Английская Википедия:Hiberno-English

Содержание

Текст

Текст

Текст

Текст

Текст

Текст

Текст

Текст

Текст

Файл:Elizabeth I's primer on Irish.jpg

Irish-Latin-English phrase book written in 1564 by Irishman Sir Christopher Nugent for Elizabeth I of England

Hiberno-English (Шаблон:IPAc-en Шаблон:Respell; from Шаблон:Lang-la "Ireland")Шаблон:Efn or Irish English (IrE), also formerly sometimes called Anglo-Irish, is the set of English dialects native to the island of Ireland (including both the Republic of Ireland and Northern Ireland).

In the Republic of Ireland, English is one of two official languages, along with the Irish language, and is the country's Шаблон:Lang working language. Irish English's writing standards, such as its spelling, align with British English. However, Irish English's diverse accents and some of its grammatical structures and vocabulary are unique, with some influences deriving from the Irish language and some notably conservative phonological features: features no longer common in the accents of England or North America.

Phonologists today often divide Irish English into four or five overarching dialects or accents: Ulster accents, West and South-West Irish accents (like Cork accents), various Dublin accents, and a non-regional standard accent expanding since only the last quarter of the twentieth century (outside of Northern Ireland). Шаблон:TOC limit

History

Old English, as well as Anglo-Norman, was brought to Ireland as a result of the Anglo-Norman invasion of Ireland of the late 12th century; this became the Yola language, which is not mutually comprehensible with Modern English. A second wave of the English language was brought to Ireland in the 16th-century (Elizabethan) Early Modern period, making that variety of English spoken in Ireland the oldest outside of Great Britain, and it remains phonologically more conservative today than many other dialects of English.

Initially, Norman English was mainly spoken in an area known as the Pale around Dublin, with largely the Irish language spoken throughout the rest of the country. Some small pockets remained of speakers who predominantly continued to use the English of that time; because of their sheer isolation, these dialects developed into later (now-extinct) English-related varieties known as Yola in Wexford and Fingallian in Fingal, Dublin. These were no longer mutually intelligible with other English varieties. By the Tudor period, Irish culture and language had regained most of the territory lost to the invaders: even in the Pale, "all the common folk… for the most part are of Irish birth, Irish habit, and of Irish language".

However, the Tudor conquest and colonisation of Ireland in the 16th century led to the second wave of immigration by English speakers along with the forced suppression and decline in the status and use of the Irish language. By the mid-19th century English had become the majority language spoken in the country.Шаблон:Refn It has retained this status to the present day, with even those whose first language is Irish being fluent in English as well. Today, there is little more than one percent of the population who speaks the Irish language natively, though it is required to be taught in all state-funded schools. Of the 40% of the population who self-identified as speaking some Irish in 2016, 4% speak Irish daily outside the education system.

Ulster English

Шаблон:Main Ulster English (or Northern Irish English) here refers collectively to the varieties of the Ulster province, including Northern Ireland and neighbouring counties outside of Northern Ireland, which has been influenced by Ulster Irish as well as the Scots language, brought over by Scottish settlers during the Plantation of Ulster. Its main subdivisions are Mid-Ulster English, South Ulster English and Ulster Scots, the latter of which is arguably a separate language. Ulster varieties distinctly pronounce:

• An ordinarily grammatically structured (i.e. non-topicalised) declarative sentence, often, with a rising intonation at the end of the sentence (the type of intonation pattern that other English speakers usually associate with questions).
• Шаблон:Sc2 as lowered, in the general vicinity of Шаблон:IPA-all.
• Шаблон:Sc2 as fronted and slightly rounded, more closely approaching Шаблон:IPA-all.
• Шаблон:Sc2 and Шаблон:Sc2 as merged in the general vicinity of Шаблон:IPA-all.
• Шаблон:Sc2 with a backed on-glide and fronted off-glide, putting it in the vicinity of Шаблон:IPA-all.
• Шаблон:Sc2 as Шаблон:IPA-all, particularly before voiceless consonants.
• Шаблон:Sc2 as Шаблон:IPA-all, though nowadays commonly Шаблон:IPA-all or even Шаблон:IPA-all when in a closed syllable.
• Шаблон:Sc2, almost always, as a slightly raised monophthong Шаблон:IPA-all.
• A lack of Happy-tensing; with the final vowel of happy, holy, money, etc. as Шаблон:IPA-all.
• Syllable-final Шаблон:IPA occasionally as "dark Шаблон:IPAblink", though especially before a consonant.

