EducationBot: Новая страница: «{{Английская Википедия/Панель перехода}} {{Short description|Species of fungus}} {{Taxobox | image = 20100828 005957 Fungus.jpg | image_caption = | regnum = Fungi | divisio = Ascomycota | subdivisio = Pezizomycotina | classis = Leotiomycetes | ordo = Helotiales | familia = Orbiliaceae | genus = ''Arthrobotrys'' | species = '''''A. oligospora''''' | binomial = ''Arthrobotrys oligospora'' | binomial...»

2024-02-02T21:12:25Z

Новая страница: «{{Английская Википедия/Панель перехода}} {{Short description|Species of fungus}} {{Taxobox | image = 20100828 005957 Fungus.jpg | image_caption = | regnum = Fungi | divisio = Ascomycota | subdivisio = Pezizomycotina | classis = Leotiomycetes | ordo = Helotiales | familia = Orbiliaceae | genus = ''Arthrobotrys'' | species = '''''A. oligospora''''' | binomial = ''Arthrobotrys oligospora'' | binomial...»

Новая страница

{{Английская Википедия/Панель перехода}}
{{Short description|Species of fungus}}
{{Taxobox
| image = 20100828 005957 Fungus.jpg
| image_caption =
| regnum = [[Fungi]]
| divisio = [[Ascomycota]]
| subdivisio = [[Pezizomycotina]]
| classis = [[Leotiomycetes]]
| ordo = [[Helotiales]]
| familia = [[Orbiliaceae]]
| genus = ''[[Arthrobotrys]]''
| species = '''''A. oligospora'''''
| binomial = ''Arthrobotrys oligospora''
| binomial_authority = [[Georg Fresenius|Fresen.]] (1850)
| synonyms = *''Orbilia auricolor'' ([[Andrew Bloxam|A. Bloxam]]) [[Pier Andrea Saccardo|Sacc.]] (1889) 
*''Arthrobotrys superba'' var. ''oligospora'' (Fresen.) [[Henri Eugène Lucien Gaëtan Coemans|Coemans]] (1863) 
*''Didymozoophaga oligospora'' (Fresen.) Soprunov & Galiulina (1951) 
}}

'''''Arthrobotrys oligospora''''' was discovered in Europe in 1850 by [[Georg Fresenius]].<ref name=Fresenius1850 /><ref name =Niu2011 /> ''A. oligospora'' is the [[model organism]] for interactions between fungi and [[nematode]]s.<ref name =Niu2011 /> It is the most common nematode-capturing fungus,<ref name="Duddington1972" /><ref name="Dreschler1937" /><ref name="Zhang2014" /> and most widespread nematode-trapping fungus in nature.<ref name =Niu2011 /><ref name=Domsch1980 /> It was the first species of fungi documented to actively capture nematodes.<ref name =Niu2011 /><ref name=Domsch1980 />

==Growth and morphology==
This fungus reproduces by means of 2-celled, pear-shaped [[Conidium|conidia]], in which the cells are of unequal size with the smaller cell nearer to the attachment point on the conidiophore.<ref name="Dreschler1937" /><ref name=Duddington1955 /> During germination, the germ tube typically erupts from the smaller cell.<ref name=Duddington1955 /> In environments rich with nematodes, the spores range from 22-32 by 12-20 µm,<ref name="Dreschler1937" /><ref name=Duddington1955 /> though the spores are smaller in environments devoid of nematodes.<ref name="Dreschler1937" /><ref name=Duddington1955 /> Conidium germination has a success rate of 100% but the formation of trapping organs are not always observed.<ref name=Domsch1980 /> Conidia have been found to disintegrate both in the air and on impact with an agar plate.<ref name=Barron1977 /> Conidiophores and conidia grow from hyphae sprouted outside of a trapped dead nematode,<ref name =Niu2011 /> and conidiophores have been found to change and grow into part of the adhesive net.<ref name =Niu2011 /> Under ideal conditions, a colony can reach 65 mm in diameter after 7 days incubation,<ref name=Domsch1980 /> with colourless, pale pink or yellow mycelium.<ref name=Domsch1980 />
The optimal growth temperature for the fungus in nematode-free and nematode-infested environments is {{cvt|20|C|F}} and {{cvt|25|C|F|}}, respectively.<ref name=Domsch1980 /> The growth rate of colonies is greater in the presence of light than in darkness.<ref name=Domsch1980 />

