Английская Википедия:African-American Vernacular English

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Шаблон:Short description Шаблон:Pp-semi-indef Шаблон:Use American English Шаблон:Use mdy dates Шаблон:Distinguish Шаблон:Infobox language Шаблон:African American topics sidebar

African-American Vernacular EnglishШаблон:Efn (AAVE) is the variety of English natively spoken, particularly in urban communities, by most working- and middle-class African Americans and some Black Canadians.Шаблон:Sfnp

Having its own unique grammatical, vocabulary, and accent features, AAVE is employed by middle-class Black Americans as the more informal and casual end of a sociolinguistic continuum. However, in formal speaking contexts, speakers tend to switch to more standard English grammar and vocabulary, usually while retaining elements of the nonstandard accent.Шаблон:SfnpШаблон:Sfnp Despite being widespread throughout the United States, AAVE is not the native dialect of all African Americans, and not all speakers are African American.Шаблон:Sfnp[1][2]

As with most African-American English, African-American Vernacular English shares a large portion of its grammar and phonology with the rural dialects of the Southern United States,Шаблон:Sfnp and especially older Southern American English,Шаблон:Sfnp due to the historical enslavement of African Americans primarily in that region.

Mainstream linguists maintain that the parallels between AAVE, West African languages, and English-based creole languages are existent but minor,Шаблон:SfnpШаблон:SfnpШаблон:Sfnp[3] with African-American Vernacular English genealogically tracing back to diverse nonstandard dialects of English,[4]Шаблон:Sfnp namely as spoken by the English-speaking settlers in the Southern Colonies and, later, Southern United States.Шаблон:Sfnp However, a minority of linguists argue that the vernacular shares so many characteristics with African creole languages spoken around the world that it could have originated as its own English-based creole or semi-creole language, distinct from the English language, before undergoing a process of decreolization.[5]Шаблон:Sfnp[6]

Origins

African-American Vernacular English (AAVE) may be considered a dialect, ethnolect or sociolect.Шаблон:Sfnp While it is clear that there is a strong historical relationship between AAVE and earlier Southern U.S. dialects, the origins of AAVE are still a matter of debate.

The presiding theory among linguists is that AAVE has always been a dialect of English, meaning that it originated from earlier English dialects rather than from English-based creole languages that "decreolized" back into English. In the early 2000s, Shana Poplack provided corpus-based evidenceШаблон:SfnpШаблон:Sfnp—evidence from a body of writing—from isolated enclaves in Samaná and Nova Scotia peopled by descendants of migrations of early AAVE-speaking groups (see Samaná English) that suggests that the grammar of early AAVE was closer to that of contemporary British dialects than modern urban AAVE is to other current American dialects, suggesting that the modern language is a result of divergence from mainstream varieties, rather than the result of decreolization from a widespread American creole.[7]

Linguist John McWhorter maintains that the contribution of West African languages to AAVE is minimal. In an interview on National Public Radio's Talk of the Nation, McWhorter characterized AAVE as a "hybrid of regional dialects of Great Britain that slaves in America were exposed to because they often worked alongside the indentured servants who spoke those dialects..." According to McWhorter, virtually all linguists who have carefully studied the origins of AAVE "agree that the West African connection is quite minor."[8]

However, a creole theory, less accepted among linguists, posits that AAVE arose from one or more creole languages used by African captives of the Atlantic slave trade, due to the captives speaking many different native languages and therefore needing a new way to communicate among themselves and with their captors.Шаблон:Sfnp According to this theory, these captives first developed what are called pidgins: simplified mixtures of languages.Шаблон:Sfnp Since pidgins form from close contact between speakers of different languages, the slave trade would have been exactly such a situation.Шаблон:Sfnp Creolist John Dillard quotes, for example, slave ship captain William Smith describing the sheer diversity of mutually unintelligible languages just in The Gambia.Шаблон:Sfnp By 1715, an African pidgin was reproduced in novels by Daniel Defoe, in particular, The Life of Colonel Jacque. In 1721, Cotton Mather conducted the first attempt at recording the speech of slaves in his interviews regarding the practice of smallpox inoculation.Шаблон:Sfnp By the time of the American Revolution, varieties among slave creoles were not quite mutually intelligible. Dillard quotes a recollection of "slave language" toward the latter part of the 18th century:Шаблон:Sfnp "Kay, massa, you just leave me, me sit here, great fish jump up into da canoe, here he be, massa, fine fish, massa; me den very grad; den me sit very still, until another great fish jump into de canoe; but me fall asleep, massa, and no wake 'til you come...." Not until the time of the American Civil War did the language of the slaves become familiar to a large number of educated Whites. The abolitionist papers before the war form a rich corpus of examples of plantation creole. In Army Life in a Black Regiment (1870), Thomas Wentworth Higginson detailed many features of his Black soldiers' language. Opponents of the creole theory suggest that such pidgins or creoles existed but simply died out without directly contributing to modern AAVE.

