Английская Википедия:G

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Шаблон:Distinguish Шаблон:Short description Шаблон:About Шаблон:Technical reasons Шаблон:Infobox grapheme Шаблон:Pp-semi-indef Шаблон:Pp-move-indef Шаблон:Latin letter info G, or g, is the seventh letter in the Latin alphabet, used in the modern English alphabet, the alphabets of other western European languages, and others worldwide. Its name in English is gee (pronounced Шаблон:IPAc-en), plural gees.[1] The lowercase version can be written in two forms: the single-storey (sometimes "opentail") Файл:Opentail g.svg and the double-storey (sometimes "looptail") Файл:Looptail g.svg. The former is commonly used in handwriting and fonts based on it, especially fonts intended to be read by children.

History

Шаблон:For

The evolution of the Latin alphabet's G can be traced back to the Latin alphabet's predecessor, the Greek alphabet. The voiced velar stop was represented by the third letter of the Greek alphabet, gamma (Γ), which was later adopted by the Etruscan language. Latin then borrowed this "rounded form" of gamma, C, to represent the same sound in words such as recei, which was likely an early dative form of rex, meaning "king", as found in an "early Latin inscription."[2] Over time, however, the letter C shifted to represent the unvoiced velar stop, leading to the displacement of the letter K. Scholars believe that this change can be attributed to the influence of the Etruscan language on Latin.[2]

Afterwards, the letter 'G' was introduced in the Old Latin period as a variant of 'C' to distinguish voiced Шаблон:IPA from voiceless Шаблон:IPA, and G was used to represent a voiced velar from this point on and C "stood for the unvoiced velar only".[2]

The recorded originator of 'G' is freedman Spurius Carvilius Ruga, who added letter G to the teaching of the Roman alphabet during the 3rd century BC:[3] he was the first Roman to open a fee-paying school, around 230 BC. At this time, 'K' had fallen out of favor, and 'C', which had formerly represented both Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA before open vowels, had come to express Шаблон:IPA in all environments.

Ruga's positioning of 'G' shows that alphabetic order related to the letters' values as Greek numerals was a concern even in the 3rd century BC. According to some records, the original seventh letter, 'Z', had been purged from the Latin alphabet somewhat earlier in the 3rd century BC by the Roman censor Appius Claudius, who found it distasteful and foreign.[4] Sampson (1985) suggests that: "Evidently the order of the alphabet was felt to be such a concrete thing that a new letter could be added in the middle only if a 'space' was created by the dropping of an old letter."[5]

George Hempl proposed in 1899 that there never was such a "space" in the alphabet and that in fact 'G' was a direct descendant of zeta. Zeta took shapes like ⊏ in some of the Old Italic scripts; the development of the monumental form 'G' from this shape would be exactly parallel to the development of 'C' from gamma. He suggests that the pronunciation Шаблон:IPA > Шаблон:IPA was due to contamination from the also similar-looking 'K'.[6]

Eventually, both velar consonants Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA developed palatalized allophones before front vowels; consequently in today's Romance languages, Шаблон:Vr and Шаблон:Vr have different sound values depending on context (known as hard and soft C and hard and soft G). Because of French influence, English language orthography shares this feature.

Typographic variants

Image shows the two forms of the letter g
Typographic variants include a double-storey and a single-storey g

The modern lowercase Шаблон:Char has two typographic variants: the single-storey (sometimes "opentail") a letter g shaped like a circle with a dangling hook and the double-storey (sometimes "looptail") a letter g shaped like spectacles. The single-storey form derives from the majuscule (uppercase) form by raising the serif that distinguishes it from 'c' to the top of the loop (thus closing the loop), and extending the vertical stroke downward and to the left. The double-storey form Шаблон:Nowrap had developed similarly, except that some ornate forms then extended the tail back to the right, and to the left again, forming a closed bowl or loop. The initial extension to the left was absorbed into the upper closed bowl. The double-storey version became popular when printing switched from Blackletter type to Roman type, because the tail was effectively shorter, making it possible to put more lines on a page. In the double-storey version, a small top stroke in the upper-right, often terminating in an orb shape, is called an "ear".

Generally, the two forms are complementary and interchangeable; the form displayed is a typeface selection choice. In Unicode, the two appearances are generally treated as glyph variants with no semantic difference. Most serif typefaces use the looptail form (for example, Шаблон:Char) and most sans-serif typefaces use the opentail form (for example, Шаблон:Char) but the code point in both cases is U+0067. For applications where the single-storey variant must be distinguished (such as strict IPA in a typeface where the usual g character is double-storey), the character Шаблон:Unichar is available, as well as an upper case version, Шаблон:Unichar.