==Physiology==
''A. oligospora'' is considered a [[saprobe]] and is more saprotrophic than other nematode capturing fungi.<ref name =Niu2011 /><ref name=Domsch1980 /> At first the fungus was considered largely [[Saprotrophic nutrition|saprophytic]] in nature but this interpretation was later questioned.<ref name="Dreschler1937" /> Saprophytic growth uses [[Xylose|D-xylose]], [[Mannose|D-mannose]], and [[cellobiose]].<ref name=Domsch1980 /> The fungus uses [[nitrite]], [[nitrate]], and [[ammonium]] for its [[nitrogen]] sources and uses [[pectin]], [[cellulose]], and [[chitin]] for its [[carbon]] sources.<ref name=Domsch1980 /> When predating on nematodes, the fungus uses [[cellobiose]], [[Asparagine|L-asparagine]], [[Arginine|L-arginine]], [[Glutamic acid|DL glutamic acid]] for its carbon and nitrogen sources.<ref name=Domsch1980 />

===Nematode capturing===
Predation of nematodes occurs in low nitrogen environments,<ref name=Alexopoulos1996 /> as the nematode becomes the main nitrogen source for the fungi.<ref name =Niu2011 /> It has been found that the presence of ammonium causes a higher decrease of predation when compared to presence of nitrate or nitrite.<ref name="Duddington1972"/> Adding green manure or carbohydrates has been found to increase nematode trapping behaviors.<ref name=Domsch1980 /> A complex 3-dimensional net of [[hypha]]e is formed to trap the nematodes under conditions of [[pH]] 4.9-8.1 and a temperature less than {{cvt|37|C|F}}.<ref name="Zhang2014" /><ref name=Domsch1980 /><ref name=Barron1977 /><ref name=Alexopoulos1996 /> Nematodes, and specifically "nemin" (an extract derived from nematodes) were found to stimulate net formation.<ref name =Niu2011 /><ref name=Domsch1980 /> Nematodes are not as attracted to ''A. oligospora'' colonies that have not manifested traps, suggesting that these structures serve an additional attractant role possibly through the expression of [[pheromone]]s.<ref name=Alexopoulos1996 /><ref name="Nordbring-Hertz1977" />

A full net is not needed to catch nematodes as smaller nematodes can be caught with a single loop.<ref name =Niu2011 /> [[Lectin]]s are used in attaching nematode to fungi<ref name=Alexopoulos1996 /> The entire surface of net is covered in adhesive material.<ref name =Niu2011 /><ref name=Barron1977 /> Strong adhesion keeps the nematode trapped and when the nematode struggles, it often results in multiple points of adhesion of the nematode to the net.<ref name=Barron1977 /><ref name="Nordbring-Hertz1977" /> It was even found that the adhesion of the nematode to the fungus remained under washing of agar plate with water.<ref name=Barron1977 /> The net is flexible which results in 'hyphal drag' tiring the nematode.<ref name=Barron1977 /> Multiple points of adhesion and 'hyphal drag' allow the net to be capable of catching both large and small nematodes easily.<ref name=Barron1977 /> ''In vitro'', bait nematodes are consumed often leaving ''Bunonema'' nematodes.<ref name=Barron1977 />

A substance found in paralyzed nematodes was found to be capable of paralyzing healthy nematodes,<ref name=Domsch1980 /><ref name=Barron1977 /> and it was later determined that a paralyzing substance, Subtilisin (A serine protease),<ref name= Nordbring-Hertz2004 /> is excreted into nematodes.<ref name =Niu2011 /><ref name=Barron1977 /> An unstable toxin was thought to be made by the fungus,<ref name=Domsch1980 /><ref name=Barron1977 /> and it was later found that toxic levels of linoleic acid for nematodes (lethal dose of linoleic acid for [[Caenorhabditis elegans|''C. elegans'']] is 5–10 μg/ml)<ref name="Degenkolb2016" /> were found in the fungus.<ref name="Zhang2014" /><ref name="Degenkolb2016" /> Enzymatic hyphal invasion, likely using collagenases which are found in 'Arthrobotrys',<ref name =Niu2011 /> of a trapped nematode is followed by the digestion of contents of the nematode.<ref name=Barron1977 /><ref name=Alexopoulos1996 /> Shortly after hyphal invasion, a hyphal bulb appears where hyphae grow outwards from the bulb along the entire body of the nematode.<ref name=Barron1977 />

