Английская Википедия:Chachani

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Шаблон:Short description Шаблон:Good article Шаблон:Infobox mountain Chachani is a volcanic group in southern Peru, Шаблон:Convert northwest of the city of Arequipa. Part of the Central Volcanic Zone of the Andes, it is Шаблон:Convert above sea level. It consists of several lava domes and individual volcanoes such as Nocarane, along with lava shields such as the Airport Domes. Underneath Chachani lies a caldera.

During the Pliocene and early Pleistocene, the volcanic group produced large ignimbrites such as the La Joya, Arequipa Airport and Yura Tuff ignimbrites; afterwards the volcanic group proper grew in the caldera until about 56,500 years ago. There have not been any eruptions during historical time, but the volcano is considered to be only dormant and due to its closeness to the city of Arequipa is considered high risk.

Name

The name means "brave" in Aymara[1] or "mountain of man"/"mountain of male";[2] alternative spellings "Cacheni" and "Charchani" are also known.[3]

Geography and geomorphology

The volcano lies in the Andes of southern Peru,Шаблон:Sfn Шаблон:ConvertШаблон:Sfn northwest of Arequipa and north of the Arequipa Airport;Шаблон:Sfn the city of Arequipa is situated on the foot of Chachani and El Misti volcanoes.Шаблон:Sfn The road from Arequipa to Chivay runs along the southeastern foot of Chachani,Шаблон:Sfn and a dirt road reaches to an elevation of Шаблон:Convert. It is considered to be one of the most easily climbed mountains between 6,000 - 7,000 m high, although acclimatization and good physical health are required to ascend it.[1] In the late 19th century, the good sight from Chachani was remarked upon.Шаблон:Sfn Politically, it lies in the Cayma, Yura and Cerro Colorado districts.Шаблон:Sfn

Volcanoes in the southern part of Peru include from north to south Auquihuato, Firura, Coropuna, Andagua volcanic field, Sabancaya, Ampato, Chachani, El Misti, Pichu Pichu, Ubinas which has erupted intermittently since 1954, Huaynaputina where a large eruption occurred in 1600, Ticsani, Tutupaca, Yucamane and Casiri. Some of these volcanoes are among the highest in the world,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn and on average, there is one eruption of a Peruvian volcano every 13 years.Шаблон:Sfn The Peruvian volcanoes are part of the Central Volcanic Zone of the Andes, one of three separate volcanic belts in that mountain chain;Шаблон:Sfn the Central Volcanic Zone contains 44 named stratovolcanoes.Шаблон:Sfn

Chachani is an about Шаблон:ConvertШаблон:EfnШаблон:Efn high and Шаблон:Convert wideШаблон:Sfn complexШаблон:Efn of lava domes, stratovolcanoesШаблон:Sfn and volcanic cones;Шаблон:Sfn the highest summit is Шаблон:Convert high, making Chachani the 84th highest peak in the Andes.Шаблон:Sfn The Chachani complex has an arcuate shapeШаблон:Sfn encompassing both the main Chachani volcano and theШаблон:Sfn Шаблон:Convert highШаблон:Sfn Nocarane[4]Шаблон:Efn to the north of Chachani,Шаблон:Sfn while the Шаблон:Convert high[1] La Horqueta together with El Rodado to its west and Chachani proper to its east forms an east–west trending ridge.Шаблон:Sfn La Horqueta has a young appearance and resembles an ash coneШаблон:Sfn with a crater.Шаблон:Sfn Additional peaks are the northerly Шаблон:Convert high los Ángeles and the southeasterly Шаблон:Convert high Trigo.[1] In total, Chachani is made up of more than 12 edifices.Шаблон:Sfn

Файл:Chachani Peru.jpg
Chachani volcanic complex in Peru. Standing at over 6000 m, Chachani is the tallest of the mountains near the Peruvian city of Arequipa. 2017 false-color satellite image.

