Английская Википедия:Central Atlas Tamazight grammar

Содержание

Текст

Текст

Текст

Текст

Текст

Текст

Текст

Текст

Текст

Шаблон:Short description Шаблон:About Central Atlas Tamazight (also referred to as just Tamazight) belongs to the Northern Berber branch of the Berber languages.

As a member of the Afroasiatic family, Tamazight grammar has a two-gender (tawsit) system, VSO typology, emphatic consonants (realized in Tamazight as velarized), and a templatic morphology.

Tamazight has a verbo-nominal distinction, with adjectives being a subset of verbs.

Nouns

Nouns may be masculine or feminine and singular or plural. Definiteness is not marked (even though many loanwords from Arabic contain what was originally the Arabic definite article). Normally plurals end in /-n/, singular masculines have the prefix /a-/ and plurals /i-/, and feminines have the circumfix Шаблон:IPA in singular and Шаблон:IPA in plural. In Ayt Seghrouchen initial /a/ is dropped in many singular nouns, though their plurals and construct states are similar to Ayt Ayache.

Plurals may either involve a regular change ("sound plurals"), internal vowel change ("broken plurals"), or a combination of the two. Some plurals are mixed, e.g. Шаблон:IPA ('hand') > Шаблон:IPA ('hands').

Native masculine singular nouns usually start with Шаблон:IPA in singular and Шаблон:IPA in plural, and "sound plurals" (as opposed to "broken plurals" which also take the suffix Шаблон:IPA in plural). This suffix undergoes the following assimilatory rules:

• Шаблон:IPA > Шаблон:IPA (in AA and AS)
• Шаблон:IPA > Шаблон:IPA (only AA)
• Шаблон:IPA > Шаблон:IPA) (only AA)

Native feminine usually are surrounded by Шаблон:IPA (or Шаблон:IPA) in the singular. "Sound" plurals usually take Шаблон:IPA and "Broken" plurals Шаблон:IPA.

Examples:.

/axam/-/ixamn/ 'big tent(s)' (m)

/amaziɣ/-/imaziɣn/ 'Шаблон:Not a typo' (m)

/adaʃu//-/iduʃa/ 'sandal(s)' (m)

/asrdun/-/isrdan/ 'Шаблон:Not a typo' (m)

/taxamt/-/tixamin/ 'tent(s)' (f)

/tafunast/-/tifunasin/ 'Шаблон:Not a typo' (f)

/tagrtilt/-/tigrtal/ 'mat(s)' (f)

/tamazirt/-/timizar/ 'Шаблон:Not a typo' (f)

Nouns may be put into the construct state (contrasting with free state) to indicate possession, or when the subject of a verb follows the verb. This is also used for nouns following numerals and some prepositions (note that Шаблон:IPA, 'to', only requires this for feminine nouns), as well as the word Шаблон:IPA ('and'). The construct state is formed as follows:

• In masculine nouns:

Initial Шаблон:IPA > Шаблон:IPA

Initial Шаблон:IPA > Шаблон:IPA

Initial Шаблон:IPA > Шаблон:IPA

• In feminine nouns:

Initial Шаблон:IPA > Шаблон:IPA or rarely Шаблон:IPA

Initial Шаблон:IPA > Шаблон:IPA or rarely Шаблон:IPA

Initial Шаблон:IPA > Шаблон:IPA

Examples (in AA):

Шаблон:IPA (< Шаблон:IPA) 'head of the house'

Шаблон:IPA (< Шаблон:IPA) 'the horse of the bride'

Pronouns

Tamazight's use of possessive suffixes mirrors that of many other Afroasiatic languages.