Not all nematodes are caught by the net as the nematode needs to be in contact with the net for a short period of time in order for adhesion to occur.<ref name=Barron1977 /> Nematodes were found to quickly move away from any net followed by curling if instantaneous contact occurs.<ref name=Barron1977 /><ref name=Dreschler1934 /> The nematode then proceeds to move forward until out of the area of the net and unless prolonged contact is made the nematode is safe.<ref name=Barron1977 /> This means one or several instantaneous contacts are not enough for adhesion between the nematode and net to occur.<ref name=Barron1977 />

No competing fungi or bacteria are found in nematodes which are being consumed by the fungus which means it is possible an antibiotic is released inside the nematode.<ref name=Barron1977 /> In 1993, secondary metabolites (oligosporon, oligosporol A, and oligosporal B) which can act as antibiotics were found in the fungus.<ref name =Niu2011 /><ref name="Degenkolb2016" /> Oligosporon, oligosporol A, oligosporal B have hemolytic effects and are cytotoxic to nematodes, however they are not toxic to the ''C. elegans''.<ref name="Degenkolb2016" /> Other oligosporon-type secondary metabolites also found in ''A. oligospora'' include (4S,5R,6R)-4′,5′- dihydrooligosporon, (4S,5R,6R)-hydroxyoligosporon, and (4S,5R,6R)-10′11 ′-epoxyoligosporon.<ref name="Degenkolb2016" />

====Net formation====
A branch of hyphae grows out of a vegetative hyphae eventually arching back to the parent hyphae and fuses with it to make a loop.<ref name="Duddington1972"/><ref name=Duddington1955 /><ref name=Barron1977 /> This process repeats from any hyphae along any existing branches or a new parent hyphae.<ref name="Duddington1972"/><ref name=Barron1977 /> The nets are immediately adhesive,<ref name=Barron1977 /> and hyphae in the loop have different organelles to trap nematodes which are not found in vegetative cells.<ref name =Niu2011 />

==Habitat and ecology==
''A. oligospora'' has been found in many different geographical regions which include Asia, Africa, North America and South America and [[Australasia]].<ref name =Niu2011 /> Some countries it has been found in include [[Turkmenistan]], [[Azerbaijan]], [[Poland]], Canada, New Zealand, and India.<ref name=Domsch1980 /> The presence of insects infected by nematodes increased presence of ''A. oligospora'' but not other nematode capturing fungi.<ref name =Niu2011 />

The fungus can be found in soil in [[grassland]], [[shrubland]], [[plantation]]s, sheep and cattle yards,<ref name=Domsch1980 /> and domesticated and non-domesticated animal feces.<ref name =Niu2011 /> It colonizes forest steppe soil, mixed forest soil, and Mediterranean brown soil (pH 6.9-8.0) where the pH can be as low as 4.5, but is typically above 5.5.<ref name=Domsch1980 /> The fungus has also been found in aquatic environments,<ref name =Niu2011 /> and heavily polluted areas, specifically heavy metal poisoned mines, fungicide, or nematicide infested soil,<ref name =Niu2011 /><ref name="Zhang2014" /> decayed plant material, leaves, roots, moss,<ref name=Domsch1980 /> and in the rhizosphere of various bean plants, barley,<ref name =Niu2011 /><ref name=Domsch1980 /> and the tomato plant.<ref name =Niu2011 /> Larger populations of the fungus can be found in late spring and summer.<ref name="Zhang2014" />

==Industrial uses==
The fungus is a biological indicator of nematodes.<ref name =Niu2011 /> The annual global cost of plant-parasitic nematodes is approximately 100 billion USD.<ref name="Degenkolb2016" /> Nematode capturing fungi such as the ''A. oligospora'' can be used to control growth of nematodes.<ref name="Zhang2014" /><ref name=Domsch1980 /> This means that they can be potentially used as a bio-control agent to protect crops against nematode infestations.<ref name =Niu2011 /> This may not be feasible since the nematodes occasionally eat the fungi.<ref name=Domsch1980 />

==References==
{{Reflist|30em|refs=

<ref name=Fresenius1850>{{cite book |last1=Fresenius |first1=Georg |title=Beiträge zur mykologie |date=1850 |page=18 |url=https://biodiversitylibrary.org/page/35380777}}</ref>

<ref name=Domsch1980>{{cite book |last1=Domsch |first1=Klaus |last2=Gams |first2=Walter |last3=Traute-Heidi |first3=Anderson |title=Compendium of soil fungi |date=1980 |publisher=Academic Press (London) LTD |location=New York |pages=60–63}}</ref>