The ColoradoШаблон:Sfn lava domesШаблон:Sfn which are also known as Cerro Penones in turn are located northwest from Nocarane.Шаблон:Sfn To the south of Chachani lie the Airport Domes,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Efn a Шаблон:Convert wide lava shieldШаблон:Sfn with two discernible vents[5] and a pristine appearance.[5] The lava shield consists of overlapping lava flows with a wavy and rugose textureШаблон:Sfn and a steep front which reaches heights of Шаблон:Convert; evidently these were formed by viscous lava flows.Шаблон:Sfn A volcanic caldera associated with widespread ignimbrites in the Arequipa area may be located underneath Chachani;Шаблон:Sfn to the north its outline is marked by a Шаблон:Convert wide amphitheatre while its southern part is continuous with the Arequipa depression and is generally poorly recognizable.Шаблон:Sfn The El Misti volcano later arose on the margin of the Chachani caldera, where it intersects the border of the Altiplano.Шаблон:Sfn

The volcanic complex is formed mainly by aa and block lava flows that rarely reach lengths of about Шаблон:Convert; additionally pyroclastic flows and tephra occur.Шаблон:Sfn The volcanic complex covers an area of about Шаблон:Convert and has a present-day volume of about Шаблон:Convert; this makes Chachani one of the largest volcanoes of the Andes. Glacial erosion and landslides have affected the volcanic complex,Шаблон:Sfn forming cirques and U-shaped valleys and removing much of the original shape of the individual volcanoes.Шаблон:Sfn Some moraines have been overrun by lava flows.Шаблон:Sfn

Chachani drains into the Rio Chili.[6] The Quebrada Canchero, Quebrada Cabrería and Quebrada Traccra drain south to eastward into the river which flows around the southeastern side of ChachaniШаблон:Sfn and has cut a canyon between Chachani and El Misti.Шаблон:Sfn The Rio Sumbay, one of its tributaries, runs along the eastern side of Chachani.Шаблон:Sfn The Rio Yura flows southward along the western side of Chachani, and upon reaching the then westward-flowing Rio Chili becomes the Rio Vitor, which eventually discharges into the Pacific Ocean together with the Rio Siguas.Шаблон:Sfn

Glaciation

The volcano underwent five stages of glaciation in the past.[4] During the last glacial maximum extensive glaciersШаблон:Sfn formed well-developed[7] moraines at Шаблон:Convert elevation;[4] lateral moraines marking the limit of glaciation are located at Шаблон:Convert elevation on the southern flank.[7] Glaciers may have also formed during the Little Ice Age, where there are moraines at Шаблон:Convert elevation;[4] presently however the mountain lacks glaciersШаблон:Sfn and only has a snowfield.Шаблон:Sfn In general, glaciers in the tropical Andes have been shrinking after the end of the Little Ice Age, and especially after the 1970s.Шаблон:Sfn

Permafrost[4] and rock glaciers however still exist at Chachani, especially close to Nocarane, and reach lengths of Шаблон:Convert;Шаблон:Sfn they are characterized by lobate appearances and their location at the foot of tall cliffs. Some of them (about six in total) are still active and are located above Шаблон:Convert elevation, while the lowest inactive ones end at Шаблон:Convert elevation.[7] Permafrost is expected to be continuous above Шаблон:Convert with discontinuous occurrence above Шаблон:Convert.[8] Other periglacial phenomena such as needle ice are also encountered on the volcanic complex.Шаблон:Sfn

Geology

Subduction of the Nazca Plate beneath the South America PlateШаблон:Sfn occurs at a rate of Шаблон:Convert;Шаблон:Sfn the subduction process is responsible for the volcanism and earthquake activity of the region.Шаблон:Sfn In the Andes, volcanism is distributed between three volcanic belts, the Northern Volcanic Zone, the Central Volcanic Zone and the Southern Volcanic Zone which coincide with segments where the downgoing Nazca plate falls steeply into the mantle.Шаблон:Sfn