Phonology

Шаблон:Listen Шаблон:Listen Many pronunciation features distinctly set AAVE apart from other forms of American English (particularly, General American). McWhorter argues that what truly unites all AAVE accents is a uniquely wide-ranging intonation pattern or "melody", which characterizes even the most "neutral" or light African-American accent.Шаблон:Sfnp A handful of multisyllabic words in AAVE differ from General American in their stress placement so that, for example, police, guitar, and Detroit are pronounced with initial stress instead of ultimate stress.Шаблон:Sfnp The following are phonological differences in AAVE vowel and consonant sounds.

Final consonant groups or clusters in AAVE have been examined as evidence of the systematic nature of this language variety, governed by specific rules. Additionally, such analyses have been utilized to bolster arguments concerning the historical origins of AAVE. Consonant cluster reduction is a phonological process where a final consonant group or cluster, consisting of two consonant sounds, is simplified or reduced to a single consonant sound. The analysis of consonant cluster reduction in AAVE assumes that, initially, final clusters are present and intact in the language. For example, the word "tes" in AAVE is seen as originating from "test," with the final "t" being deleted under specific conditions. According to this analysis, AAVE treats a word like "test" as identical to its counterpart in mainstream English. Any differences in pronunciation between the two varieties, such as "test" in mainstream English and "tes" in AAVE, are attributed to phonological processes rather than differences in underlying word representations.

Vowels

All AAVE vowels
Pure vowels (monophthongs)
English diaphoneme AAVE phoneme[9] Example words
Шаблон:IPAc-en Шаблон:IPA act, pal, trap
Шаблон:IPA (/æ/ raising) ham, land, yeah
Шаблон:IPAc-en Шаблон:IPA blah, bother, father,
lot, top, wasp
Шаблон:IPAc-en
Шаблон:IPA all, dog, bought,
loss, saw, taught
Шаблон:IPAc-en
Шаблон:IPAc-en Шаблон:IPA dress, met, bread
Шаблон:IPAc-en Шаблон:IPA about, syrup, arena
Шаблон:IPAc-en Шаблон:IPA hit, skim, tip
Шаблон:IPAc-en Шаблон:IPA beam, chic, fleet
Шаблон:IPAc-en Шаблон:IPA bus, flood, what
Шаблон:IPAc-en Шаблон:IPA book, put, should
Шаблон:IPAc-en Шаблон:IPA food, glue, new
Diphthongs
Шаблон:IPAc-en Шаблон:IPA prize, slide, tie
Шаблон:IPA (Canadian raisingШаблон:Citation Needed) price, slice, tyke
Шаблон:IPAc-en Шаблон:IPA now, ouch, scout
Шаблон:IPAc-en Шаблон:IPA lake, paid, rein
Шаблон:IPAc-en Шаблон:IPA boy, choice, moist
Шаблон:IPAc-en Шаблон:IPA goat, oh, show
R-colored vowels
Шаблон:IPAc-en non-rhotic: Шаблон:IPA
rhotic: Шаблон:IPA 		barn, car, heart
Шаблон:IPAc-en non-rhotic: Шаблон:IPA
rhotic: Шаблон:IPA 		bare, bear, there
Шаблон:IPAc-en Шаблон:IPA burn, first, herd
Шаблон:IPAc-en non-rhotic: Шаблон:IPA
rhotic: Шаблон:IPA 		better, martyr, doctor
Шаблон:IPAc-en non-rhotic: Шаблон:IPA
rhotic: Шаблон:IPA 		fear, peer, tier
Шаблон:IPAc-en non-rhotic: Шаблон:IPA
rhotic: Шаблон:IPA 		hoarse, horse, poor
score, tour, war
Шаблон:IPAc-en
Шаблон:IPAc-en non-rhotic: Шаблон:IPA
rhotic: Шаблон:IPA 		cure, Europe, pure

Consonants

"Deep" phonology

McWhorter discusses an accent continuum from "a 'deep' Black English through a 'light' Black English to standard English," saying the sounds on this continuum may vary from one African American speaker to the next or even in a single speaker from one situational context to the next.Шаблон:Sfnp McWhorter regards the following as rarer features, characteristic only of a deep Black English but which speakers of light Black English may occasionally "dip into for humorous or emotive effect":Шаблон:Sfnp

Grammar

Tense and aspect

Although AAVE does not necessarily have the simple past-tense marker of other English varieties (that is, the -ed of "worked"), it does have an optional tense system with at least four aspects of the past tense and two aspects of the future tense.Шаблон:Sfnp The term TMA marker is used for forms that are an integral part of the predicate phrase.[23] The markers gon, done, be, and been were defined as markers of future tense, completive aspect, habitual aspect, and durative aspect, respectively.[23]

Phases/tenses of AAVEШаблон:Sfnp
Phase Example
Past Pre-recent I been bought it
Recent I done bought itШаблон:Ref
Pre-present I did buy it
Past inceptive I do buy it
Present I be buying it
Future Immediate I'ma buy it
Post-immediate I'ma gonna buy it
Indefinite future I gonna buy it