West and South-West Irish English

Шаблон:Main West and South-West Irish English here refers to broad varieties of Ireland's West and South-West Regions. Accents of both regions are known for:

• The backing and slight lowering of Шаблон:Sc2 towards Шаблон:IPA-all.
• The more open starting point for Шаблон:Sc2 and Шаблон:Sc2 of Шаблон:IPA-all and Шаблон:IPA-all, respectively.
• The preservation of Шаблон:Sc2 as monophthongal Шаблон:IPA-all.
• Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA, respectively, as Шаблон:IPA-all and Шаблон:IPA-all.
• In the West, Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA may respectively be pronounced by older speakers as Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA before a consonant, so fist sounds like fished, castle like Cashel, and arrest like "arresht".

South-West Irish English (often known, by specific county, as Cork English, Kerry English, or Limerick English) also features two major defining characteristics of its own. One is the pin–pen merger: the raising of dress to Шаблон:IPA when before Шаблон:IPA or Шаблон:IPA (as in again or pen). The other is the intonation pattern of a slightly higher pitch followed by a significant drop in pitch on stressed long-vowel syllables (across multiple syllables or even within a single one), which is popularly heard in rapid conversation, by speakers of other English dialects, as a noticeable kind of undulating "sing-song" pattern.

Dublin English

Шаблон:Main Dublin English is highly internally diverse and refers collectively to the Irish English varieties immediately surrounding and within the metropolitan area of Dublin. Modern-day Dublin English largely lies on a phonological continuum, ranging from a more traditional, lower-prestige, local urban accent on the one end to a more recently developing, higher-prestige, non-local (regional and even supraregional) accent on the other end, whose most advanced characteristics only first emerged in the late 1980s and 1990s. The accent that most strongly uses the traditional working-class features has been labelled by linguists as local Dublin English. Most speakers from Dublin and its suburbs, however, have accent features falling variously along the entire middle as well as the newer end of the spectrum, which together form what is called non-local Dublin English, spoken by middle- and upper-class natives of Dublin and the greater eastern Irish region surrounding the city. A subset of this variety, whose middle-class speakers mostly range in the middle section of the continuum, is called mainstream Dublin English. Mainstream Dublin English has become the basis of an accent that has otherwise become supraregional (see more below) everywhere except in the north of the country. The majority of Dubliners born since the 1980s (led particularly by women) has shifted towards the most innovative non-local accent, here called new Dublin English, which has gained ground over mainstream Dublin English and which is the most extreme variety in rejecting the local accent's traditional features. The varieties at either extreme of the spectrum, local and new Dublin English, are both discussed in further detail below. In the most general terms, all varieties of Dublin English have the following identifying sounds that are often distinct from the rest of Ireland, pronouncing:

• Шаблон:Sc2 as fronted and/or raised Шаблон:IPA-all. Aitch being pronounced as haitch, or h-adding, is not uncommon in Dublin English, and "harass" being pronounced as a homophone of "Harris" are also common features of Dublin English.
• Шаблон:Sc2 as retracted and/or centralised Шаблон:IPA-all.
• Шаблон:Sc2 as a diphthong in the range (local to non-local) of Шаблон:IPA-all.

Local Dublin English

Local Dublin English (or popular Dublin English) here refers to a traditional, broad, working-class variety spoken in the Republic of Ireland's capital city of Dublin. It is the only Irish English variety that in earlier history was non-rhotic; however, it is today weakly rhotic. Known for diphthongisation of the Шаблон:Sc2 and Шаблон:Sc2 vowels, the local Dublin accent is also known for a phenomenon called "vowel breaking", in which Шаблон:Sc2, Шаблон:Sc2, Шаблон:Sc2 and Шаблон:Sc2 in closed syllables are "broken" into two syllables, approximating Шаблон:IPA-all, Шаблон:IPA-all, Шаблон:IPA-all, and Шаблон:IPA-all, respectively.

New Dublin English

Evolving as a fashionable outgrowth of the mainstream non-local Dublin English, new Dublin English (also, advanced Dublin English and, formerly, fashionable Dublin English) is a youthful variety that originally began in the early 1990s among the "avant-garde" and now those aspiring to a non-local "urban sophistication". New Dublin English itself, first associated with affluent and middle-class inhabitants of southside Dublin, is probably now spoken by a majority of Dubliners born since the 1980s. It has replaced (yet was largely influenced by) moribund D4 English (often known as "Dublin 4" or "DART speak" or, mockingly, "Dortspeak"), which originated around the 1970s from Dubliners who rejected traditional notions of Irishness, regarding themselves as more trendy and sophisticated; however, particular aspects of the D4 accent became quickly noticed and ridiculed as sounding affected, causing these features to fall out of fashion by the 1990s. New Dublin English can have a fur–fair merger, horse–hoarse, and witch–which mergers, while resisting the traditionally Irish English cot–caught merger. This accent has since spread south to parts of east County Wicklow, west to parts of north County Kildare and parts of south County Meath. The accent can be also heard among the middle to upper classes in most major cities in the Republic today. The accent has been mocked as the "green party accent.