Pronouns

Person	Subject		Possessive suffix		Object1 (affixed2)
Dialect:	AA	AS	AA	AS	AA	AS
						direct object	indirect object
I	Шаблон:IPA	Шаблон:IPA	Шаблон:IPA3		Шаблон:IPA
you (ms)	Шаблон:IPA	Шаблон:IPA	Шаблон:IPA	Шаблон:IPA	Шаблон:IPA4		Шаблон:IPA
you (fs)	Шаблон:IPA	Шаблон:IPA	Шаблон:IPA		Шаблон:IPA4		Шаблон:IPA
he	Шаблон:IPA	Шаблон:IPA	Шаблон:IPA	Шаблон:IPA	Шаблон:IPA4		Шаблон:IPA
she	Шаблон:IPA						Шаблон:IPA
we (m)	Шаблон:IPA	Шаблон:IPA	Шаблон:IPA	Шаблон:IPA	Шаблон:IPA4	Шаблон:IPA
we (f)		Шаблон:IPA
you (mp)	Шаблон:IPA	Шаблон:IPA	Шаблон:IPA		Шаблон:IPA4		Шаблон:IPA
you (fp)	Шаблон:IPA	Шаблон:IPA	Шаблон:IPA	Шаблон:IPA	Шаблон:IPA4	Шаблон:IPA	Шаблон:IPA
they (m)	Шаблон:IPA		Шаблон:IPA	Шаблон:IPA	Шаблон:IPA4		Шаблон:IPA
they (f)	Шаблон:IPA	Шаблон:IPA	Шаблон:IPA	Шаблон:IPA	Шаблон:IPA4		Шаблон:IPA

1. of verbs and prepositions
2. whether objective pronouns are prefixed or suffixed is determined by various factors
3. -inw is used when the noun ends in a consonant
4. In Ayt Ayache these have the allomorphs Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, etc. after prepositions. These mutate after Шаблон:IPA (e.g. in Шаблон:IPA).

Ayt Seghrouchen also has a special set of suffixes for future transitive verbs (which combine with the future marker Шаблон:IPA):

AS future transitive pronouns

	singular		plural
	m	f	m	f
1st	Шаблон:IPA		Шаблон:IPA
2nd	Шаблон:IPA	Шаблон:IPA	Шаблон:IPA
3rd	Шаблон:IPA	Шаблон:IPA	Шаблон:IPA	Шаблон:IPA

Independent possessives are formed by attaching the possessive suffixes to Шаблон:IPA (if the object possessed is masculine) or Шаблон:IPA' (for feminine), e.g. Шаблон:IPA ('mine').

Special possessive suffixes are used with kinship terms.

Emphatics are formed with the word Шаблон:IPA, e.g. Шаблон:IPA ('I myself').

Demonstratives

	Proximate				Remote
	(s)		(pl)		(s)		(pl)
	AA	AS	AA	AS	AA	AS	AA	AS
(m)	Шаблон:IPA	Шаблон:IPA	Шаблон:IPA	Шаблон:IPA	Шаблон:IPA	Шаблон:IPA	Шаблон:IPA	Шаблон:IPA
(f)	Шаблон:IPA	Шаблон:IPA	Шаблон:IPA	Шаблон:IPA	Шаблон:IPA	Шаблон:IPA	Шаблон:IPA	Шаблон:IPA
suffixes	Шаблон:IPA1 / Шаблон:IPA2				Шаблон:IPA

1. Ayt Ayache
2. Ayt Seghrouchen

When Шаблон:IPA / Шаблон:IPA / Шаблон:IPA is suffixed to a noun ending in Шаблон:IPA or Шаблон:IPA epenthetic Шаблон:IPA is inserted, e.g. Шаблон:IPA ('this pack-saddle').

Other deictic suffixes: Шаблон:IPA ('this'), Шаблон:IPA ('that'), e.g. Шаблон:IPA ('this house'), Шаблон:IPA ('that house').

Verbs

Verbs are marked for tense, aspect, mood, voice, and polarity, and agree with the number, person, and gender of the subject.

Verb framing

Satellite framing is accomplished with the proximate affix /d/ (/dː/ in AS) and remote /nː/, e.g. /dːu/ 'to go' yields /i-dːa/ 'he went', /i-dːa-d/ 'he came', /i-dːa-nː/ 'he went there' (in AS the verb /rˠaħ/ 'to go' is used instead)

Voice

Derived verb stems may be made from basic verb stems to create causatives, reciprocals, recipro-causatives, passives, or habituals.

Causatives are derived from unaugmented stems with the prefix /s(ː)-/.

