Английская Википедия:Bataan Death March

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Шаблон:Short description Шаблон:Use Philippine English Шаблон:Use mdy dates Шаблон:Infobox military conflict

The Bataan Death MarchШаблон:Efn was the forcible transfer by the Imperial Japanese Army of 75,000[1] American and Filipino prisoners of war (POW) from the municipalities of Bagac and Mariveles on the Bataan Peninsula to Camp O'Donnell via San Fernando.

The transfer began on 9 April 1942 after the three-month Battle of Bataan in the Philippines during World War II. The total distance marched from Mariveles to San Fernando and from the Capas Train Station to various camps was Шаблон:Convert. Sources also report widely differing prisoner of war casualties prior to reaching Camp O'Donnell: from 5,000 to 18,000 Filipino deaths and 500 to 650 American deaths during the march.

The march was characterized by severe physical abuse and wanton killings. If an American or Filipino POW was caught on the ground or fell, he would be instantly shot. After the war, the Japanese commander, General Masaharu Homma and two of his officers, Major General Yoshitaka Kawane and Colonel Kurataro Hirano, were tried by United States military commissions for war crimes and sentenced to death on charges of failing to prevent their subordinates from committing atrocities. Homma was executed in 1946, while Kawane and Hirano were executed in 1949.

Background

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General Edward P. King discusses surrender terms with Japanese officers to end the Battle of Bataan

Prelude

When General Douglas MacArthur returned to active duty, the latest revision of plans for the defense of the Philippine Islands—War Plan Orange 3 (WPO-3)—was politically unrealistic, as it assumed a conflict only involving the United States and Japan, not the combined Axis powers. However, the plan was tactically sound, and its provisions for defense were applicable under any local situation.[2]

Under WPO-3, the mission of the Philippine garrison was to hold the entrance to Manila Bay and deny its use to Japanese naval forces. If the enemy prevailed, the Americans were to hold back the Japanese advance while withdrawing to the Bataan Peninsula, which was recognized as the key to the control of Manila Bay. It was to be defended to the "last extremity".[3] MacArthur assumed command of the Allied army in July 1941 and rejected WPO-3 as defeatist, preferring a more aggressive course of action.[4] He recommended—among other things—a coastal defense strategy that would include the entire archipelago. His recommendations were followed in the plan that was eventually approved.[5]

The main force of General Masaharu Homma's 14th Army came ashore at Lingayen Gulf on the morning of 22 December 1941. The defenders failed to hold the beaches. By the end of the day, the Japanese had secured most of their objectives and were in position to emerge onto the central plain. Late in the afternoon of 23 December General Jonathan Wainwright telephoned MacArthur's headquarters in Manila and informed him that any further defense of the Lingayen beaches was "impracticable". He requested and was given permission to withdraw behind the Agno River. MacArthur decided to abandon his own plan for defense and revert to WPO-3, evacuating President Manuel L. Quezon, High Commissioner Francis B. Sayre, their families, and his own headquarters to Corregidor on 24 December. A rear echelon, headed by the deputy chief of staff, Brigadier General Richard J. Marshall, remained behind in Manila to close out the headquarters and to supervise the shipment of supplies and the evacuation of the remaining troops.[6]

On 26 December Manila was officially declared an open city, and MacArthur's proclamation was published in the newspapers and broadcast over the radio.[7]

The Battle of Bataan began on 7 January 1942 and continued until 9 April when the United States Army Forces in the Far East (USAFFE) commander, Major General Edward P. King, surrendered to Colonel Mootoo Nakayama of the 14th Army.[8]

Allied surrender

Homma and his staff encountered almost twice as many captives as his reports had estimated, creating an enormous logistical challenge: the transport and movement of over 60,000 starved, sick, and debilitated prisoners and over 38,000 equally weakened civilian noncombatants who had been caught up in the battle. He wanted to move prisoners and refugees to the north to get them out of the way of Homma's final assault on Corregidor, but there was simply not enough mechanized transport for the wounded, sick, and weakened masses.[9]

Forced march

Файл:Bataan Death March route vector.svg
Route of the death march. The section from San Fernando to Capas was by rail cars.[10][11]
Файл:The March of Death. Along the March (on which) these prisoners were photographed, they have their hands tied behind... - NARA - 532548.tif
Prisoners photographed during the march. They have their hands tied behind their backs. They are (left to right): Pvt Samuel Stenzler (d. May 1942); Pvt Frank Spears (killed June 1945); Capt John McDonnell Gallagher who died shortly after this picture was taken 9 April 1942
Файл:Pantingan Burials extract NARA RG 92 Box 410.jpg
Portion of Bataan disinterment map highlighting the site of the Panintingan massacre