Standard Irish English

Supraregional Southern Irish English (sometimes, simply Supraregional Irish English or Standard Irish English) refers to a variety spoken particularly by educated and middle- or higher-class Irish people, crossing regional boundaries throughout all of the Republic of Ireland, except the north. As mentioned earlier, mainstream Dublin English of the early- to mid-twentieth century is the direct influence and catalyst for this variety, coming about by the suppression of certain markedly Irish features (and retention of other Irish features) as well as the adoption of certain standard British (i.e., non-Irish) features. The result is a configuration of features that is still unique; in other words, this accent is not simply a wholesale shift towards British English. Most speakers born in the 1980s or later are showing fewer features of this late-twentieth-century mainstream supraregional form and more characteristics aligning to a rapidly spreading new Dublin accent (see more above, under "Non-local Dublin English").

Ireland's supraregional dialect pronounces:

• Шаблон:Sc2 as quite open Шаблон:IPA-all.
• Шаблон:Sc2 along a possible spectrum Шаблон:IPA-all, with innovative Шаблон:IPA particularly more common before voiced consonants, notably including Шаблон:IPA.
• Шаблон:Sc2 as starting fronter and often more raised than other dialects: Шаблон:IPA.
• Шаблон:Sc2 may be Шаблон:IPA-all, with a backer vowel than in other Irish accents, though still relatively fronted.
• Шаблон:Sc2 as Шаблон:IPA-all.
• Шаблон:Sc2 as Шаблон:IPA-all, almost always separate from Шаблон:Sc2 Шаблон:IPA-all, keeping words like war and wore, or horse and hoarse, pronounced distinctly.
• Шаблон:Sc2 as Шаблон:IPA-all.
• Шаблон:Sc2 as a diphthong, approaching Шаблон:IPA-all, as in the mainstream United States, or Шаблон:IPA-all, as in mainstream England.
• Шаблон:Sc2 as higher, fronter, and often rounder Шаблон:IPA.

Overview of pronunciation and phonology

The following charts list the vowels typical of each Irish English dialect as well as the several distinctive consonants of Irish English. Phonological characteristics of overall Irish English are given as well as categorisations into five major divisions of Hiberno-English: Ulster; West and South-West Ireland; local Dublin; new Dublin; and supraregional (southern) Ireland. Features of mainstream non-local Dublin English fall on a range between "local Dublin" and "new Dublin".

Monophthongs

The following monophthongs are defining characteristics of Irish English:

• Шаблон:Sc2 is typically centralised in the mouth and often rounder than other standard English varieties, such as Received Pronunciation in England or General American in the United States.
• There is a partial trap-bath split in most Irish English varieties (cf. Variation in Australian English).
• There is inconsistency regarding the lot–cloth split and the cot–caught merger; certain Irish English dialects have these phenomena while others do not. The cot-caught merger by definition rules out the presence of the lot-cloth split.
• An epenthetic schwa is often inserted between sonorants, e.g. film Шаблон:IPA and form Шаблон:IPA, due to the influence of the Irish language.
• The words any and many are often exceptionally pronounced with Шаблон:IPA, i.e. rhyme with Annie and Danny.

Diaphoneme	Ulster	West & South-West Ireland	Local Dublin	New Dublin	Supraregional Ireland	Example words
flat Шаблон:IPA	Шаблон:IPA	Шаблон:IPA		Шаблон:IPA	Шаблон:IPA	add, land, trap
Шаблон:IPA and broad Шаблон:IPA	Шаблон:IPA	Шаблон:IPA		Шаблон:IPAШаблон:Ref		bath, calm, dance
conservative Шаблон:IPA	Шаблон:IPA	Шаблон:IPA		Шаблон:IPAШаблон:Ref	Шаблон:IPA	lot, top, wasp
divergent Шаблон:IPA	Шаблон:IPA	Шаблон:IPA		Шаблон:IPA	Шаблон:IPA	loss, off
Шаблон:IPA				Шаблон:IPAШаблон:Ref	Шаблон:IPA	all, bought, saw
Шаблон:IPA	Шаблон:IPAШаблон:Ref					dress, met, bread
Шаблон:IPA	Шаблон:IPA					about, syrup, arena
Шаблон:IPAШаблон:Ref	Шаблон:IPA	Шаблон:IPA				hit, skim, tip
Шаблон:IPA	Шаблон:IPAШаблон:Ref	Шаблон:IPA				beam, chic, fleet
Шаблон:IPA	Шаблон:IPA					happy, coffee, movie
Шаблон:IPA	Шаблон:IPA		Шаблон:IPA	Шаблон:IPA	Шаблон:IPA	bus, flood
Шаблон:IPA	Шаблон:IPA	Шаблон:IPA				book, put, should
Шаблон:IPA		Шаблон:IPAШаблон:Ref			Шаблон:IPA	food, glue, new