Шаблон:NoteSyntactically, I bought it is grammatical, but done (always unstressed, pronounced as /dən/) is used to emphasize the completed nature of the action.Шаблон:Sfnp

Harvard professor Sunn m'Cheaux says the immediate future tense (for example "I'ma") originated in the Gullah language (an English creole), which uses "a-" instead of "-ing" for this type of verb inflection.[24]

As phase auxiliary verbs, been and done must occur as the first auxiliary; when they occur as the second, they carry additional aspects:Шаблон:Sfnp

He been done working means "he finished work a long time ago".
He done been working means "until recently, he worked over a long period of time".

The latter example shows one of the most distinctive features of AAVE: the use of be to indicate that performance of the verb is of a habitual nature. In most other American English dialects, this can only be expressed unambiguously by using adverbs such as usually.[25]

This aspect-marking form of been or BIN[26] is stressed and semantically distinct from the unstressed form: She BIN running ('She has been running for a long time') and She been running ('She has been running').Шаблон:Sfnp[27] This aspect has been given several names, including perfect phase, remote past, and remote phase (this article uses the third).Шаблон:Sfnp As shown above, been places action in the distant past.[28] However, when been is used with stative verbs or gerund forms, been shows that the action began in the distant past and that it is continuing now. Шаблон:Harvcoltxt suggests that a better translation when used with stative verbs is "for a long time". For instance, in response to "I like your new dress", one might hear Oh, I been had this dress, meaning that the speaker has had the dress for a long time and that it isn't new.Шаблон:Sfnp

To see the difference between the simple past and the gerund when used with been, consider the following expressions:

I been bought her clothes means "I bought her clothes a long time ago".
I been buying her clothes means "I've been buying her clothes for a long time".

Auxiliaries in African American Vernacular English are related in a typical pattern. They can be grouped into negative forms and affirmative forms for each of the words. For example, "had" is an affirmative form, while "hatn" is the corresponding negative form. These same auxiliaries can be used to mark sentences for the anterior aspect. As another example, was marks type 1 sentences. These are sentences that are interpreted by default as being in the present tense but actually refer to a time before the present. Take, for instance, "She at home": the word was can be inserted to mark this sentence, making the marked equivalent "She was at home". Auxiliaries such as these also have opposing negative and affirmative forms.[23]

AAVE grammatical aspects
Aspect Example Standard English meaning
Habitual/continuative aspect[29] He be working Tuesdays. He frequently (or habitually) works on Tuesdays.
Intensified continuative (habitual) He stay working. He is always working.
Intensified continuative (not habitual)Шаблон:Sfnp He steady working. He keeps on working.
Perfect progressive He been working. He has been working.
IrrealisШаблон:Clarify He finna go to work. He is about to go to work.Шаблон:Ref

In addition to these, come (which may or may not be an auxiliary[31]) may be used to indicate speaker indignation, such as in Don't come acting like you don't know what happened and you started the whole thing ("Don't try to act as if you don't know what happened, because you started the whole thing").Шаблон:Sfnp

Negation

Negatives are formed differently from most other varieties of English:Шаблон:Sfnp

  • Use of ain't as a general negative indicator. As in other dialects, it can be used where most other dialects would use am not, isn't, aren't, haven't, and hasn't. However, in marked contrast to other varieties of English in the US, some speakers of AAVE also use ain't instead of don't, doesn't, or didn't (e.g., I ain't know that).Шаблон:Sfnp Ain't had its origins in common English but became increasingly stigmatized since the 19th century. See also amn't.
  • Negative concord, popularly called "double negation", as in I didn't go nowhere; if the sentence is negative, all negatable forms are negated. This contrasts with standard written English conventions, which have traditionally prescribed that a double negative is considered incorrect to mean anything other than a positive (although this was not always so; see double negative).
  • In a negative construction, an indefinite pronoun such as nobody or nothing can be inverted with the negative verb particle for emphasis (e.g., Don't nobody know the answer, Ain't nothing going on.)

While AAVE shares these with Creole languages,Шаблон:Sfnp Шаблон:Harvcoltxt use data from early recordings of African Nova Scotian English, Samaná English, and the recordings of former slaves to demonstrate that negation was inherited from nonstandard colonial English.Шаблон:Sfnp

