Английская Википедия:Battle of the Espero Convoy
Шаблон:Short description Шаблон:Use British English Шаблон:Use dmy dates Шаблон:Infobox military conflict The Battle of the Espero Convoy (Шаблон:Lang) on 28 June 1940, was the first surface engagement between Italian and Allied warships of the Second World War. Three Шаблон:Cvt Italian destroyers made a run from Taranto for Tobruk in Libya to transport Blackshirt (Шаблон:Lang) anti-tank units, in case of an armoured attack from Egypt by the British.
By coincidence, the Mediterranean Fleet was at sea to conduct a destroyer anti-submarine sweep around Crete and provide cover for three Allied convoys to Egypt, one from Turkey and two from Malta. British aircraft from Malta spotted the Italian destroyers and the 7th Cruiser Squadron turned to intercept them; a running fight took place south-west of Crete, in which the destroyers were impeded by their cargoes and an adverse sea.
The Italian destroyer Шаблон:Lang (Captain Enrico Baroni) was sunk while covering the escape of the destroyers Шаблон:Ship and Шаблон:Ship to Benghazi; 53 of the 225 crew and passengers were rescued, three of whom died of their wounds. The British and Australian cruisers expended a huge amount of ammunition and the Malta convoys had to be postponed until they had replenished from the eight hundred 6-inch shells in reserve. Convoy AS 1 from Turkey arrived safely by 3 July.
Background
Italian belligerence
Шаблон:Location map+ Supply shipments to Italian Libya (Шаблон:Lang) were landed at the ports of Tripoli [[[:Шаблон:Cvt]] per day], Benghazi [[[:Шаблон:Cvt]] per day] and Tobruk with a capacity of less than Шаблон:Cvt per day, with some deliveries possible to Derna and Bardia. Once landed, supplies and men had to be moved by lorry or small coastal craft. In late 1939, assuming overwhelming Anglo-French naval superiority, Marshal Pietro Badoglio, the Chief of Staff of the Italian Army, established a policy of maintaining internal security and to have supplies sufficient for a year.Шаблон:Sfn On 9 April, Badoglio met the three service chiefs and announced the
and ordered that the Шаблон:Lang (Italian Royal Army) was to remain on the defensive as the Шаблон:Lang and the Шаблон:Lang (Italian Royal Air Force) conducted offensive operations. On 30 May, Badoglio ordered the service chiefs to be ready for hostilities by 5 June.Шаблон:Sfn Italian war aims were to fight parallel with Germany, to dominate the Balkans, establish a land route to Шаблон:Lang (Italian East Africa) and assure access to Spain and the Black Sea.Шаблон:Sfn
Italian sea communications
On 11 April, the naval chief of staff, Admiral Domenico Cavagnari, reported his doubts about the possibility of offensive action against opponents who could replace losses far quicker than Italy. Going to war with a defensive strategy was unprecedented and at the end of the war, Italy might have no territorial gains, no navy and no air force. The navy planned to keep its forces concentrated to generate maximum firepower, which precluded the protection of merchant shipping, except on rare occasions; the French to the west and British to the east meant that convoying ships from Italy to Libya would be impossible. Benito Mussolini saw off such doubts by predicting a war of three months' duration, when Libya had six months' supplies.Шаблон:Sfn