<ref name=Alexopoulos1996>{{cite book |last1=Alexopoulos |first1=Constantine |last2=Mims |first2=Charles |last3=Blackwell |first3=Meredith |title=Introductory Mycology |date=1996 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons, Inc |location=Toronto |page=235 |edition=4th}}</ref>

<ref name=Barron1977>{{cite book |last1=Barron |first1=George |title=The Nematode-Destroying Fungi |date=1977 |publisher=Canadian Biological Publications Ltd. |location=Guelph |pages=27–37,93–95,106,111}}</ref>

<ref name=Niu2011>{{cite journal |last1=Niu |first1=Xue-Mei |last2=Zhang |first2=Ke-Qin |title=Arthrobotrys oligospora a model organism for understanding the interaction between fungi and nematodes |journal=Mycology |date=2011 |volume=2 |issue=2 |pages=59–78 |doi=10.1080/21501203.2011.562559|doi-access=free}}</ref>

<ref name=Duddington1955>{{cite journal |last1=Duddington |first1=C |title=Fungi That Attack Microscopic Animals |journal=Botanical Review |date=1955 |volume=21 |issue=7 |pages=377–439 |doi=10.1007/bf02872434 |bibcode=1955BotRv..21..377D |s2cid=37392081}}</ref>

<ref name="Nordbring-Hertz1977">{{cite journal |last1=Nordbring-Hertz |first1=Birgit|author-link1=Birgit Nordbring-Hertz |last2=Jansson |first2=Hans-Börje |last3=Stålhammar-Carlemalm |first3=Margaretha |title=Interactions Between Nematophagous Fungi and Nematodes |journal=Ecological Bulletins |date=1977 |volume=25 |pages=483–484}}</ref>

<ref name="Dreschler1934">{{cite journal |last1=Dreschler |first1=Charles |title=Organs of Capture in Some Fungi Preying on Nematodes |journal=Mycologia |date=1934 |volume=26 |issue=2 |pages=135–144 |doi=10.2307/3754035 |jstor=3754035}}</ref>

<ref name="Duddington1972">{{cite journal |last1=Duddington |first1=C |last2=Wyborn |first2=C |title=Recent Research on the Nematophagous Hyphomycetes |journal=Botanical Review |date=1972 |volume=38 |issue=4 |pages=545–562 |doi=10.1007/bf02859251 |bibcode=1972BotRv..38..545D |s2cid=29933497}}</ref>

<ref name="Degenkolb2016">{{cite journal |last1=Degenkolb |first1=Thomas |last2=Vilcinskas |first2=Andreas |title=Metabolites from nematophagus fungi and nematicidal natural products from fungi as an alternative for biological control. Part 1: metabolites from nematophagous ascomycetes |journal=Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology |date=2016 |volume=100 |issue=9 |pages=3799–3812 |doi=10.1007/s00253-015-7233-6 |pmid=26715220 |pmc=4824826}}</ref>

<ref name="Dreschler1937">{{cite journal |last1=Dreschler |first1=Charles |title=Some Hyphomycetes That Prey on Free-Living Terricolous Nematodes |journal=Mycologia |date=1937 |volume=29 |issue=4 |pages=447–552 |doi=10.2307/3754331 |jstor=3754331}}</ref>

<ref name="Zhang2014">{{cite book |last1=Zhang |first1=Ke-Qin |last2=Hyde |first2=Kevin |last3=Zhang |first3=Ying |last4=Yang |first4=Jinkui |last5=Li |first5=Guo-Hang |title=Nematode-trapping Fungi |date=2014 |publisher=Dordrecht: Springer |location=New York |pages=213, 215, 222, 316}}</ref>

<ref name ="Nordbring-Hertz2004">{{cite journal |last1=Nordbring-Hertz |first1=Birgit|author-link1=Birgit Nordbring-Hertz |title=Morphogenesis in the nematode-trapping fungus Arthrobotrys oligospora – an extensive plasticity of infection structures |journal=Mycologist |date=2004 |volume=18 |issue=3 |pages=125–133 |doi=10.1017/s0269915x04003052 |s2cid=55590507 |url=http://lup.lub.lu.se/record/149495}}</ref>

}}

{{Taxonbar|from=Q10418710}}

[[Category:Fungi described in 1850]]
[[Category:Fungi of Asia]]
[[Category:Fungi of Europe]]
[[Category:Fungi of North America]]
[[Category:Fungi of South America]]
[[Category:Helotiales]]
[[Category:Fungus species]]
[[Category:Carnivorous fungi]]
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Английская Википедия:Arthrobotrys oligospora - История изменений