Footnotes:

Шаблон:Note In southside Dublin's once-briefly fashionable "Dublin 4" (or "Dortspeak") accent, the "Шаблон:IPA and broad Шаблон:IPA" set becomes rounded as Шаблон:IPA.

Шаблон:Note In South-West Ireland, Шаблон:IPA before Шаблон:IPA or Шаблон:IPA is [[Phonological history of English close front vowels#Pin-pen merger|raised to Шаблон:IPA]].

Шаблон:Note Due to the phenomenon of "vowel breaking" in local Dublin accents, Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA may be realised as Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA in closed syllables.

Other notes:

• In some highly conservative Irish English varieties, words spelled with Шаблон:Vr and pronounced with Шаблон:IPA in RP are pronounced with Шаблон:IPA, for example meat, beat, and leaf.
• In words like took where the spelling Шаблон:Vr usually represents Шаблон:IPA, conservative speakers may use Шаблон:IPA. This is most common in local Dublin and the speech of north-east Leinster.

Diphthongs

The following diphthongs are defining characteristics of Irish English:

• The Шаблон:Sc2 diphthong, as in ow or doubt, may start more forward in the mouth in the east (namely, Dublin) and supraregionally; however, it may be further backwards throughout the entire rest of the country. In Ulster, the second element is particularly forward, as in Scotland.
• The Шаблон:Sc2 diphthong, as in boy or choice, generally starts off lower outside of Ulster.
• The Шаблон:Sc2 diphthong, as in rain or bay, is most commonly realised as monophthongal Шаблон:IPA-all. The words gave and came often have Шаблон:IPA instead, i.e. rhyme with "Kev" and "them".Шаблон:Citation needed

Diaphoneme	Ulster	West & South-West Ireland	Local Dublin	New Dublin	Supraregional Ireland	Example words
Шаблон:IPA	Шаблон:IPA	Шаблон:IPA	Шаблон:IPAШаблон:Ref	Шаблон:IPA	Шаблон:IPA	bright, ride, try
Шаблон:IPA	Шаблон:IPA	Шаблон:IPA	Шаблон:IPAШаблон:Ref		Шаблон:IPA	now, ouch, scout
Шаблон:IPA	Шаблон:IPA	Шаблон:IPA	Шаблон:IPA			lame, rein, stain
Шаблон:IPA	Шаблон:IPA	Шаблон:IPA	Шаблон:IPA	Шаблон:IPA	Шаблон:IPA	boy, choice, moist
Шаблон:IPA	Шаблон:IPA		Шаблон:IPA	Шаблон:IPA	Шаблон:IPA	goat, oh, show

Footnotes: Шаблон:Note Due to the phenomenon of "vowel breaking" local Dublin accents, Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA may be realised as Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA in closed syllables.

Consonants

The consonants of Hiberno-English mostly align with the typical English consonant sounds. However, a few Irish English consonants have distinctive, varying qualities. The following consonant features are defining characteristics of Hiberno-English:

• Th-stopping: Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA are pronounced as stops, Шаблон:IPA-all and Шаблон:IPA-all, making then and den as well as thin and tin homophones. Some accents, realise them as dental stops Шаблон:IPA and do not merge them with alveolar Шаблон:IPA, i.e. making tin (Шаблон:IPA) and thin Шаблон:IPA a minimal pair. In Ulster they are Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA.
• Rhoticity: The pronunciation of historical Шаблон:IPA is universal in Irish English, as in General American (but not Received Pronunciation), i.e. Шаблон:IPA is always pronounced, even word finally and before consonants (e.g. here, cart, or surf).
• Yod-dropping after Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA, e.g. new Шаблон:IPA, lieutenant Шаблон:IPA, and sue Шаблон:IPA, and Yod-coalescence after Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA, e.g. duty Шаблон:IPA and tune Шаблон:IPA.
• Lack of haitch-dropping and occurrence of Шаблон:IPA where it is permitted in Irish but excluded in other dialects of English, such as word-medially before an unstressed vowel (e.g. Haughey Шаблон:IPA) and word-finally (e.g. McGrath Шаблон:IPA). The name haitch Шаблон:IPA for Шаблон:Vr is standard.
• Syllable final and intervocalic Шаблон:IPA is pronounced uniquely in most Hiberno-English; the most common pronunciation is as a "slit fricative".
• The phoneme Шаблон:IPA is almost always of a "light" or "clear" quality (i.e. not velarised), unlike Received Pronunciation, which uses both a clear and a dark "L" sound, or General American, which pronounces all "L" sounds as dark.