Volcanic activity in the Chachani region appears to have begun during the Cretaceous-Paleocene in the form of the "Toquepala" volcanics.Шаблон:Sfn The oldest volcanic rocks of the Western Cordillera are known under the name "Tacaza", and underwent erosion and folding before the next phase which is known as "Sillapaca".Шаблон:Sfn Finally, during the Miocene-Quaternary the Sencca Formation and the "Barroso" volcanics developed;Шаблон:Sfn Chachani is classified as part of the Barroso volcanicsШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn although the oldest volcanism might belong to the "Sillapaca" unit.Шаблон:Sfn

The terrain of the volcano is formed by volcanic rocks of Eocene to recent age, which overlie a Precambrian basementШаблон:Sfn and include widespread Neogene-Quaternary ignimbrites.Шаблон:Sfn Chachani straddles the margin between the higher-elevation Altiplano and the Arequipa basin at lower altitude.Шаблон:Sfn

The youngerШаблон:Sfn El Misti volcano lies southeast of Chachani, across the Rio Chili.Шаблон:Sfn Other volcanoes in the region are Ampato and Jollojello northwest, Baquetane, Hucullani and Nevado Calcha north, Yanarico east and Pichu Pichu southeast from Chachani.Шаблон:Sfn Of these, Misti, Pichu Pichu and Chachani are aligned on normal faults that trend northwest–southeast and has been active during the Holocene.Шаблон:Sfn

Chachani has erupted andesite and dacite, which define a potassium-rich calc-alkaline suiteШаблон:Sfn with unusual adakite characteristics; adakites are magmas that form when the downgoing plate in a subduction setting melts.Шаблон:Sfn Phenocrysts include augite, biotite, hornblende and hypersthene;[9] the rhyolites of the Arequipa ignimbrites additionally contain ilmenite, magnetite, plagioclase, quartz and sanidine.[10] The composition of the volcanic rocks has varied over the lifespan of Chachani, sometimes rocks of basaltic andesite composition were erupted as well while the younger volcanoes are usually more homogeneous;Шаблон:Sfn this was paralleled by a decrease in the eruption rate.Шаблон:Sfn

Climate and vegetation

Under the influence of the cold Humboldt Current and the subtropical ridge, the region features an arid climate with less than Шаблон:Convert annual precipitation in Arequipa.[11] The mountain is occasionally covered in snow.Шаблон:Sfn The zero degree elevation at Chachani lies at about Шаблон:Convert. The diurnal temperature range is large and can reach Шаблон:Convert,Шаблон:Sfn while ground temperatures are much more stable and higher than air temperatures.Шаблон:Sfn A meteorological observatory installed by the Harvard College ObservatoryШаблон:Sfn was active on the mountain in the latest 19th century.[12]

From Шаблон:Convert elevation cacti, herbs, Peruvian feather grass, yareta but also lichens and mosses grow on the slopes of Chachani and other regional volcanoes.Шаблон:Sfn Vegetation is scarce to absent above Шаблон:Convert elevation,Шаблон:Sfn and much of its lower slopes were stripped of their vegetation during the colonial era. The dry soils are not suitable for agriculture.Шаблон:Sfn Part of the volcano is in the Salinas y Aguada Blanca National Reserve.[13] Lizards on the mountain are the highest-altitude known reptile population in the world.[14]

Eruption history

The oldest volcanic formations linked to Chachani are the so-called "sillars", which are rhyolitic pyroclastic flowsШаблон:Sfn/ignimbritesШаблон:Sfn containing pumice beds.Шаблон:Sfn These ignimbrites include the La Joya Ignimbrite of Pliocene age, the Plio-Quaternary Arequipa Airport Ignimbrite and the Quaternary Yura Tuff and Capillune Formation.Шаблон:Sfn The Шаблон:Convert 4.8 million years old La Joya, the Шаблон:Convert 1.65 million years old Arequipa Airport, and less certainly the Шаблон:Convert early Pleistocene Yura Tuff as well as the Capillune Formation ignimbrites appear to have been erupted by Chachani or (in the case of the Yura Tuff) from a vent north of it.Шаблон:Sfn Together with lava flows these form the "Pre-Chachani" unitsШаблон:Sfn and probably are the largest eruptions experienced by Chachani.[5]