Only on 10 June did Mussolini direct that the military forces in Italian Libya be reinforced for offensive operations and that the Шаблон:Lang was to protect the supply routes in the central Mediterranean.Шаблон:Sfn On 13 June, the first request arrived from Libya for the dispatch of "indispensable" supplies.Шаблон:Sfn In 1940, the Шаблон:Lang had two modernised battleships and 19 cruisers to challenge the British and French Mediterranean fleets of three aircraft carriers, eleven battleships and 23 cruisers, a superiority of 4:1 in tonnage, which could be reinforced from outside the Mediterranean at will. The British ships were based at Gibraltar and Alexandria, with no ships based at Malta and the French at Toulon and Bizerte, the main Italian bases being Naples and Taranto, with small forces based in Sicilian ports. The Italian forces could unite by sailing through the Strait of Messina but the narrows were an obvious place for an ambush.Шаблон:Sfn
Air power
The Шаблон:Lang had advocated for the retention of a naval air arm after the First World War but with the creation of the Шаблон:Lang in 1923, lost control of naval aviation. The proponents of land-based air power disdained the naval preference for aircraft carriers and specialist aircraft, in favour of land-based aircraft fulfilling the requirements of maritime aviation, apart from an acceptance of the need for reconnaissance by "Aviation for the Navy" in which the navy had operational control and sent observers aloft. The Шаблон:Lang followed the theory of independent air operations "according to its own rules" and paid insufficient attention to the needs of the Шаблон:Lang. Promising experiments with air-launched torpedoes from 1918 to 1922 were stifled by the new independent air force and even after the example of the British Fleet Air Arm experiments with torpedo-bombers, attempts by the Шаблон:Lang in 1938 to gain control of a naval torpedo-bomber force failed.Шаблон:Sfn
Prelude
On 10 June 1940, Italy declared war on Britain and France. Badoglio expected a British advance into Cyrenaica (eastern Libya) led by armoured forces. On 11 June, the 3rd and 7th Cruiser divisions conducted an abortive patrol in the Strait of Sicily; next morning, two British cruisers were spotted south of Crete heading west and the 3rd Cruiser Division and two destroyer squadrons were sent to patrol the route to Malta. The 1st and 8th Cruiser squadrons patrolled the Ionian Sea and two destroyer squadrons sailed between Sicily and Malta. On 12 June, an Italian Giovanni Berta-class naval trawler was sunk off Tobruk by two British cruisers and four destroyers; the Italian submarine Шаблон:Ship sank Шаблон:HMS south of Crete. From 11 June to 16 August, the specialist Шаблон:Lang Group dredged up the seven British cables from the seabed around Malta and took away thousands of yards of cable to prevent them from being reconnected.Шаблон:Sfn
Italian supply operations
The difficulty of escorting merchant ships to Tobruk led to a decision to use warships and submarines. On 19 June, the Italian submarine Zoea sailed for Tobruk carrying ammunition; the next day, a destroyer squadron led by Шаблон:Ship, departed Augusta for Benghazi, carrying troops and anti-tank guns. On 25 June a convoy with escorts left Naples for Tripoli with Шаблон:Nowrap and supplies; the submarine Bragadin departed for Libya with equipment for the airfield at Tobruk. The Italian Turbine-class destroyers of the 2nd Destroyer Squadron, Шаблон:Ship (flagship, Шаблон:Lang Enrico Baroni), Шаблон:Ship and Шаблон:Ship were chosen to transport anti-tank units for their high speed [[[:Шаблон:Cvt]]] and loading capacity.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Efn Two smaller First World War-era escort vessels, Шаблон:Lang and Missori with 52 troops and more supplies, departed Taranto independently for Tobruk some hours later.Шаблон:Sfn
Operation MA 3