/ħudr/ 'bend' > /sħudr/

Habituals are derived from unaugmented and reciprocal/recipro-causative stems with the prefix /tː-/ (sometimes with internal change), from causatives by an infixed vowel, and from passives by an optional infixed vowel: /fa/ 'yawn' > /tːfa/

(/ħudr/ 'bend' >) /sħudr/ > /sħudur/

(/ʕum/ 'swim' > /mːsʕum/ >) /tːmːsʕum/

(/bdr/ 'mention' > /tːubdr/ >) /tːubdar/

Reciprocals are formed with the prefix /m(ː)-/, and recipro-causatives with /-m(ː)s-/, sometimes with internal change.

/sal/ 'ask' > /mːsal/

Passives are formed with the prefix /tːu-/: /ħnːa/ 'pity' > /tːuħnːa/

Tense, mode, and subject

Шаблон:IPA marks future tense, Шаблон:IPA marks interrogative mode, and Шаблон:IPA marks negative mode.

Pronominal complement markers cliticize to the verb, with the indirect object preceding the direct object, e.g. /izn-as-t/ "he sold it to him".

Tamazight subject affixes Subject (AA) (AS) s 1 Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA 2 Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA 3 m Шаблон:IPA f Шаблон:IPA pl 1 Шаблон:IPA 2 m Шаблон:IPA f Шаблон:IPA 3 m Шаблон:IPA f Шаблон:IPA

Past-tense conjugation of Шаблон:IPA 'cure' (Ayt Ayache) Subject Affirmative Negative s. 1 Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA 2 Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA 3 m Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA f Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA pl. 1 Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA 2 m Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA f Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA 3 m Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA f Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA

Central Atlas Tamazight uses a bipartite negative construction (e.g. /uriffiɣ ʃa/ 'he didn't go out') which apparently was modeled after proximate Arabic varieties, in a common development known as Jespersen's Cycle. This is a phenomenon where a postverbal item is reanalyzed as being an element of a discontinuous negation marker composed of it and the preverbal negation marker. It is present in multiple Berber varieties, and is argued to have originated in neighboring Arabic and been adopted by contact.

Standard negation is accompanied by a negative indefinite pronoun, walu.

Imperative conjugation of Шаблон:IPA 'run' in 2nd person

		AA	AS
s		Шаблон:IPA
pl	(m)	Шаблон:IPA	Шаблон:IPA
	(f)	Шаблон:IPA

Tamazight has a null copula. The words Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA 'to be, to do' may function as a copula in Ayt Ayache and Ayt Seghrouchen respectively, especially in structures preceded by /aj/ 'who, which, what'.

Many Arabic loans have been integrated into the Tamazight verb lexicon. They adhere fully to patterns of native stems, and may even undergo ablaut.

Ablaut

In Ayt Ayache, ablaut occurs only in affirmative and/or negative past (in applicable verb classes). Types of ablaut include Ø:i/a, Ø:i, and a:u, which may be accompanied by metathesis. In Ayt Seghrouchen types of ablaut include Ø:i (in negative), i/a, i/u, a-u, and a-i.

Adjectives

Adjectives come after the noun they modify, and inflect for number and gender:

/argaz amʕdur/ 'the foolish man' (lit. 'man foolish')

/tamtˤot tamʕdurt/ 'the foolish woman'

/irgzen imʕdar/ 'the foolish men'

/tajtʃin timʕdar/ 'the foolish women'

Adjectives may also occur alone, in which case they become an NP.

Practically all adjectives also have a verbal form used for predicative purposes, which behaves just like a normal verb:

/i-mmuʕdr urgaz/ 'the man is foolish' (lit. '3ps-foolish man')

/argaz i-mmuʕdr-n/ 'the foolish man' [using a non-finite verb]

As such, adjectives may be classed as a subset of verbs which also have other non-verbal features. However Penchoen (1973:21) argues that they are actually nouns.

Particles

Prepositions

Prepositions include Шаблон:IPA ('on'), Шаблон:IPA ('before'), Шаблон:IPA ('to'), and Шаблон:IPA ('until'). These may take pronominal suffixes (see Pronouns).

Some prepositions require the following noun to be in the construct state, while others do not.