Diaphoneme	UlsterШаблон:Ref	West & South-West Ireland	Local DublinШаблон:Ref	New Dublin	Supraregional Ireland	Example words
Шаблон:IPA	Шаблон:IPA	Шаблон:IPA		Шаблон:IPA		this, writhe, wither
syllable-final Шаблон:IPA	Шаблон:IPA or Шаблон:IPA	Шаблон:IPA	Шаблон:IPA or Шаблон:IPA			ball, soldier, milk
Шаблон:IPAШаблон:Ref	Шаблон:IPA	Шаблон:IPA	Шаблон:IPA or Шаблон:IPA	Шаблон:IPA	Шаблон:IPA or Шаблон:IPA	rot, eerie, scary
syllable-final Шаблон:IPA			Шаблон:IPA or Шаблон:IPA			car, shirt, here
intervocalic Шаблон:IPA	Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, or Шаблон:IPA	Шаблон:IPA or Шаблон:IPAШаблон:Ref	Шаблон:IPA	Шаблон:IPAШаблон:Ref	Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, or Шаблон:IPAШаблон:Ref	battle, Italy, water
word-final Шаблон:IPA	Шаблон:IPA or Шаблон:IPA	Шаблон:IPA	Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, or Шаблон:IPA	Шаблон:IPA or Шаблон:IPA		cat, get, right
Шаблон:IPA	Шаблон:IPA	Шаблон:IPA		Шаблон:IPA		lethal, thick, wrath
Шаблон:IPAШаблон:Ref	Шаблон:IPA	Шаблон:IPA		Шаблон:IPA	Шаблон:IPA or Шаблон:IPA	awhile, whale, when

Footnotes:

Шаблон:NoteIn traditional, conservative Ulster English, Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA are palatalised before an open front vowel.

Шаблон:NoteLocal Dublin features consonant cluster reduction, so that plosives occurring after fricatives or sonorants may be left unpronounced, resulting, for example, in "poun(d)" and "las(t)".

Шаблон:NoteIn extremely traditional and conservative accents (e.g. Mícheál Ó Muircheartaigh and Jackie Healy-Rae), prevocalic Шаблон:IPA can also be an alveolar flap, Шаблон:IPA. Шаблон:IPA may be guttural (uvular, Шаблон:IPA) in north-east Leinster.

Шаблон:NoteШаблон:Vr is used here to represent the voiceless alveolar non-sibilant fricative, sometimes known as a "slit fricative", which is apico-alveolar.

Шаблон:NoteOverall, Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA are being increasingly merged in supraregional Irish English, for example, making wine and whine homophones, as in most varieties of English around the world.

Vowels + Шаблон:Vr combinations

The following vowels + Шаблон:Vr combinations are defining characteristics of Hiberno-English:

• Lack of horse–hoarse merger, i.e. distinction between Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA, so that e.g. horse and hoarse don't rhyme in most Irish accents.
• Шаблон:Sc2 vowel realised more forward in the mouth in comparison to most varieties of English.

Diaphoneme	Ulster	West & South-West Ireland	Local Dublin	New Dublin	Supraregional Ireland	Example words
Шаблон:IPA	Шаблон:IPA	Шаблон:IPA		Шаблон:IPAШаблон:Ref		car, guard, park
Шаблон:IPA	Шаблон:IPA					fear, peer, tier
Шаблон:IPA	Шаблон:IPA	Шаблон:IPAШаблон:Ref				bare, bear, there
Шаблон:IPAШаблон:Ref	Шаблон:IPA	Шаблон:IPAШаблон:Ref		Шаблон:IPAШаблон:Ref		irk, girl, earn
		Шаблон:IPAШаблон:Ref				work, first, urn
Шаблон:IPA	Шаблон:IPAШаблон:Ref					doctor, martyr, pervade
Шаблон:IPAШаблон:Ref	Шаблон:IPA	Шаблон:IPA		Шаблон:IPA		for, horse, war
	Шаблон:IPA	Шаблон:IPA	Шаблон:IPA	Шаблон:IPA		four, hoarse, wore
Шаблон:IPA	Шаблон:IPAШаблон:Ref					moor, poor, tour
Шаблон:IPA	Шаблон:IPAШаблон:Ref					cure, Europe, pure

Footnotes:

Шаблон:NoteIn southside Dublin's "Dublin 4" (or "Dortspeak") accent, Шаблон:IPA is realised as Шаблон:IPA.