On 27 June, five destroyers were to sail from Alexandria on an anti-submarine sweep near the Ionian island of Kythira off the western cast of Greece and then sail on to Malta to form the close escort for Convoy MF 1 [[[:Шаблон:Cvt]]] and Convoy MS 2 to Alexandria. Intelligence about Italian submarines led to the sweep being diverted through the Kasos Strait east of Crete, then north of the island, thence past Kythira to Malta.Шаблон:Sfn Short Sunderland flying boats of 201 Group RAF, based in Malta, were to co-operate with the naval operations in the Ionian Sea.Шаблон:Sfn On the Italian declaration of war, the passenger liner El Nil, en route for Egypt from Marseilles, Knight of Malta and an interned Italian ship Шаблон:Lang were in Malta; in Operation MA 3 these ships formed the fast Convoy MF 1 .Шаблон:Sfnm
Five slower ships, Zeeland, Kirkland, Masirah, Novasli and Tweed, carrying naval stores for Alexandria, formed the slow Convoy MS 1 [[[:Шаблон:Cvt]]] to depart from Malta for Alexandria. Convoy MF 1 carried civilians being evacuated from Malta and the Mediterranean Fleet was to sortie to protect them in Operation MA 5. Convoy AS 1, with seven ships, was to sail from the Dardanelles to Egypt, four ships joining from Salonika, Piraeus and Smyrna (İzmir), escorted by the light cruisers Шаблон:HMS and Шаблон:HMS of the 3rd Cruiser Squadron and the destroyers Шаблон:HMS, Шаблон:HMS, Шаблон:HMS and Шаблон:HMAS, due to depart from Cape Helles early on 28 June.Шаблон:Sfnm
The timing of the departures was arranged so that on 30 June the three convoys would be at Position K (35°N, 22°E), south of Cape Matapan, about halfway between Malta and Alexandria.Шаблон:Sfn Five cruisers of the 7th Cruiser Squadron (also known as Force C, Vice-Admiral John Tovey) with the 1st Cruiser Division, the Leander class cruisers (eight 6-inch guns) Шаблон:HMS (flagship), Шаблон:HMS, Шаблон:HMAS and the 2nd Cruiser Division, the Town (Gloucester) class cruisers (twelve 6-inch guns) Шаблон:HMS and Шаблон:HMS, were to sail west of Crete near Position K.Шаблон:Sfnm
The 1st Battle Squadron (Rear-Admiral Henry Pridham-Wippell) with Шаблон:HMS, Шаблон:HMS, the aircraft carrier Шаблон:HMS and the 2nd Destroyer Flotilla, were to be south-west of Crete, also near Position K, ready to intervene according to circumstances.Шаблон:Sfnm At Шаблон:Nowrap on 26 June, Caledon, Garland and Vampire sailed from Alexandria to rendezvous with Capetown, Nubian and Mohawk the next day while heading for the Dardanelles. A dawn on 27 June, five ships of the 2nd Destroyer Flotilla departed Alexandria and at Шаблон:Nowrap the 7th Cruiser Squadron left for Position K.Шаблон:Sfn
27 June
As the sun set, the 2nd Destroyer Flotilla of Шаблон:HMAS, Шаблон:HMS, Шаблон:HMS, Шаблон:HMS and Шаблон:HMS were Шаблон:Cvt north of Alexandria. At Шаблон:Nowrap while Шаблон:Cvt south-east of Crete, the flotilla spotted a submarine, Liuzzi, which quickly dived. Four of the destroyers made depth-charge attacks and after the fifth an oil slick was seen and trailed by Dainty. The submarine had been badly damaged by the depth charging and was eventually forced to the surface. After a hunt of ninety minutes the submarine was seen again at Шаблон:Cvt and two destroyers fired on the submarines.Шаблон:Sfn
A white light was taken to indicate surrender; Dainty moved closer and began to take on survivors, along with other destroyers which lowered boats to rescue the Italians in the water. According to one British source, three hours fifteen minutes elapsed before the last two men from the submarine were taken off and the boat was sunk with depth charges.Шаблон:Sfn According to Italian sources, Liuzzi was scuttled by its crew; ten men were killed in the engagement, including the commander Шаблон:Lang Lorenzo Bezzi, who went down with the submarine.[1]
Battle