Following the surrender of Bataan on 9 April 1942 to the Imperial Japanese Army, prisoners were amassed in the towns of Mariveles and Bagac.[8][12]Шаблон:Page needed They were ordered to turn over their possessions. American Lieutenant Kermit Lay recounted how this was done: Шаблон:Blockquote

Файл:San Fernando station Death March Memorial.jpg
San Fernando station (Pampanga) April 1942 monument

Word quickly spread among the prisoners to conceal or destroy any Japanese money or mementos, as their captors would assume it had been stolen from dead Japanese soldiers.[13]

Шаблон:Blockquote

Prisoners started out from Mariveles on 10 April and from Bagac on 11 April, converging in Pilar and heading north to the San Fernando railhead.[8] At the beginning, there were rare instances of kindness by Japanese officers and those Japanese soldiers who spoke English, such as the sharing of food and cigarettes and permitting personal possessions to be kept. This, however, was quickly followed by unrelenting brutality, theft, and even knocking men's teeth out for gold fillings, as the common Japanese soldier had also suffered in the battle for Bataan and had nothing but disgust and hatred for his "captives" (Japan did not recognize these people as POWs).[9] The first atrocity—attributed to Colonel Masanobu Tsuji[14]—occurred when approximately 350 to 400 Filipino officers and non-commissioned officers under his supervision were summarily executed in the Pantingan River massacre after they had surrendered.[15][16] Tsuji—acting against General Homma's wishes that the prisoners be transferred peacefully—had issued clandestine orders to Japanese officers to summarily execute all American "captives".[9] Although some Japanese officers ignored the orders, others were receptive to the idea of murdering POWs.[17]

During the march, prisoners received little food or water, and many died.[4][18] They were subjected to severe physical abuse, including beatings and torture.[19] On the march, the "sun treatment" was a common form of torture. Prisoners were forced to sit in sweltering direct sunlight without helmets or other head coverings. Anyone who asked for water was shot dead. Some men were told to strip naked or sit within sight of fresh, cool water.[13] Trucks drove over some of those who fell or succumbed to fatigue,[20][21][22] and "cleanup crews" killed those too weak to continue, though trucks picked up some of those too fatigued to go on. Prisoners were randomly stabbed with bayonets or beaten.[4][23]Шаблон:Page needed

Once the surviving prisoners arrived in Balanga, the overcrowded conditions and poor hygiene caused dysentery and other diseases to spread rapidly. The Japanese did not provide the prisoners with medical care, so U.S. medical personnel tended to the sick and wounded with few or no supplies.[18] Upon arrival at the San Fernando railhead, prisoners were stuffed into sweltering, brutally hot metal box cars for the one-hour trip to Capas, in Шаблон:Convert heat. At least 100 prisoners were pushed into each of the unventilated boxcars. The trains had no sanitation facilities, and disease continued to take a heavy toll on the prisoners. According to Staff Sergeant Alf Larson: Шаблон:Blockquote

Upon arrival at the Capas train station, they were forced to walk the final Шаблон:Convert to Camp O'Donnell.[18] Even after arriving at Camp O'Donnell, the survivors of the march continued to die at rates of up to several hundred per day, which amounted to a death toll of as many as 20,000 Americans and Filipinos.[24] Most of the dead were buried in mass graves that the Japanese had dug behind the barbed wire surrounding the compound.[25] Of the estimated 80,000 POWs at the march, only 54,000 made it to Camp O'Donnell.[26]

The total distance of the march from Mariveles to San Fernando and from Capas to Camp O'Donnell is variously reported by differing sources as between Шаблон:Convert.[8][26][27][28] The Death March was later judged by an Allied military commission to be a Japanese war crime.[19]

Casualty estimates

Файл:March of Death from Bataan to the prison camp - Dead soldiers.jpg
Fallen soldiers during the Death March

In an attempt to calculate the number of deaths during the march on the basis of evidence, Stanley L. Falk takes the number of American and Filipino troops known to have been present in Bataan at the start of April, subtracts the number known to have escaped to Corregidor and the number known to have remained in the hospital at Bataan. He makes a conservative estimate of the number killed in the final days of fighting and of the number who fled into the jungle rather than surrender to the Japanese. On this basis he suggests 600 to 650 American deaths and 5,000 to 10,000 Filipino deaths.[12]Шаблон:Page needed Other sources report death numbers ranging from 5,000 to 18,000 Filipino deaths and 500 to 650 American deaths during the march.[15]Шаблон:Page needed[18][26][27][29][30]Шаблон:Page needed[31]Шаблон:Page needed[32]Шаблон:Page needed

Wartime public responses

Файл:Anti-Japan2.png
News of the Bataan Death March sparked outrage in the US, as reflected in this poster.