Other grammatical characteristics

  • The copula be in the present tense is often dropped, as in Russian, Hebrew, Arabic and other languages. For example: You crazy ("You're crazy") or She my sister ("She's my sister"). The phenomenon is also observed in questions: Who you? ("Who're you?") and Where you at? ("Where are you (at)?"). This has been sometimes considered a Southern U.S. regionalism, though it is most frequent in Black speech.Шаблон:Sfnp On the other hand, a stressed is cannot be dropped: Yes, she is my sister. The general rules are:
    • Only the forms is and are (of which the latter is anyway often replaced by is) can be omitted; am, was, and were are not deleted.
    • These forms cannot be omitted when they would be pronounced with stress in General American (whether or not the stress serves specifically to impart an emphatic sense to the verb's meaning).
    • These forms cannot be omitted when the corresponding form in standard English cannot show contraction (and vice versa). For example, I don't know where he is cannot be reduced to *I don't know where he just as in standard English forms the corresponding reduction *I don't know where he's is likewise impossible. (I don't know where he at is possible, paralleling I don't know where he's at in standard English.)
    • Possibly some other minor conditions apply as well.[32]
  • Verbs are uninflected for number and person: there is no -s ending in the present-tense third-person singular. Example: She write poetry ("She writes poetry"). AAVE don't for standard English doesn't comes from this, unlike in some other dialects which use don't for standard English doesn't but does when not in the negative. Similarly, was is used for what in standard English are contexts for both was and were.Шаблон:Sfnp
  • The genitive -'s ending may or may not be used.Шаблон:Sfnp Genitive case is inferrable from adjacency. This is similar to many creoles throughout the Caribbean. Many language forms throughout the world use an unmarked possessive; it may here result from a simplification of grammatical structures. Example: my momma sister ("my mother's sister")
  • The words it and they denote the existence of something, equivalent to standard English's there is or there are.Шаблон:Sfnp
  • Word order in questions: Why they ain't growing? ("Why aren't they growing?") and Who the hell she think she is? ("Who the hell does she think she is?") lack the inversion of most other forms of English. Because of this, there is also no need for the "auxiliary do".Шаблон:Sfnp
  • Relative clauses which modify a noun in the object or predicate nominative position are not obligatorily introduced by a relative pronoun.Шаблон:Sfnp

Vocabulary

AAVE shares most of its lexicon with other varieties of English, particularly that of informal and Southern dialects; for example, the relatively recent use of y'all. As statistically shown by Algeo (1991: 3-14),[33] the main sources for new words are combining, shifting, shortening, blending, borrowing, and creating.[34] However, it has also been suggested that some of the vocabulary unique to AAVE has its origin in West African languages, but etymology is often difficult to trace, and without a trail of recorded usage, the suggestions below cannot be considered proven.[35] Early AAVE and Gullah contributed a number of words of African origin to the American English mainstream, including gumbo,[36] goober,[37] yam, and banjo.[38]

Compounding in AAVE is a very common method in creating new vocabulary. The most common type of compounding is the noun–noun combination.[39] There is also the adjective–noun combination, which is the second most commonly occurring type of combination found in AAE slang. AAE also combines adjectives with other adjectives, less frequently, but more so than in standard American English.[40]

AAVE has also contributed slang expressions such as cool and hip.Шаблон:Sfnp In many cases, the postulated etymologies are not recognized by linguists or the Oxford English Dictionary, such as to dig,[41] jazz,Шаблон:Sfnp tote,Шаблон:Sfnp and bad-mouth, a calque from Mandinka.[42] African American slang is formed by words and phrases that are regarded as informal. It involves combining, shifting, shortening, blending, borrowing, and creating new words. African American slang possess all of the same lexical qualities and linguistic mechanisms as any other language. AAVE slang is more common in speech than it is in writing.[40]

AAVE also has words that either are not part of most other American English dialects or have strikingly different meanings. For example, there are several words in AAVE referring to White people that are not part of mainstream American English; these include gray as an adjective for Whites (as in gray dude), possibly from the color of Confederate uniforms; and paddy, an extension of the slang use for "Irish".[43] "Red bone" is another example of this, usually referring to light skinned African Americans.[44]

"Ofay", which is pejorative, is another general term for a White person; it might derive from the Ibibio word afia, which means "light-colored", from the Yoruba word ofe, spoken in hopes of disappearing from danger. However, most dictionaries simply say its etymology is unknown.[45]

Kitchen refers to the particularly curly or kinky hair at the nape of the neck, and siditty or seddity means "snobbish" or "bourgeois".[46]

AAVE has also contributed many words and phrases to other varieties of English, including chill out, main squeeze, soul, funky, and threads.Шаблон:Sfnp

Influence on other dialects

African-American Vernacular English has influenced the development of other dialects of English. The AAVE accent, New York accent, and Spanish-language accents have together yielded the sound of New York Latino English, some of whose speakers use an accent indistinguishable from an AAVE one.Шаблон:Sfnp AAVE has also influenced certain Chicano accents and Liberian Settler English, directly derived from the AAVE of the original 16,000 African Americans who migrated to Liberia in the 1800s.[47] In the United States, urban youth participating in hip-hop culture or marginalized as ethnic minorities are also well-studied in adopting African-American Vernacular English, or prominent elements of it: for example, Southeast-Asian Americans embracing hip-hop identities.[48][49]