They occur in the wider region of Chachani and crop out in the Arequipa area and in river valleys.Шаблон:Sfn Their emplacement took place in the form of fast-moving hot streams of rock.Шаблон:Sfn An additional ignimbrite is the 13 million years oldШаблон:Sfn Miocene Rio Chili Ignimbrite;Шаблон:Sfn the vents of the Miocene units are unknown[10] and the Rio Chili Ignimbrite appears to be related to the Huaylillas Ignimbrite of southern Peru.Шаблон:Sfn

Later, during the QuaternaryШаблон:Sfn the Chachani volcanic complex grew in the caldera.Шаблон:Sfn The older activity formed the older volcanoes Chingana northeast, Estribo east and Nocarane north of Chachani as well as the Colorado lava domes north-northwest from Nocarane and the volcanoes Chachani Base and El Angel; argon-argon dating has yielded ages ranging between 1,000,000 - 500,000 years ago for these volcanoes. Later the volcanoes El Rodado, La Horqueta and Chachani (Шаблон:Circa 130,000 - 131,000 years ago) formed as a west–east alignment, along with the Uyupampa lava field (about 230,000 - 280,000 years ago) far west from Chachani, the Airport Domes south (between 290,000 - 400,000 years ago), the Cabrería lava domes south-southeast and the Volcancillo dome northeast from Chachani.Шаблон:Sfn

The youngest reported date of 56,500 ± 31,600 years ago has been obtained on the Cabrería lava domes;Шаблон:Sfn formerly the Airport Domes/Los Angeles/Pampa de Palacio were considered to be the youngest and of Holocene age.Шаблон:Sfn However, Volcancillo may be even younger,Шаблон:Sfn and a post-glacial lava flow descends the western slope of Chachani between Chachani and NocaraneШаблон:Sfn and phreatic eruptions may have formed Holocene-age craters on Chachani.Шаблон:Sfn No historical eruptions are known at the volcanic complex, and the date of the last activity is likewise unclear.Шаблон:Sfn

The existence of solfataras in the summit regionШаблон:Sfn and of hot springs[15] at Socosani and Yura has been reported,[5] and frequent seismic activity occurs on Chachani's southwestern flank; this activity may relate to either geothermal or tectonic phenomena.[16] Currently, the volcano is considered to be dormant.[17] Occasionally, mudflows descend its slopes and cause damages at lower elevations.Шаблон:Sfn

Hazards

Файл:Arequipa, Peru-2.jpg (8444416162).jpg

The city of Arequipa with about one million inhabitants and infrastructure such as the airport, hydropower plants and reservoirs are within range of ChachaniШаблон:Sfn and human settlement has spread around its base.Шаблон:Sfn Шаблон:As of, about 349000 people live on its slopesШаблон:Sfn and infrastructure such as schools are within the volcano's reach.Шаблон:Sfn The western suburbs of ArequipaШаблон:Sfn are Шаблон:Convert below[15] and less than Шаблон:Convert away from the volcano and in case of renewed eruptions they would be threatened by pyroclastic flows. In addition, melting ice and snow on the summit could generate mudflows,Шаблон:Sfn and pyroclastic flows,Шаблон:Sfn lava flows and tephra falls are additional hazards.Шаблон:Sfn Four hazard scenarios have been established: An effusive eruption would cause serious physical damage, but only little threat to humans. Lava dome forming eruptions may give rise to pyroclastics, but there is no evidence of such pyroclastic deposits.Шаблон:Sfn Pyroclastic flow- and Plinian eruptions constitute the other two hazard scenarios.Шаблон:Sfn

Chachani is considered to be a high-risk volcanoШаблон:Sfn and the Geophysical Institute of Peru in 2018 installed a monitoring station on Chachani.[18] Several volcano hazard map exist: One shows three levels of danger depending on the distance from the edifice,Шаблон:Sfn the other two show areas threatened by mudflows and pyroclastic fall.Шаблон:Sfn Chachani is monitored with seismometers and tiltmeters.[19] Apart from eruptions, volcano-induced pollution of neighbouring water resources is a concern at Chachani.[20]