Occasionally the difference has been exploited to provide contrast. In the International Phonetic Alphabet, opentail Шаблон:Angbr has always represented a voiced velar plosive, while looptail Шаблон:Angbr represented a voiced velar fricative from 1895 to 1900.[7][8] In 1948, the Council of the International Phonetic Association recognized Шаблон:Angbr IPA and Шаблон:Angbr as typographic equivalents,[9] and this decision was reaffirmed in 1993.[10] While the 1949 Principles of the International Phonetic Association recommended the use of Шаблон:Angbr for a velar plosive and Шаблон:Angbr IPA for an advanced one for languages where it is preferable to distinguish the two, such as Russian,[11] this practice never caught on.[12] The 1999 Handbook of the International Phonetic Association, the successor to the Principles, abandoned the recommendation and acknowledged both shapes as acceptable variants.[13]

In 2018, a study found that native English speakers have little conscious awareness of the looptail form Шаблон:Nowrap The authors write: "Despite being questioned repeatedly, and despite being informed directly that G has two lowercase print forms, nearly half of the participants failed to reveal any knowledge of the looptail 'g', and only 1 of the 38 participants was able to write looptail 'g' correctly".[14][15]


Pronunciation and use

Шаблон:See also

Pronunciations of Gg
Language Dialect(s) Pronunciation (IPA) Environment Notes
Afrikaans Шаблон:IPAslink
Arabic Шаблон:IPAslink Latinization; corresponding to Шаблон:Angbr or Шаблон:Angbr in Arabic
Azeri Шаблон:IPAslink
Catalan /(d)ʒ/ Before e, i
Шаблон:IPAslink Usually
Danish Шаблон:IPAslink Word-initially
Шаблон:IPAslink Usually
Dutch Standard Шаблон:IPAslink
Southern dialects Шаблон:IPAslink
Northern dialects Шаблон:IPAslink
English Шаблон:IPAslink Before e, i, y (see exceptions below)
Шаблон:IPAslink Usually
Шаблон:IPAslink Before e, i in "modern" loanwords from French
silent Some words, initial <gn>, and word-finally before a consonant
Esperanto Шаблон:IPAslink
Faroese Шаблон:IPAslink soft, lenited; see Faroese phonology
Шаблон:IPAslink hard
Шаблон:IPAslink soft
Шаблон:IPAslink after a, æ, á, e, o, ø and before u
Шаблон:IPAslink after ó, u, ú and before a, i, or u
silent after a, æ, á, e, o, ø and before a
Fijian Шаблон:IPAslink
French Шаблон:IPAslink Usually
Шаблон:IPAslink Before e, i, y
Galician Шаблон:IPAslink~Шаблон:IPAslink Usually See Gheada for consonant variation
Шаблон:IPAslink Before e, i obsolete spelling, replaced by the letter x
Greek Шаблон:IPAslink Usually Latinization
Шаблон:IPAslink Before ai, e, i, oi, y Latinization
Icelandic Шаблон:IPAslink soft
Шаблон:IPAslink hard
Шаблон:IPAslink hard, lenited; see Icelandic phonology
Шаблон:IPAslink soft, lenited
Irish Шаблон:IPAslink Usually
Шаблон:IPAslink After i or before e, i
Italian Шаблон:IPAslink Usually
Шаблон:IPAslink Before e, i
Malay Шаблон:IPAslink
Mandarin Standard Шаблон:IPAslink Pinyin latinization
Norman Шаблон:IPAslink Before e, i
Шаблон:IPAslink Usually
Norwegian Шаблон:IPAslink Usually
Шаблон:IPAslink Before ei, i, j, øy, y
Portuguese Шаблон:IPAslink Usually
Шаблон:IPAslink Before e, i, y
Romanian Шаблон:IPAslink Before e, i
Шаблон:IPAslink Usually
Romansh Шаблон:IPAslink Before e, i
Шаблон:IPAslink Usually
Samoan Шаблон:IPAslink
Scottish Gaelic Шаблон:IPAslink Usually
Шаблон:IPAslink After i or before e, i
Spanish Шаблон:IPAslink Usually
Шаблон:IPAslink or Шаблон:IPAslink Before e, i, y Variation between velar and glottal realizations depends on dialect
Swedish Шаблон:IPAslink Usually
Шаблон:IPAslink Before ä, e, i, ö, y
Turkish Шаблон:IPAslink Usually
Шаблон:IPAslink Before e, i, ö, ü
Vietnamese Standard Шаблон:IPAslink
Northern /z/ Before i
Southern /j/ Before i

English

In English, the letter appears either alone or in some digraphs. Alone, it represents

Шаблон:Angbr is predominantly soft before Шаблон:Angbr (including the digraphs Шаблон:Angbr and Шаблон:Angbr), Шаблон:Angbr, or Шаблон:Angbr, and hard otherwise. It is hard in those derivations from γυνή (gynḗ) meaning woman where initial-worded as such. Soft Шаблон:Angbr is also used in many words that came into English from medieval church/academic use, French, Spanish, Italian or Portuguese – these tend to, in other ways in English, closely align to their Ancient Latin and Greek roots (such as fragile, logic or magic). There remain widely used a few English words of non-Romance origin where Шаблон:Angbr is hard followed by Шаблон:Angbr or Шаблон:Angbr (get, give, gift), and very few in which Шаблон:Angbr is soft though followed by Шаблон:Angbr such as gaol, which since the 20th century is almost always written as "jail".