Prepositions requiring construct state Tamazight Gloss Шаблон:IPA1 'to' Шаблон:IPA 'to' Шаблон:IPA 'in' Шаблон:IPA 'with (instrumental)' Шаблон:IPA 'like' Шаблон:IPA 'on' Шаблон:IPA 'from' Шаблон:IPA 'with' Шаблон:IPA 'of' Шаблон:IPA 'under' Шаблон:IPA 'between' only requires construct state if the following noun is feminine

Prepositions not requiring construct state Tamazight Gloss Шаблон:IPA 'to (directional)' Шаблон:IPA 'before' Шаблон:IPA 'after' Шаблон:IPA 'without' Шаблон:IPA 'until (to)' Шаблон:IPA 'until (to)'

Шаблон:IPA encliticizes onto the following word (which is put into construct state), and assimilates to some initial consonants: it becomes Шаблон:IPA before a noun with initial Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA before initial Шаблон:IPA, and Шаблон:IPA before initial Шаблон:IPA (note that this creates geminates rather than doubled phonemes, e.g. Шаблон:IPA 'some milk'). Nouns with initial Шаблон:IPA normally drop in when following Шаблон:IPA 'some of', e.g. Шаблон:IPA (< |Шаблон:IPA|) 'some meat', but some don't, following the normal rules of construct state, e.g. Шаблон:IPA (< |Шаблон:IPA|) 'some tea'.

Conjunctions

The conjunction Шаблон:IPA 'and' requires construct state, and also assimilates to a following Шаблон:IPA, e.g. Шаблон:IPA 'the donkey and the cow'.

Other conjunctions include:

Tamazight conjunctions

Ayt Ayache	Ayt Seghrouchen	Gloss
Шаблон:IPA	Шаблон:IPA	when, while
Шаблон:IPA	Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA	as soon as
Шаблон:IPA	Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA	who, which
Шаблон:IPA	Шаблон:IPA	whatever
Шаблон:IPA	Шаблон:IPA	wherever
Шаблон:IPA		whenever
Шаблон:IPA		whatever
Шаблон:IPA		whoever
Шаблон:IPA		and
	Шаблон:IPA	with

Numerals

Cardinal numerals

The first few (1–3 in Ayt Ayache, 1–2 in Ayt Seghrouchen) cardinal numerals have native Berber and borrowed Arabic forms. The Arabic numerals are only used for counting in order and for production of higher numbers when combined with the tens.

1–3

Number		Native		Borrowed
		Ayt Ayache	Ayt Seghrouchen
1	(m)	Шаблон:IPA	Шаблон:IPA	Шаблон:IPA
	(f)	Шаблон:IPA	Шаблон:IPA
2	(m)	Шаблон:IPA	Шаблон:IPA	Шаблон:IPA
	(f)	Шаблон:IPA
3	(m)	Шаблон:IPA	Шаблон:IPA
	(f)	Шаблон:IPA

All higher cardinals are borrowed from Arabic. This is consistent with the linguistic universals that the numbers 1–3 are much more likely to be retained, and that a borrowed number generally implies that numbers greater than it are also borrowed. The retention of one is also motivated by the fact that Berber languages near-universally use unity as a determiner.

The numbers 3–9 have special apocopated forms, used before the words Шаблон:IPA ('years'), Шаблон:IPA ('100'), Шаблон:IPA ('1,000'), and Шаблон:IPA ('million'), e.g. Шаблон:IPA ('7 years'; without the preposition Шаблон:IPA).

3–9

Number	General	Apocopated
3	(Шаблон:IPA)	Шаблон:IPA
4	Шаблон:IPA	Шаблон:IPA
5	Шаблон:IPA	Шаблон:IPA
6	Шаблон:IPA	Шаблон:IPA
7	Шаблон:IPA	Шаблон:IPA
8	Шаблон:IPA	Шаблон:IPA
9	Шаблон:IPA	Шаблон:IPA

The numbers 11–19 only end in Шаблон:IPA before the words Шаблон:IPA ('year') and Шаблон:IPA ('thousand'; without the preposition Шаблон:IPA).