United States

Файл:Hayward, California. As Bataan fell, as recorded in these newspapers of April 9, 1942, evacuation o . . . - NARA - 536016.tif
Newspapers in a Hayward, California newsstand, after the fall of Bataan

It was not until 27 January 1944 that the U.S. government informed the American public about the march, when it released sworn statements of military officers who had escaped.[33] Shortly thereafter, the stories of these officers were featured in a Life magazine article.[34][35] The Bataan Death March and other Japanese actions were used to arouse fury in the United States.[36] America would go on to avenge its defeat that occurred in the Philippines during the Battle of Leyte in October 1944. When MacArthur famously promised to return to the Philippines, and he kept his word in February 1945, U.S. and Filipino forces went on to recapture the Bataan Peninsula, and Manila was liberated in early March.[1]

General George Marshall made the following statement: Шаблон:Blockquote

Japanese

In an attempt to counter the American propaganda value of the march, the Japanese had The Manila Times report that the prisoners were treated humanely and their death rate had to be attributed to the intransigence of the American commanders who did not surrender until the men were on the verge of death.[37]

War crimes trial

Файл:Japanese War Crimes Trials. Manila - NARA - 292609.tif
Japanese War Crimes Trials in Manila, 1945

In September 1945, Homma was arrested by Allied troops and indicted for war crimes.[38] He was charged with 43 separate counts, but the verdict did not distinguish among them, leaving some doubt over whether he was found guilty of them all.[39] Homma was found guilty of permitting members of his command to commit "brutal atrocities and other high crimes".[40] The general, who had been absorbed in his efforts to capture Corregidor after the fall of Bataan, claimed in his defense that he remained ignorant of the high death toll of the death march until two months after the event.[41] Homma's verdict was predicated on the doctrine of respondeat superior but with an added liability standard, since the latter could not be rebutted.[42] On 26 February 1946 he was sentenced to death by firing squad and was executed on 3 April outside Manila.[38]

Tsuji, who had directly ordered the killing of POWs, fled to China from Thailand when the war ended to escape the British authorities.[43] Two of Homma's subordinates, Major General Yoshitaka Kawane and Colonel Kurataro Hirano, were prosecuted by an American military commission in Yokohama in 1948, using evidence presented at the Homma trial. They were sentenced to death by hanging and executed at Sugamo Prison on 12 June 1949.[44][45][46]

Post-war commemorations, apologies, and memorials

Шаблон:Main

Файл:Bataan Death March Memorial Las Cruces NM.jpg
Bataan Death March Memorial featuring Filipino and American soldiers at the Veterans Memorial Park in Las Cruces, New Mexico

On 13 September 2010 Japanese Foreign Minister Katsuya Okada apologized to a group of six former American soldiers who had been held as prisoners of war by the Japanese, including 90-year-old Lester Tenney and Robert Rosendahl, both survivors of the Bataan Death March. The six, their families, and the families of two deceased soldiers were invited to visit Japan at the expense of the Japanese government.[47]

In 2012, film producer Jan Thompson created a film documentary about the Death March, POW camps, and Japanese hell ships titled Never the Same: The Prisoner-of-War Experience. The film reproduced scenes of the camps and ships showed drawings and writings of the prisoners, and featured Loretta Swit as the narrator.[48][49]

Dozens of memorials (including monuments, plaques, and schools) dedicated to the prisoners who died during the Bataan Death March exist across the United States and in the Philippines. A wide variety of commemorative events are held to honor the victims, including holidays, athletic events such as ultramarathons, and memorial ceremonies held at military cemeteries.