Variation

Urban versus rural variations

The first studies on the African American English (AAE) took place in cities such as New York, Los Angeles, and Chicago, to name a few.Шаблон:SfnpШаблон:Page needed These studies concluded that the African American Language (AAL) was homogeneous, which means that AAE was spoken the same way everywhere around the country.Шаблон:SfnpШаблон:Page needed Later, sociolinguists would realize that these cities lacked the influence of the rural south; the early studies had not considered the representation of the south of America, which caused the AAE studies to change.Шаблон:SfnpШаблон:Page needed To make those changes, the newer studies used the diversity of the country and took into consideration the rural south.Шаблон:SfnpШаблон:Page needed

African-American Vernacular English began as mostly rural and Southern, yet today is mostly urban and nationally widespread, and its more recent urban features are now even diffusing into rural areas.[50] Urban AAVE alone is intensifying with the grammatical features exemplified in these sentences: "He be the best" (intensified equative be), "She be done had her baby" (resultative be done), and "They come hollerin" (indignant come). On the other hand, rural AAVE alone shows certain features too, such as: "I was a-huntin" (a-prefixing); "It riz above us" (different irregular forms); and "I want for to eat it" (for to complement).[51] Using the word bees even in place of be to mean is or are in standard English, as in the sentence "That's the way it bees" is also one of the rarest of all deep AAVE features today, and most middle-class AAVE speakers would recognize the verb bees as part of only a deep "Southern" or "country" speaker's vocabulary.Шаблон:Sfnp

Local variations

There are at least 10 distinct regional accents in AAVE,Шаблон:Sfnp and regional patterns of pronunciation and word choice appear on social media.[52][53][54]

Regional variation in AAVE does not pattern with other regional variation in North American English,Шаблон:Sfnp which broadly follows East-to-West migration patterns,Шаблон:Sfnp but instead patterns with the population movements during the Great Migration,Шаблон:Sfnp resulting in a broadly South-to-North pattern, albeit with founder effects in cities that already had existing African American populations at the beginning of the Great Migration.Шаблон:Sfnp[55] There is no vowel for which the geographic variation in AAVE patterns with that of White American English.Шаблон:Sfnp

New York City AAVE incorporates some local features of the New York accent, including its high Шаблон:Sc vowel; meanwhile, conversely, Pittsburgh AAVE may merge this same vowel with the Шаблон:Sc vowel, matching the cot-caught merger of White Pittsburgh accents, though AAVE accents traditionally do not have the cot-caught merger. Memphis, Atlanta, and Research Triangle AAVE incorporates the Шаблон:Sc vowel raising and Шаблон:Sc vowel lowering associated with White Southern accents. Memphis and St. Louis AAVE are developing, since the mid-twentieth century, an iconic [[Square-nurse merger|merger of the vowels in Шаблон:Sc and Шаблон:Sc]], making there sound like thurr.[56][57][58] Californian AAVE often lacks a cot-caught merger, especially before nasals.Шаблон:Sfnp

Social context

Although the distinction between AAVE and General American dialects is clear to most English speakers, some characteristics, notably double negatives and the omission of certain auxiliaries (see below) such as the has in has been are also characteristic of many colloquial dialects of American English. There is near-uniformity of AAVE grammar, despite its vast geographic spread across the whole country.Шаблон:Sfnp This may be due in part to relatively recent migrations of African Americans out of the American South (see Great Migration and Second Great Migration) as well as to long-term racial segregation that kept Black people living together in largely homogeneous communities.Шаблон:Sfnp

Misconceptions about AAVE are, and have long been, common, and have stigmatized its use. One myth is that AAVE is grammatically "simple" or "sloppy". However, like all dialects, AAVE shows consistent internal logic and grammatical complexity, and is used naturally by a group of people to express thoughts and ideas.[59][60] Prescriptively, attitudes about AAVE are often less positive; since AAVE deviates from the standard, its use is commonly misinterpreted as a sign of ignorance, laziness, or both.Шаблон:Sfnp[61] Perhaps because of this attitude (as well as similar attitudes among other Americans), most speakers of AAVE are bidialectal, being able to speak with more standard English features, and perhaps even a General American accent, as well as AAVE. Such linguistic adaptation in different environments is called code-switchingШаблон:SfnpШаблон:Sfnp—though Шаблон:Harvcoltxt argues that the situation is actually one of diglossia:[62] each dialect, or code, is applied in different settings. Generally speaking, the degree of exclusive use of AAVE decreases with increasing socioeconomic status (although AAVE is still used by even well-educated African Americans).Шаблон:SfnpШаблон:SfnpШаблон:SfnpШаблон:Sfnp

Another misconception is that AAVE is the native dialect (or even more inaccurately, a linguistic fad) employed by all African Americans. Wheeler (1999) warns that "AAVE should not be thought of as the language of Black people in America. Many African Americans neither speak it nor know much about it".Шаблон:Sfnp Conversely, not all native AAVE speakers are African American, and nonnative speakers also incorporate elements into their speech.[63]

Шаблон:Harvcoltxt argues that the use of AAVE carries racially affirmative political undertones as its use allows African Americans to assert their cultural upbringing. Nevertheless, use of AAVE also carries strong social connotations; Шаблон:Harvcoltxt presents a White female speaker of AAVE who is accepted as a member into African American social groups despite her race.