Шаблон:NoteIn non-local Dublin's more recently emerging (or "new Dublin") accent, Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA may both be realised more rounded as Шаблон:IPA.

Шаблон:NoteThe nurse mergers have not occurred in local Dublin, West/South-West, and other very conservative and traditional Irish English which retain a two-way distinction, Шаблон:IPA versus Шаблон:IPA, unlike most English dialects which have merged historical Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA to Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA in the case of non-local Dublin, supraregional, and younger Irish accents. The distribution of Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA is as follows: Шаблон:IPA occurs when spelled Шаблон:Vr and Шаблон:Vr (e.g. urn and word), Шаблон:Vr after alveolar stops (e.g. dirt), and after labial consonants (e.g. fern); Шаблон:IPA is occurs in all other situations. There are apparent exceptions to these rules; John C. Wells describes prefer and per as Шаблон:IPA, despite the vowel in question following a labial. The distribution of Шаблон:IPA versus Шаблон:IPA is listed below in some example words: Шаблон:Col-begin Шаблон:Col-2 Шаблон:IPA

• certain Шаблон:IPA
• chirp Шаблон:IPA
• circle Шаблон:IPA
• earn Шаблон:IPA
• earth Шаблон:IPA
• girl Шаблон:IPA
• germ Шаблон:IPA
• heard or herd Шаблон:IPA
• Hertz Шаблон:IPA
• irk Шаблон:IPA
• tern Шаблон:IPA

Шаблон:Col-break Шаблон:IPA

• bird Шаблон:IPA
• dirt Шаблон:IPA
• first Шаблон:IPA
• hurts Шаблон:IPA
• murder Шаблон:IPA
• nurse Шаблон:IPA
• turn Шаблон:IPA
• third or turd Шаблон:IPA
• urn Шаблон:IPA
• work Шаблон:IPA
• world Шаблон:IPA

Шаблон:Col-end Шаблон:NoteIn a rare few local Dublin varieties that are non-rhotic, Шаблон:IPA is either lowered to Шаблон:IPA or backed and raised to Шаблон:IPA.

Шаблон:NoteThe distinction between Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA is widely preserved in Ireland, so that, for example, horse and hoarse are not merged in most Irish English dialects; however, they are usually merged in Belfast and new Dublin.

Шаблон:NoteIn local Dublin Шаблон:IPA may be realised as Шаблон:IPA. For some speakers Шаблон:IPA may merge with Шаблон:IPA.

Vocabulary

Loan words from Irish

A number of Irish language loan words are used in Hiberno-English, particularly in an official state capacity. For example, the head of government is the Taoiseach, the deputy head is the Tánaiste, the parliament is the Oireachtas and its lower house is Dáil Éireann. Less formally, people also use loan words in day-to-day speech, although this has been on the wane in recent decades and among the young.

Example loan words from Irish

Word	IPA (English)	IPA (Irish)	Part of speech	Meaning
Abú	Шаблон:IPA	Шаблон:IPA	Interjection	Hooray! Used in sporting occasions, especially for Gaelic games – Шаблон:Lang 'hooray for Dublin!'
Amadán	Шаблон:IPA	Шаблон:IPA	Noun	Fool
Fáilte	Шаблон:IPA	Шаблон:IPA	Noun	Welcome – often in the phrase Шаблон:Lang 'a hundred thousand welcomes'
Flaithiúlach	Шаблон:IPA	Шаблон:IPA	Adjective	Generous
Garsún Garsúr	Шаблон:IPA	Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA	Noun	Boy
Gaeltacht	Шаблон:IPA	Шаблон:IPA	Noun	Officially designated region where Irish is the primary spoken language
Grá	Шаблон:IPA	Шаблон:IPA	Noun	Love, affection, not always romantic – 'he has a great grá for the dog'
Lúdramán	Шаблон:IPA	Шаблон:IPA	Noun	Fool
Plámás	Шаблон:IPA	Шаблон:IPA	Noun	Smooth talk, flattery
Sláinte	Шаблон:IPA	Шаблон:IPA	Interjection	[To your] health!/Cheers!

Derived words from Irish

Another group of Hiberno-English words are those derived from the Irish language. Some are words in English that have entered into general use, while others are unique to Ireland. These words and phrases are often Anglicised versions of words in Irish or direct translations into English. In the latter case, they often give meaning to a word or phrase that is generally not found in wider English use.

