexit would be wrong, by 46% to 43%.<ref>{{Cite web |title=In hindsight, do you think Britain was right or wrong to vote to leave the European Union? |publisher=YouGov |url=https://d25d2506sfb94s.cloudfront.net/cumulus_uploads/document/2req6g7z50/Internal_180905_Brexit_W.pdf |date=September 2018}}</ref><ref name="Guardiansupport">[https://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/nov/21/support-for-the-eu-on-the-rise-since-brexit-vote-even-in-the-uk Support for the EU on the rise since Brexit vote … even in the UK], The Guardian 21 November 2016</ref><ref name="FTsupportincrease">[https://www.ft.com/content/78b4ded6-51ce-11e7-bfb8-997009366969 European support for EU surges in wake of Brexit vote], Financial Times 15 June 2017</ref><ref name="balance">[https://www.thebalance.com/brexit-consequences-4062999 Brexit Consequences: For UK, EU, and U.S.], The Balance 29 November 2017</ref> By November 2020, 47% of respondent to a [[YouGov]]/Eurotrack poll would vote to rejoin compared with 38% committed to leaving.<ref name=yougov0221 /> By February 2021 the YouGov/Eurotrack poll showed that the ratio had reversed: 39% of the UK electorate would wish to rejoin the EU as against 41% who would vote against that option.<ref name=yougov0221>{{cite web  |title= YouGov / Eurotrack Survey Results |date= February 2021 |publisher=YouGov/Eurotrack |url=https://docs.cdn.yougov.com/zdhqxsts2n/Eurotrack_Feb21_Topline.pdf }}</ref> The same poll showed pro-remain majorities in Germany (55%/22%), France (51%/26%), Denmark (62%/23%) and Sweden (56%/25%).<ref name=yougov0221 />

In campaign of [[Marine Le Pen]] in the [[2017 French presidential election]], her party [[National Rally]] held a eurosceptic position but at the same time, Le Pen stopped promoting [[Frexit]].{{citation needed|date=January 2021}} In the [[2018 Italian general election]], the populist [[Five Star Movement]] and the [[right wing]] [[Lega Nord]], both Eurosceptic, received 32% and 17% respectively.{{citation needed|date=January 2021}}

==Languages==
{{see also|Languages of the European Union|English language in Europe}}
[[Danuta Hübner]], the head of the [[European Parliament Committee on Constitutional Affairs]], has argued that after Brexit, English would no longer be an official EU language: "We have a regulation … where every EU country has the right to notify one official language. The Irish have notified Gaelic, and the Maltese have notified Maltese, so you have only the U.K. notifying English ... If we don’t have the U.K., we don't have English."<ref name="Hübner">[https://www.politico.eu/article/english-will-not-be-an-official-eu-language-after-brexit-senior-mep/ English will not be an official EU language after Brexit, says senior MEP], Politico Europe 27 June 2016</ref>

However, this statement has been contradicted by the European Commission Representation in Ireland, whose spokesperson argued that changing the current language regime would require a unanimous vote by the Council,<ref>[https://www.independent.ie/irish-news/english-language-will-not-be-banned-from-eu-after-brexit-despite-claims-34840768.html English language will NOT be banned from EU after Brexit, despite claims], independent.ie 28 June 2016</ref> as well as by [[President of the European Commission|President]] [[Jean-Claude Juncker]] in an answer to a Parliamentary Question on 9 August 2017.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Language in the EU |url=https://www.europarl.europa.eu/doceo/document/E-8-2017-003658_EN.html |website=www.europarl.europa.eu}}</ref> However, Juncker has also stated that despite this, in the wake of Brexit, English is losing its importance in Europe<ref>[https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2017/may/05/brexit-english-is-losing-its-importance-in-europe-says-juncker Brexit: English is losing its importance in Europe, says Juncker], The Guardian 5 May 2017</ref> and members of the German [[Bundestag]] have called on staff in EU institutions to use German more often.<ref>[http://www.euractiv.com/section/uk-europe/news/bundestag-mps-want-eu-staff-to-use-german-more-after-brexit/ Bundestag MPs want EU staff to use German more after Brexit], Euractiv 10 August 2017</ref>

When the United Kingdom and Ireland joined the EU's predecessor in 1973, [[French language|French]] was the dominant language of the institutions. With the addition of Sweden and Finland in the 1990s, and the Eastern European states in the 2000s, English slowly supplanted French as the dominant working language of the institutions. In 2015, it was estimated that 80% of legislative proposals were drafted first in English. The role of English as a [[lingua franca]] is believed to be likely to continue, given how heavily staff rely on it,<ref>[https://www.irishtimes.com/opinion/english-will-remain-the-working-language-of-the-eu-after-brexit-1.2725840 English will remain the working language of the EU after Brexit], The Irish Times 18 July 2016</ref><ref name="Hübner" /> and that in European schools, 97% of children learn English as an additional language, compared with 34% learning French and 23% learning German.<ref>[https://www.economist.com/news/europe/21721861-despite-jean-claude-junckers-joke-anglophones-should-rest-easy-britain-leaving-eu-its Britain is leaving the EU, but its language will stay], The Economist 13 May 2017</ref>

Dr Marko Modiano has suggested, in an academic paper, that [[Euro English]] could be codified in a similar way to native English varieties following Brexit.<ref name="Marko">[http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/weng.12264/full English in a post-Brexit European Union] by Marko Modiano, World Englishes 19 September 2017</ref><ref>[https://www.independent.co.uk/news/science/brexit-latest-news-language-euro-english-uk-leave-eu-european-union-a7957001.html Brexit could create a new ‘language’ – Euro-English], The Independent 20 September 2017</ref>

Language rules are currently covered, amongst others, by: Article 55 of the [[Treaty on European Union]] (TEU) (which lists the 24 "Treaty languages" in which the Treaty is drawn up);<ref>[http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=celex%3A12012M%2FTXT Consolidated version of the Treaty on European Union], Eurlex</ref> Articles 20 and 24 of the [[Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union]] (TFEU), which lay down the rights of citizens to petition the European Parliament and to address the institutions in any of the Treaty languages and to obtain a reply in the same language, and Article 342 TFEU, which states that "the rules governing the languages of the institutions of the Union shall, without prejudice to the provisions contained in the Statute of the Court of Justice of the European Union, be determined by the Council, acting unanimously by means of regulations";<ref>[http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=celex%3A12012E%2FTXT Consolidated version of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union], Eurlex</ref> and Council Regulation No 1/1958,<ref>[http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX:01958R0001-20130701&qid=1408533709461&from=EN Regulation No 1 determining the languages to be used by the European Economic Community], Official Journal of the European Union</ref> which lists the current 24 official languages.

== References ==
<references />

{{European Union secession}}
{{Members of the European Union (EU)}}
{{United Kingdom European Union membership referendum, 2016|state=expanded}}

[[Category:Consequences of Brexit]]
[[Category:Withdrawal from the European Union]]
[[Category:Geography of the European Union]]
[[Category:Politics of the European Union]]
[[Category:Political controversies in the United Kingdom]]

[[es:Refundación de la Unión Europea#Historia]]
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