Before the substantial research of the 1960s and 1970s—including William Labov's groundbreakingly thorough grammatical study, Language in the Inner City—there was doubt that the speech of African Americans had any exclusive features not found in varieties spoken by other groups; Шаблон:Harvcoltxt noted that distinctive features of African American speech were present in the speech of Southerners and Шаблон:Harvcoltxt argued that there were really no substantial vocabulary or grammatical differences between the speech of Black people and other English dialects.[64]

It is also seen and heard in advertising.[65]

In the legal system

The United States courts are divided over how to admit statements of ambiguous tense made in AAVE under evidence. In United States v. Arnold, the United States Court of Appeals for the Sixth Circuit held that "he finna shoot me" was a statement made in the present tense, so it was admissible hearsay under the excited utterance exception; however, the dissent held that past or present tense could not be determined by the statement, so the statement should not have been admitted into evidence.[66] Similarly, in Louisiana v. Demesme, the Louisiana Supreme Court ruled that the defendant's statement "why don't you give me a lawyer, dog" was too ambiguous to be considered a Miranda request for a lawyer.[67]

In US courts, an interpreter is only routinely available for speakers of "a language other than English". Шаблон:Harvcoltxt argue that a lack of familiarity with AAVE (and other minority dialects of English) on the part of jurors, stenographers, and others can lead to misunderstandings in court. They especially focus on the Trayvon Martin case and how the testimony of Rachel Jeantel was perceived as incomprehensible and not credible by the jury due to her dialect.Шаблон:Sfnp

A 2019 experimental study by researchers at the University of Pennsylvania, NYU, and Philadelphia Lawyers for Social Equity, found that court stenographers in Philadelphia regularly fail to transcribe AAVE accurately, with about 40 percent of sentences being inaccurate, and only 83% accuracy at the word level, despite court stenographers being certified at or above 95% accuracy.[12][68][69] Their study suggests that there is evidence that court reporters may potentially introduce incorrect transcriptions into the official court record, with ramifications in cross-examination, jury deliberations, and appeals. A 2016 qualitative study by researchers at Stanford University also suggests that testimony in AAE—and other nonstandard varieties—is not necessarily always understood in a judicial setting.Шаблон:Sfn

In music

Spirituals, blues, jazz, R&B, and most recently, hip-hop are all genres associated with African American music; as such, AAVE usually appears, through singing, speaking, or rapping, in these musical forms. Examples of morphosyntactic features of AAVE in genres other than hip-hop are given below:

Artist Song Lyric AAVE feature
Nina Simone "It Be's That Way Sometime" "It Be's That Way Sometime" habitual aspect with be
Vera Hall "Trouble So Hard" "Don't nobody know my trouble but God" negative concord
Texas Alexander "The Rising Sun" "She got something round and it look just like a bat" lack of inflection on present-tense verb
WC Handy "Saint Louis Blues" "Cause my baby, he done left this town." use of "done" to indicate the recent past

More recently, AAVE has been used heavily in hip-hop to show "street cred".Шаблон:Sfnp Examples of morphosyntactic AAVE features used by Black hip-hop artists are given below:

Artist Song Lyric AAVE feature
LL Cool J "Control Myself" "She said her name Shayeeda" absence of copula
LL Cool J "Control Myself" "I could tell her mama feed her" lack of inflection on present-tense verb
Kanye West ft. Jay-Z "Gotta Have It" "You can bank I ain't got no ceilin'" negative concord

In addition to grammatical features, lexical items specific to AAVE are often used in hip-hop:

Artist Song Lyric AAVE lexical itemШаблон:Ref Standard English definition
Kanye West ft. Jay-Z "Otis" "Or the big-face rollie, I got two of those" rollie Rolex (watch)
Tupac Shakur "Straight Ballin" "And getting ghost on the 5-0" 5-0 ("five-oh") police
Lil Wayne "Blinded" "I can put bangles around yo ashy ankles" ashy dry skin

Шаблон:NoteLexical items taken from Шаблон:Harvcoltxt

Because hip-hop is so intimately related to the African American oral tradition, non-Black hip-hop artists also use certain features of AAVE; for example, in an MC battle, Eyedea said, "What that mean, yo?"Шаблон:Sfnp[70] displaying a lack of subject-verb inversion and also the "auxiliary do". However, they tend to avoid the term nigga, even as a marker of solidarity.Шаблон:Sfnp White hip-hop artists such as Eyedea can choose to accentuate their whiteness by hyper-articulating postvocalic r sounds (i.e. the retroflex approximant).Шаблон:Sfnp[71]