Religious importance and archeology

Chachani is the protector mountain spirit of CaymaШаблон:Sfn The people of Arequipa sometimes refer to Chachani as the "father" of El Misti (Pichu Pichu is the "mother") and ascribed to it the ability to influence the gender of newborn children, making them daughters.Шаблон:Sfn The Inca worshipped Chachani and its neighbouring mountains and turned its summit into a mountain sanctuary that was later destroyed by sulfur mining and plundering to the point that no trace of archeological sites can be found, such as e.g. walls.Шаблон:Sfn Nevertheless, evidence of Inka human sacrifice known as Шаблон:Lang was found during archeological expeditions;Шаблон:Sfn a finding from 1896 is the earliest known finding of such a sacrifice.[21]

Mining

Chachani was reportedly mined for sulfur during the colonial eraШаблон:Sfn and for the white "sillar" rocks that were used in construction of theШаблон:Sfn famous buildings of colonial-era Arequipa,Шаблон:Sfn which is also known as the "white city".Шаблон:Sfn

Notes

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References

Шаблон:Reflist

Sources

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Bibliography

External links

Шаблон:Andean volcanoes

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  1. ↑ 1,0 1,1 1,2 1,3 Ошибка цитирования Неверный тег <ref>; для сносок MINCETUR2019 не указан текст
  2. ↑ Ошибка цитирования Неверный тег <ref>; для сносок Adelaar2004 не указан текст
  3. ↑ Ошибка цитирования Неверный тег <ref>; для сносок Hatch1886 не указан текст
  4. ↑ 4,0 4,1 4,2 4,3 4,4 Ошибка цитирования Неверный тег <ref>; для сносок AlcaláZamorano2012 не указан текст
  5. ↑ 5,0 5,1 5,2 5,3 Ошибка цитирования Неверный тег <ref>; для сносок OSU2019 не указан текст
  6. ↑ Ошибка цитирования Неверный тег <ref>; для сносок Huntington1935 не указан текст
  7. ↑ 7,0 7,1 7,2 Ошибка цитирования Неверный тег <ref>; для сносок Payne1998 не указан текст
  8. ↑ Ошибка цитирования Неверный тег <ref>; для сносок LeónMedina2021 не указан текст
  9. ↑ Ошибка цитирования Неверный тег <ref>; для сносок Portillo1984 не указан текст
  10. ↑ 10,0 10,1 Ошибка цитирования Неверный тег <ref>; для сносок Paquereau2003 не указан текст
  11. ↑ Ошибка цитирования Неверный тег <ref>; для сносок Reygosa2011 не указан текст
  12. ↑ Ошибка цитирования Неверный тег <ref>; для сносок OAC1895 не указан текст
  13. ↑ Ошибка цитирования Неверный тег <ref>; для сносок PolkYoung2005 не указан текст
  14. ↑ Ошибка цитирования Неверный тег <ref>; для сносок CerdeñaFarfán2021 не указан текст
  15. ↑ 15,0 15,1 Ошибка цитирования Неверный тег <ref>; для сносок DeggChester2005 не указан текст
  16. ↑ Ошибка цитирования Неверный тег <ref>; для сносок Macedo2014 не указан текст
  17. ↑ Ошибка цитирования Неверный тег <ref>; для сносок Ayala-Arenas2018 не указан текст
  18. ↑ Ошибка цитирования Неверный тег <ref>; для сносок Comercio2018 не указан текст
  19. ↑ Ошибка цитирования Неверный тег <ref>; для сносок PumaCalienes2021 не указан текст
  20. ↑ Ошибка цитирования Неверный тег <ref>; для сносок EspirillaGomez2022 не указан текст
  21. ↑ Ошибка цитирования Неверный тег <ref>; для сносок SochaReinhard2021 не указан текст
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