The double consonant Шаблон:Angbr has the value Шаблон:IPA (hard Шаблон:Angbr) as in nugget, with very few exceptions: Шаблон:IPA in exaggerate and veggies and dialectally Шаблон:IPA in suggest.

The digraph Шаблон:Angbr has the value Шаблон:IPA (soft Шаблон:Angbr), as in badger. Non-digraph Шаблон:Angbr can also occur, in compounds like floodgate and headgear.

The digraph Шаблон:Angbr may represent:

Non-digraph Шаблон:Angbr also occurs, with possible values

The digraph Шаблон:Angbr (in many cases a replacement for the obsolete letter yogh, which took various values including Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA) may represent:

Non-digraph Шаблон:Angbr also occurs, in compounds like foghorn, pigheaded.

The digraph Шаблон:Angbr may represent:

Non-digraph Шаблон:Angbr also occurs, as in signature, agnostic.

The trigraph Шаблон:Angbr has the value Шаблон:IPA as in gingham or dinghy. Non-trigraph Шаблон:Angbr also occurs, in compounds like stronghold and dunghill.

G is the tenth least frequently used letter in the English language (after Y, P, B, V, K, J, X, Q, and Z), with a frequency of about 2.02% in words.

Other languages

Most Romance languages and some Nordic languages also have two main pronunciations for Шаблон:Angbr, hard and soft. While the soft value of Шаблон:Angbr varies in different Romance languages (Шаблон:IPA in French and Portuguese, Шаблон:IPA in Catalan, Шаблон:IPA in Italian and Romanian, and Шаблон:IPA in most dialects of Spanish), in all except Romanian and Italian, soft Шаблон:Angbr has the same pronunciation as the Шаблон:Angbr.

In Italian and Romanian, Шаблон:Angbr is used to represent Шаблон:IPA before front vowels where Шаблон:Angbr would otherwise represent a soft value. In Italian and French, Шаблон:Angbr is used to represent the palatal nasal Шаблон:IPA, a sound somewhat similar to the Шаблон:Angbr in English canyon. In Italian, the trigraph Шаблон:Angbr, when appearing before a vowel or as the article and pronoun gli, represents the palatal lateral approximant Шаблон:IPA.

Other languages typically use Шаблон:Angbr to represent Шаблон:IPA regardless of position.

Amongst European languages, Czech, Dutch, Estonian and Finnish are an exception as they do not have Шаблон:IPA in their native words. In Dutch, Шаблон:Angbr represents a voiced velar fricative Шаблон:IPA instead, a sound that does not occur in modern English, but there is a dialectal variation: many Netherlandic dialects use a voiceless fricative (Шаблон:IPA or Шаблон:IPA) instead, and in southern dialects it may be palatal Шаблон:IPA. Nevertheless, word-finally it is always voiceless in all dialects, including the standard Dutch of Belgium and the Netherlands. On the other hand, some dialects (like Amelands) may have a phonemic Шаблон:IPA.

Faroese uses Шаблон:Angbr to represent Шаблон:IPA, in addition to Шаблон:IPA, and also uses it to indicate a glide.

In Māori, Шаблон:Angbr is used in the digraph Шаблон:Angbr which represents the velar nasal Шаблон:IPA and is pronounced like the Шаблон:Angbr in singer.

The Samoan and Fijian languages use the letter Шаблон:Angbr by itself for Шаблон:IPA.

In older Czech and Slovak orthographies, Шаблон:Angbr was used to represent Шаблон:IPA, while Шаблон:IPA was written as Шаблон:Angbr (Шаблон:Angbr with caron).

The Azerbaijani Latin alphabet uses Шаблон:Angbr exclusively for the "soft" sound, namely Шаблон:IPA. The sound Шаблон:IPA is written as Шаблон:Angbr. This leads to unusual spellings of loanwords: qram 'gram', qrup 'group', qaraj 'garage', qallium 'gallium'.

Related characters

Ancestors, descendants and siblings

Ligatures and abbreviations

Computing codes

Шаблон:Charmap

1 Шаблон:Midsize

Other representations

Шаблон:Letter other reps

See also

References

Шаблон:Reflist

External links

Шаблон:Latin script

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Разное

  1. ↑ The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language. 1976.
  2. ↑ 2,0 2,1 2,2 Шаблон:Cite web
  3. ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
  4. ↑ Encyclopaedia Romana
  5. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  6. ↑ Шаблон:Cite journal
  7. ↑ Шаблон:Cite journal
  8. ↑ Шаблон:Cite journal
  9. ↑ Шаблон:Cite journal
  10. ↑ Шаблон:Cite journal
  11. ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
    • Reprinted in Journal of the International Phonetic Association 40 (3), December 2010, pp. 299–358, Шаблон:Doi.
  12. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  13. ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
  14. ↑ Шаблон:Cite journal
  15. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  16. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  17. ↑ 17,0 17,1 Шаблон:Cite web
  18. ↑ 18,0 18,1 Шаблон:Cite web
  19. ↑ 19,0 19,1 Шаблон:Cite web
  20. ↑ 20,0 20,1 20,2 Шаблон:Cite web
  21. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  22. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
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