Example words derived from Irish

Word or Phrase	Part of Speech	Original Irish	Meaning
Arra/ och / musha / yerra	Interjection	Шаблон:Lang / (conjunction of Шаблон:Lang)	"Yerra, sure if it rains, it rains."
Bockety	Adjective	Шаблон:Lang (lame)	Unsteady, wobbly, broken
Boreen	Noun	Шаблон:Lang	Small rural road or track
Ceili/Ceilidh Шаблон:IPA	Noun	Шаблон:Lang	Music and dancing session, especially of traditional music
Colleen	Noun	Шаблон:Lang	Girl, young woman
Fooster	Verb	Шаблон:Lang	to busy oneself in a restless way, fidget
Gansey	Noun	Шаблон:Lang	Jumper (Sweater)
Give out	Verb	Шаблон:Lang	Tell off, reprimand
Gob	Noun	Шаблон:Lang	Animal's mouth/beak (Шаблон:Lang = human mouth)
Gombeen	Noun	Шаблон:Lang	Money lender, profiteer. Usually in the phrase 'Gombeen man'
Guards	Noun	Шаблон:Lang	Police
Jackeen Шаблон:IPA	Noun	Nickname for John (i.e. Jack) combined with Irish diminutive suffix Шаблон:Lang	A mildly pejorative term for someone from Dublin. Also 'a self-assertive worthless fellow'. Derived from a person who followed the Union Jack during British rule after 1801, a Dublin man who supported the crown. Шаблон:Crossref
Shoneen	Noun	Шаблон:Lang (diminutive of Шаблон:Lang 'John')	An Irishman who imitates English ways Шаблон:Crossref
Sleeveen	Noun	Шаблон:Lang	An untrustworthy, cunning person
Soft day	Phrase	Шаблон:Lang (lit.)	Overcast day (light drizzle/mist)

Derived words from Old and Middle English

Another class of vocabulary found in Hiberno-English are words and phrases common in Old and Middle English, but which have since become obscure or obsolete in the modern English language generally. Hiberno-English has also developed particular meanings for words that are still in common use in English generally.

Example Hiberno-English words derived from Old and Middle English

Word	Part of speech	Meaning	Origin/notes
Amn't	Verb	"Am not" or used instead of "aren't"
Childer	Noun	Child	Survives from Old English, genitive plural of 'child'
Cop-on	Noun, Verb	shrewdness, intelligence, being 'street-wise'	Middle English from French Шаблон:Lang 'arrest'
Craic / Crack Шаблон:IPA	Noun	Fun, entertainment. Generally nowШаблон:Citation needed with the Gaelic spelling in the phrase – 'have the craic' from earlier usage in Northern Ireland, Scotland and northern England with spelling 'crack' in the sense 'gossip, chat'	Old English Шаблон:Lang via Ulster-Scots into modern Hiberno-English, then given Gaelic spelling
Devil	Noun	Curse (e.g., "Devil take him") Negation (e.g., for none, "Devil a bit")	middle English
Eejit Шаблон:IPA	Noun	Irish (and Scots) version of 'idiot', meaning foolish person	English from Latin Шаблон:Lang; has found some modern currency in England through the broadcasts of Terry Wogan
Hames	Noun	a mess, used in the phrase 'make a hames of'	Middle English from Dutch
Grinds	Noun	Private tuition	Old English Шаблон:Lang
Jaded	Adjective	physically tired, exhausted Not in the sense of bored, unenthusiastic, 'tired of' something	Middle English Шаблон:Lang
Kip	Noun	Unpleasant, dirty or sordid place	18th-century English for brothel
Mitch	Verb	to play truant	Middle English
Sliced pan	Noun	(Sliced) loaf of bread	Possibly derived from the French Шаблон:Lang 'bread' or the pan it was baked in.
Yoke	Noun	Thing, object, gadget	Old English Шаблон:Lang
Wagon/Waggon	Noun	an unpleasant or unlikable woman	Middle English
Whisht	Interjection	Be quiet (Also common in Northern England and Scotland)	Middle English

Other words

In addition to the three groups above, there are also additional words and phrases whose origin is disputed or unknown. While this group may not be unique to Ireland, their usage is not widespread, and could be seen as characteristic of Irish English.