AAVE is also used by non-Black artists in genres other than hip-hop, if less frequently. For instance, in "Tonight, Tonight", Hot Chelle Rae uses the term dime to mean "an attractive woman".Шаблон:Sfnp Jewel's "Sometimes It Be That Way" employs habitual be in the title to indicate habitual aspect. If they do not employ similar features of AAVE in their speech, then it can be argued that they are modeling their musical performance to evoke aspects of particular musical genres such as R&B or the blues (as British pop musicians of the 1960s and beyond did to evoke rock, pop, and the blues).Шаблон:Sfnp Some research suggests that non-African American young adults learn AAVE vocabulary by listening to hip-hop music.Шаблон:Sfnp

In social media

On Twitter, AAVE is used as a framework from which sentences and words are constructed, in order to accurately express oneself.Шаблон:Sfnp Grammatical features and word pronunciations stemming from AAVE are preserved.Шаблон:Sfnp Spellings based on AAVE have become increasingly common, to the point where it has become a normalized practice. Some examples include, "you" (you're), "they" (their/they're), "gon/gone" (going to), and "yo" (your).Шаблон:Sfnp

In education

Шаблон:Main Educators traditionally have attempted to eliminate AAVE usage through the public education system, perceiving the dialect as grammatically defective.Шаблон:Sfnp In 1974, the teacher-led Conference on College Composition and Communication issued a position statement affirming students' rights to their own dialects and the validity of all dialects.Шаблон:Sfnp Mainstream linguistics has long agreed with this view about dialects.Шаблон:Sfnp In 1979, a judge ordered the Ann Arbor School District to find a way to identify AAVE speakers in the schools and to "use that knowledge in teaching such students how to read standard English."[72] In 1996, Oakland Unified School District made a controversial resolution for AAVE, which was later called "Ebonics". The Oakland School board approved that Ebonics be recognized as a language independent from English (though this particular view is not endorsed by linguists), that teachers would participate in recognizing this language, and that it would be used in theory to support the transition from Ebonics to Standard American English in schools. This program lasted three years and then died off.[73]

In academia

Generally in academia, most academicians are very strict in regard to the use of AAVE in academic writing due to the common use of academic English, with most often describing the need "to be intelligible to a broad group of academicians across the world."[74] There has been open discussions by some academicians as to whether AAVE in academia should be permittable due to its history of disadvantage and discrimination in education.[75] In 2022, data from students in Indiana were collected between 2015-2016 and 2018-2019 statewide[75] and showed that overall Black students, who most likely utilized AAVE,[76] had lower scores on writing assignments, which likely contributes to Black students' rejection rates to higher education programs.[77]