On 28 June, the Italian destroyers were spotted at Шаблон:Nowrap by a 228 Squadron Sunderland (L.5806) from Malta, about Шаблон:Cvt west of Zakynthos in the Ionian Sea, to the west of Greece and about Шаблон:Cvt from Position K.Шаблон:Sfn No course was given by the Sunderland crew and the Italian ships were thought to be heading for Kythira; at Шаблон:Nowrap the 7th Cruiser squadron turned north to intercept the Italian ships. At Шаблон:Nowrap a sighting by Sunderland (L.5803) had them still heading south, about Шаблон:Cvt from Orion. Tovey ordered a turn to the south-west and an increase in speed to Шаблон:Cvt. The cruisers sailed on a course of 180°, the 1st Cruiser Division, Orion, Neptune and Sydney to overhaul the Italians to starboard and the 2nd Cruiser Division, Liverpool and Gloucester, about Шаблон:Cvt apart from them, to overtake them to port.Шаблон:Sfn
The Italian destroyers were steaming south-east at high speed when they were spotted by Liverpool at Шаблон:Nowrap about Шаблон:Cvt north of Tobruk; the cruiser commenced firing three minutes later at Шаблон:Cvt. The Italian ships had the notional speed to outrun the cruisers but their age, heavy loads and the sea state meant that the British ships slowly caught up.Шаблон:Sfn The Italians had been taken by surprise and could not launch torpedoes because of their deck cargoes but they were difficult to hit as they made smoke, darkness gathered and the ships sailed towards the afterglow of the sun. At Шаблон:Nowrap Neptune reported torpedoes and the British ships changed course to comb the spread. The 2nd Cruiser Division concentrated on Шаблон:Lang and by Шаблон:Nowrap had closed the range to Шаблон:Cvt and the 1st Division turned 50° to starboard to bring all their turrets to bear ("opening 'A' arcs") but Шаблон:Lang was not hit until the fifteenth salvo.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Baroni realised that his overloaded ships were doomed and decided to sacrifice Шаблон:Lang to enable the other two to escape, laid smoke and manoeuvred evasively as Шаблон:Lang and Шаблон:Lang raced south-west.Шаблон:Sfn At Шаблон:Nowrap Шаблон:Lang was hit and brought to a stop.Шаблон:Sfn
As night was falling and short of ammunition, Tovey abandoned the chase ten minutes later and changed course for Malta. Tovey ordered Sydney to finish off Шаблон:Lang and when at Шаблон:Cvt received two shells from Шаблон:Lang and replied with four salvoes, scoring hits. Шаблон:Lang began to burn from the bow to midships and at Шаблон:Nowrap Sydney closed to Шаблон:Cvt astern of the destroyer. Men jumped from the burning ship and there was an explosion near the bridge. At Шаблон:Nowrap with a list of almost 90°, Шаблон:Lang sank at Шаблон:Coord. Sydney lowered both of its boats to rescue survivors and used Jacob's ladders and Bosun's chairs to bring them aboard. The glare from Шаблон:Lang before it sank and the presence of Italian submarines led to the rescue effort being ended at Шаблон:Nowrap when all 47 survivors in sight had been collected. Sydney left behind one of the cutters with oars, sails, foodstuffs, water and rifles, illuminated with a signal projector so that remaining survivors could board it. Three of the survivors died before the ship reached Alexandria and six others were found alive on a raft by the Italian submarine Topazio fourteen days later.Шаблон:Sfnm
Aftermath
Analysis
The engagement had lasted for about two hours and ten minutes; the 7th Cruiser Squadron fired about 5,000 shells. An Italian Шаблон:Cvt shell hit Liverpool Шаблон:Cvt above the waterline but caused little damage.Шаблон:Sfn Some of the prisoners on Sydney disclosed the purpose of the operation, that Шаблон:Lang had a company of 225 men and passengers embarked and that Baroni had been killed in the explosion near the bridge. Other survivors (including two officers), later questioned by an Italian enquiry commission about the loss of Шаблон:Lang, instead stated that Baroni had survived the explosion with only minor wounds but had decided to go down with his ship.Шаблон:Sfn The ammunition consumption of the British cruisers exacerbated a shortage of ammunition at Alexandria, where only Шаблон:Nowrap shells were in stock. The Battle of the Espero Convoy demonstrated that a daylight naval action at long range was likely to be indecisive and wasteful of ammunition.Шаблон:Sfn