10–19

10	Шаблон:IPA
11	Шаблон:IPA
12	Шаблон:IPA
13	Шаблон:IPA
14	Шаблон:IPA
15	Шаблон:IPA / Шаблон:IPA
16	Шаблон:IPA / Шаблон:IPA
17	Шаблон:IPA
18	Шаблон:IPA
19	Шаблон:IPA

Шаблон:IPA is only used for '100' before Шаблон:IPA ('1,000') or Шаблон:IPA ('year'; without the preposition Шаблон:IPA). Also note the dual forms, and Шаблон:IPA for '2,000,000'.

20–99 20 Шаблон:IPA 21 Шаблон:IPA 22 Шаблон:IPA 23 Шаблон:IPA 24 Шаблон:IPA 30 Шаблон:IPA 31 Шаблон:IPA 37 Шаблон:IPA 40 Шаблон:IPA 50 Шаблон:IPA 60 Шаблон:IPA 70 Шаблон:IPA 80 Шаблон:IPA 90 Шаблон:IPA

100-999 100 Шаблон:IPA 154 Шаблон:IPA 200 Шаблон:IPA 231 Шаблон:IPA 300 Шаблон:IPA 400 Шаблон:IPA 500 Шаблон:IPA 600 Шаблон:IPA 700 Шаблон:IPA 800 Шаблон:IPA 900 Шаблон:IPA

1000- ... 1000 Шаблон:IPA 2000 Шаблон:IPA 3000 Шаблон:IPA 4000 Шаблон:IPA 6000 Шаблон:IPA 10,000 Шаблон:IPA 14,000 Шаблон:IPA 100,000 Шаблон:IPA 200,000 Шаблон:IPA 1,000,000 Шаблон:IPA 2,000,000 Шаблон:IPA 40,000,000 Шаблон:IPA 1,000,000,000 Шаблон:IPA

Cardinal numbers precede the modified noun, connected by the preposition Шаблон:IPA (optional for the number 1).

The procliticization-triggered phonological change of Шаблон:IPA may cause Шаблон:IPA / Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA to become proclitics Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, e.g. Шаблон:IPA ('one boy'), Шаблон:IPA ('one girl'), Шаблон:IPA ('two rials').

When referring to money, Шаблон:IPA ('minus') and Шаблон:IPA ('except') may be used, for example: Шаблон:IPA / Шаблон:IPA ('90 [rials]'), Шаблон:IPA ('180 [rials]'), Шаблон:IPA ('195 [rials]').

Nouns following numerals require construct state.

Ordinal numerals

The word for 'the first' is unique in that it is not derived from a cardinal stem and it inflects for number:

'the first'	singular	plural
m	Шаблон:IPA	Шаблон:IPA
f	Шаблон:IPA	Шаблон:IPA

From 'the second' on, ordinals are formed by prefixing Шаблон:IPA in the masculine and Шаблон:IPA in the feminine (using the native Berber forms of 2 and 3).

Fractions

There are unique words which may be used for some fractions, although male ordinals can be used for 1/4 on.

Tamazight	Gloss
Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA1	'half'
Шаблон:IPA	'1/3'
Шаблон:IPA	'1/4'
Шаблон:IPA	'1/5'
Шаблон:IPA	'1/6'
Шаблон:IPA	'1/8'
Шаблон:IPA	'1/10'

1. Шаблон:IPA may be used in both Ayt Ayache and Ayt Seghrouchen, while Шаблон:IPA is specific to the latter

Syntax

Word order is usually Verb + Subject [in construct state] but sometimes is Subject [in free state] + Verb, e.g. (Шаблон:IPA vs. Шаблон:IPA 'the Berber went out'). Tamazight exhibits pro-drop behavior.

Questions

wh- questions are always clefts, and multiple wh-questions are not found. This means that Tamazight cannot grammatically express an equivalent to the English "who saw what?".

Tamazight's clefting, relativisation, and wh-interrogation cause what is called "anti-agreement effects", similarly to Shilha. This is when the verb doesn't agree with or agrees in a special way with wh-words. In Berber, the feminine singular prefix Шаблон:IPA disappears when the subject is a wh- phrase, but only for affirmative verbs.

Bibliography

• Шаблон:Cite book
• Шаблон:Cite book
• Шаблон:Cite book
• Шаблон:Cite book
• Шаблон:Cite book