New Mexico

Файл:24th annual Bataan Memorial Death March marathon 130317-A-UK859-128.jpg
The 2013 Bataan Memorial Death March at the White Sands Missile Range

The Bataan Death March had a large impact on New Mexico,[50] given that many of the American soldiers in Bataan were from that state, specifically from the 200th and 515th Coast Artillery of the National Guard.[51] The New Mexico National Guard Bataan Memorial Museum is located in the armory where the soldiers of the 200th and 515th were processed before their deployment to the Philippines in 1941.[52] The old state capitol building of New Mexico was renamed the Bataan Memorial Building and now houses several state government agency offices.[53]

Every year in early spring, the Bataan Memorial Death March, a marathon-length Шаблон:Convert march/run, is conducted at the White Sands Missile Range.[54][55] On 19 March 2017 over 6,300 participants queued up at the starting line for the 28th annual event, breaking the previous record of attendance as well as the amount of non-perishable food collected for local food pantries and overall charitable goods donated.

The 200th and 515th Coast Artillery units had 1,816 men total. 829 died in battle, while prisoners, or immediately after liberation. There were 987 survivors.[56] Шаблон:As of, only four of these veterans remained alive.[57]

Diego Garcia, British Indian Ocean Territory

Due to the large population of Filipino workers on the island of Diego Garcia in the British Indian Ocean Territory, an annual memorial march is held. The date varies, but the marchers leave from the marina around 06:00 traveling by boat to Barton Point, where they proceed south to the plantation ruins. The memorial march is conducted by Filipino workers, British Royal Marines, British Royal Military Police, and United States sailors from various commands across the island.Шаблон:Citation needed

Notable captives and survivors

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See also

Шаблон:Portal Шаблон:Columns-list

Notes

Шаблон:Notelist

References

Шаблон:Reflist

Further reading

External links

Шаблон:Commons category

Шаблон:Authority control

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  2. ↑ Шаблон:Cite book p.61
  3. ↑ Шаблон:Cite book p.62
  4. ↑ 4,0 4,1 4,2 Шаблон:Cite book
  5. ↑ Шаблон:Cite book p.67
  6. ↑ Шаблон:Cite book p.233
  7. ↑ Шаблон:Cite book p.232
  8. ↑ 8,0 8,1 8,2 8,3 Шаблон:Cite web
  9. ↑ 9,0 9,1 9,2 Шаблон:Cite book
  10. ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
  11. ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
  12. ↑ 12,0 12,1 Шаблон:Cite bookШаблон:Page needed
  13. ↑ 13,0 13,1 Ошибка цитирования Неверный тег <ref>; для сносок greenberger не указан текст
  14. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  15. ↑ 15,0 15,1 Шаблон:Cite bookШаблон:Page needed
  16. ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
  17. ↑ Kevin C. Murphy, Inside the Bataan Death March: Defeat, Travail and Memory, pp. 29–30
  18. ↑ 18,0 18,1 18,2 18,3 Шаблон:Cite book
  19. ↑ 19,0 19,1 Шаблон:Cite web
  20. ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
  21. ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
  22. ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
  23. ↑ Шаблон:Cite bookШаблон:Page needed
  24. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  25. ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
  26. ↑ 26,0 26,1 26,2 Шаблон:Cite web
  27. ↑ 27,0 27,1 Шаблон:Cite web
  28. ↑ Шаблон:Cite webШаблон:Dead link
  29. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  30. ↑ Шаблон:Cite bookШаблон:Page needed
  31. ↑ Шаблон:Cite bookШаблон:Page needed
  32. ↑ Шаблон:Cite bookШаблон:Page needed
  33. ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
  34. ↑ Шаблон:Cite magazine
  35. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  36. ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
  37. ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
  38. ↑ 38,0 38,1 Шаблон:Cite book
  39. ↑ Yuma Totani, Justice in Asia and the Pacific region, 1945-1952: Allied war crimes prosecutions (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2015), pp. 40–46
  40. ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
  41. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  42. ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
  43. ↑ Inside the Bataan Death March: Defeat, Travail and Memory: Kevin C. Murphy p.30-31
  44. ↑ John L. Ginn, Sugamo Prison, Tokyo: an account of the trial and sentencing of Japanese war criminals in 1948, by a U.S. participant (Jefferson NC: McFarland, 1992), pp. 101–105.
  45. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  46. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  47. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  48. ↑ Шаблон:Cite news
  49. ↑ Among others, additional narration was provided by Ed Asner, Alec Baldwin, Kathleen Turner, and Robert Wagner. Шаблон:Cite web
  50. ↑ Шаблон:Cite news
  51. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  52. ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
  53. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  54. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  55. ↑ Шаблон:Cite news
  56. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  57. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  58. ↑ Shofner was an American officer, captured on Corregidor, who escaped DaPeCol in 1943.
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