The 2nd Cruiser Division was so short of ammunition that it returned to Alexandria and the Malta convoys were postponed. The 1st Cruiser Division reached Alexandria on 1 July, having also been ineffectually bombed. Convoy Шаблон:Nowrap from the Aegean was attacked from 29 June to 1 July by Italian aircraft based in the Dodecanese Islands but reached Alexandria and Port Said undamaged on 2 and 3 July.Шаблон:Sfn In 1998, Greene and Massignani wrote that had Italian aircraft spotted the Allied cruisers before they came within range, all three destroyers could have escaped. Baroni was posthumously awarded the Gold Medal of Military Valour (Шаблон:Lang).Шаблон:Sfn The lack of ammunition and the danger of Italian submarines led to the two Malta convoy sailings being postponed for two weeks, followed by Operation Шаблон:Nowrap culminating in the Battle of Punta Stilo on 9 July 1940.Шаблон:Sfn
Subsequent operations
At dawn on 29 June, the 2nd Destroyer Flotilla caught the submarine Шаблон:Lang on the surface Шаблон:Cvt west of Crete. The submarine dived and was depth charged by three of the destroyers which forced it to the surface, where survivors were rescued. Dainty sank the submarine with gunfire at Шаблон:Nowrap the destroyers made for Alexandria, arriving at about Шаблон:Nowrap on 30 June. The prisoners talked of a submarine patrol line between Crete and the African coast and two destroyers were despatched from Alexandria to Derna on an anti-submarine sortie. The ships detected a submerged submarine on 1 July, attacked and claimed its sinking; when the ships returned on 2 July the claim was disallowed.Шаблон:Sfn Zeffiro and Ostro had reached Benghazi on 29 June and arrived at Tobruk shortly after.Шаблон:Sfn The smaller Pilo and Missori also reached Libya after being diverted to the port of Tripoli.Шаблон:Sfn
On 5 July, nine Fairey Swordfish torpedo-bombers of 813 Naval Air Squadron, Fleet Air Arm, flew from Sidi Barrani in western Egypt, to attack the ships in Tobruk harbour. The Swordfish had twelve fighter escorts from 33 Squadron and 211 Squadron strafed the airfield, damaging eight Fiat CR.42 fighters, also flying several reconnaissance sorties. The Swordfish dropped seven torpedoes in the harbour and sank the destroyer Zeffiro, the merchantmen Manzoni and Serenitas. The destroyer Euro and the liner Liguria were damaged. On the evening after the attack, 830 Naval Air Squadron from Malta bombed the airfield at Catania in Sicily. Capetown and Caledon of the 3rd Cruiser Squadron, with four destroyers, bombarded the port of Bardia from Шаблон:Cvt at dawn on 6 July and hit two ships, before standing by to assist the crews of any aircraft damaged on the Tobruk raid; Italian aircraft attacked the ships to no effect.Шаблон:Sfn The guns of Zeffiro were salvaged from the harbour and sent to Bardia to augment the coastal defences.Шаблон:Sfn
Order of battle
Data taken from Greene and Massignani (2002) unless specified.Шаблон:Sfn
- 7th Cruiser Squadron (Vice-Admiral John Tovey)
- 1st Cruiser Division (Leander-class)
- Шаблон:HMS (Flagship)
- Шаблон:HMS
- Шаблон:HMAS
- 2nd Cruiser Division (Town-class)
Шаблон:Lang
Data taken from Greene and Massignani (2002) unless specified.Шаблон:Sfn
- 2nd Destroyer Squadron (Turbine-class destroyers)
- Шаблон:Lang (Flagship, Шаблон:Lang Enrico Baroni) [sunk]
- Шаблон:Lang
- Шаблон:Lang
Notes
Citations
References
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Further reading
External links
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