See also

Шаблон:Portal

Notes

Шаблон:Notelist

References

Шаблон:Reflist

Bibliography

Шаблон:Refbegin

Шаблон:Refend

Further reading

Шаблон:Refbegin

Шаблон:Refend

Шаблон:African American topics Шаблон:English dialects by continent

Шаблон:Authority control

Партнерские ресурсы
Криптовалюты
Магазины
Хостинг
Разное

  1. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  2. ↑ Шаблон:Cite journal
  3. ↑ See Шаблон:Harvcoltxt for more information
  4. ↑ The Oakland school board's resolution "was about a perfectly ordinary variety of English spoken by a large and diverse population of Americans of African descent. . . . [E]ssentially all linguists agree that what the Oakland board was dealing with is a dialect of English."Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
  5. ↑ Шаблон:Harvcoltxt and Шаблон:Harvcoltxt, both citing Шаблон:Harvcoltxt, Шаблон:Harvcoltxt, Шаблон:Harvcoltxt, and Шаблон:Harvcoltxt.
  6. ↑ Those in favor of the "creole hypothesis" of African-American Vernacular English include creolists William Stewart, John Dillard and John Rickford.
  7. ↑ William Labov, in the Foreword to Шаблон:Harvcoltxt, says "I would like to think that this clear demonstration of the similarities among the three diaspora dialects and the White benchmark dialects, combined with their differences from creole grammars, would close at least one chapter in the history of the creole controversies."
  8. ↑ Ludden, Jennifer (September 6, 2010). "Op-Ed: DEA Call For Ebonics Experts Smart Move" Шаблон:Webarchive. NPR.
  9. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web See pronunciation for "Chicago AAVE" and "N.Carolina AAVE."
  10. ↑ Шаблон:Cite journal
  11. ↑ Шаблон:Cite journal
  12. ↑ 12,0 12,1 Шаблон:Cite journal
  13. ↑ Шаблон:Harvcoltxt, citing Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
  14. ↑ Шаблон:Cite journal
  15. ↑ Шаблон:Harvcoltxt although her examples are different.
  16. ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
  17. ↑ 17,0 17,1 Шаблон:Citation
  18. ↑ Шаблон:Citation
  19. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  20. ↑ See Шаблон:Harvcoltxt on "aks" and metathesis, on the frequency with which "aks" is brought up by those who ridicule AAVE (e.g. Шаблон:Harvcoltxt), and on the linguistic or cognitive abilities of a speaker of another variety of English who would take "aks" to mean "axe" in a context that in another variety would probably call for "ask".
  21. ↑ Шаблон:Harvcoltxt, citing Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
  22. ↑ Wolfram, Walt; Kohn, Mary E. (forthcoming). "The regional development of African American Language Шаблон:Webarchive". In Sonja Lanehart, Lisa Green, and Jennifer Bloomquist (eds.), The Oxford Handbook on African American Language. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 147.
  23. ↑ 23,0 23,1 23,2 Шаблон:Cite web
  24. ↑ Шаблон:Cite news
  25. ↑ Aspectual be: Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
  26. ↑ In order to distinguish the stressed and unstressed forms, which carry different meaning, linguists often write the stressed version as BIN
  27. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  28. ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
  29. ↑ Шаблон:Harvcoltxt refers to this as a combination of "punctuative" and "imperfect" aspects.
  30. ↑ Шаблон:Harvcoltxt, citing Шаблон:Harvcoltxt.
  31. ↑ See Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
  32. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  33. ↑ Шаблон:Cite journal
  34. ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
  35. ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
  36. ↑ Shorter OED, 5th edition, cf Bantu kingumbo
  37. ↑ Shorter OED, 5th edition, Kikongo nguba
  38. ↑ Nagle, S., & Sanders, S. (Eds.). (2003). English in the Southern United States (Studies in English Language). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 12.
  39. ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
  40. ↑ 40,0 40,1 Шаблон:Citation
  41. ↑ This is from Wolof dëgg or dëgga, meaning "to understand/appreciate" according to Smitherman 2000 s.v. "Dig"; or, it may instead come from Irish tuig, according to Random House Unabridged, 2001
  42. ↑ Шаблон:Harvcoltxt cited in Шаблон:Harvcoltxt.
  43. ↑ Gray: Smitherman, Black Talk, s.v. "Gray". Paddy: Dictionary of American Regional English, s.v. "Paddy".
  44. ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
  45. ↑ Шаблон:Harvcoltxt suggests either a general West African or the Pig Latin origin. Black Talk, s.v. "Ofay".
  46. ↑ Шаблон:Harvcoltxt, s.v. "Kitchen". Kitchen, siditty: Dictionary of American Regional English, s.vv. "Kitchen", "Siditty".
  47. ↑ Singler, John Victor (2004). Liberian Settler English: phonology. In Edgar W. Schneider, Kate Burridge, Bernd Kortmann, Rajend Mesthrie & Clive Upton (eds.), A Handbook of Varieties of English: Phonology. Berlin & New York: Mouton de Gruyter. pp. 875-876.
  48. ↑ Reyes, Angela (2007). Language, Identity, and Stereotype Among Southeast Asian American Youth: The Other Asian. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
  49. ↑ Шаблон:Cite journal
  50. ↑ Wolfram, Walt (2004). "The Grammar of Urban African American Vernacular English". In Handbook of Varieties of English, edited by Bernd Kortmann and Edgar Schneider. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. p. 334.
  51. ↑ Wolfram, Walt (2004). "The Grammar of Urban African American Vernacular English". In Handbook of Varieties of English, edited by Bernd Kortmann and Edgar Schneider. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. p. 335-336.
  52. ↑ Шаблон:Cite journal
  53. ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
  54. ↑ Шаблон:Cite journal
  55. ↑ Шаблон:Cite thesis
  56. ↑ Wolfram, Walt; Kohn, Mary E. (forthcoming). "The regional development of African American Language Шаблон:Webarchive". In Sonja Lanehart, Lisa Green, and Jennifer Bloomquist (eds.), The Oxford Handbook on African American Language. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 149-151.
  57. ↑ Шаблон:Cite journal
  58. ↑ Шаблон:Cite journal
  59. ↑ Шаблон:Harvcoltxt, citing Шаблон:Harvcoltxt Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
  60. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  61. ↑ Шаблон:Harvcoltxt argues that it is no coincidence that a population that has historically been "ridiculed and despised" would have its characteristic speech variety treated the same way.
  62. ↑ Cited in Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
  63. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  64. ↑ Cited in Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
  65. ↑ Шаблон:Cite journal
  66. ↑ U.S. v. Arnold, 486 F.3d 177 (2007) http://www.ca6.uscourts.gov/opinions.pdf/07a0181p-06.pdf Шаблон:Webarchive Retrieved on Sept 23, 2013.
  67. ↑ Шаблон:Citation
  68. ↑ Шаблон:Cite news
  69. ↑ Шаблон:Cite news
  70. ↑ Шаблон:Cite news
  71. ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
  72. ↑ Flood, J., Jensen, J., Lapp, D., Squire, J. (1991). Handbook of research on teaching the English language arts. New York, NY: Macmillan Publishing Company.
  73. ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
  74. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  75. ↑ 75,0 75,1 Шаблон:Cite journal
  76. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  77. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
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