Example Hiberno-English words of disputed or unknown origin

Word	Part of speech	Meaning	Notes
Acting the maggot	Phrase	To behave in an obstreperous or obstinate manner
Banjaxed	Verb	Broken, ruined, or rendered incapable of use. Equivalent in meaning to the German Шаблон:Lang
Bogger	Noun	Someone from the countryside or near a bog
Bowsie	Noun	a rough or unruly person. Cf. Scots Шаблон:Lang
Bleb	Noun, verb	blister; to bubble up, come out in blisters
Bucklepper	Noun	An overactive, overconfident person from the verb, to bucklep (leap like a buck)	Used by Patrick Kavanagh and Seamus Heaney
Chiseler	Noun	Child
Cod	Noun	Foolish person	Usually in phrases like 'acting the cod', 'making a cod of himself'. Can also be used as a verb, 'I was only codding him'
Culchie	Noun	Person from the countryside
Delph	Noun	Dishware	From the name of the original source of supply, Delft in the Netherlands. See Delftware.
Feck	Verb, interjection	an attenuated alternative/minced oath	"Feck it!", "Feck off"
Gurrier	Noun	a tough or unruly young man	perhaps from French Шаблон:Lang 'warrior', or else from 'gur cake' a pastry previously associated with street urchins. Cf. Scots Gurry
Jacks	Noun	Bathroom/toilet	Similar to "jakes" as used in 16th-century England. Still in everyday use, particularly in Dublin.
Messages	Noun	Groceries
Minerals	Noun	Soft drinks	From mineral Waters
Mot	Noun	Girl or young woman, girlfriend	From Irish Шаблон:Lang 'good', i.e. good-looking.
Press	Noun	Cupboard	Similarly, hotpress in Ireland means airing-cupboard. Press is an old word for cupboard in Scotland and Northern England.
Rake	Noun	many or a lot. Often in the phrase 'a rake of pints'. Cf. Scots Шаблон:Lang
Runners	Noun	Trainers/sneakers	Also 'teckies' or 'tackies', especially in and around Limerick.
Shops	Noun	Newsagents (or small supermarket)	E.g. "I'm going to the shops, do you want anything?"
Shore	Noun	Stormdrain or Gutter. Cf. Scots Шаблон:Lang
Wet the tea/The tea is wet	Phrase	Make the tea/the tea is made

Grammar and syntax

The syntax of the Irish language is quite different from that of English. Various aspects of Irish syntax have influenced Hiberno-English, though many of these idiosyncrasies are disappearing in suburban areas and among the younger population.

Another feature of Hiberno-English that sets it apart is the retention of words and phrases from Old and Middle English that are not retained otherwise in Modern English.

From Irish

Reduplication

Reduplication is an alleged trait of Hiberno-English strongly associated with Stage Irish and Hollywood films.

• the Irish Шаблон:Lang corresponds to English 'at all', so the stronger Шаблон:Lang gives rise to the form "at all at all".
  • "I've no time at all at all."
• Шаблон:Lang (lit. 'on fear that ...') means 'in case ...'. The variant Шаблон:Lang, (lit. 'on fear of fear') implies the circumstances are more unlikely. The corresponding Hiberno-English phrases are 'to be sure' and the very rarely used "to be sure to be sure". In this context, these are not, as might be thought, disjuncts meaning "certainly"; they could better be translated 'in case' and 'just in case'. Nowadays normally spoken with conscious levity.
  • "I brought some cash in case I saw a bargain, and my credit card to be sure to be sure."

Yes and no

Irish has no words that directly translate as 'yes' or 'no', and instead repeats the verb used in the question, negated if necessary, to answer. Hiberno-English uses "yes" and "no" less frequently than other English dialects as speakers can repeat the verb, positively or negatively, instead of (or in redundant addition to) using "yes" or "no".

• "Are you coming home soon?" – "I am."
• "Is your mobile charged?" – "It isn't."

This is not limited only to the verb to be: it is also used with to have when used as an auxiliary; and, with other verbs, the verb to do is used. This is most commonly used for intensification, especially in Ulster English.

• "This is strong stuff, so it is."
• "We won the game, so we did."

Recent past construction

Irish indicates recency of an action by adding "after" to the present continuous (a verb ending in "-ing"), a construction known as the "hot news perfect" or "after perfect". The idiom for "I had done X when I did Y" is "I was after doing X when I did Y", modelled on the Irish usage of the compound prepositions Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang, and Шаблон:Lang: Шаблон:Lang / Шаблон:Lang / Шаблон:Lang.

• "Why did you hit him?" – "He was after giving me cheek." (he had [just beforehand] been cheeky to me).

A similar construction is seen where exclamation is used in describing a recent event:

• "I'm after hitting him with the car!" Шаблон:Lang
• "She's after losing five stone in five weeks!" Шаблон:Lang

When describing less astonishing or significant events, a structure resembling the German perfect can be seen:

• "I have the car fixed." Шаблон:Lang
• "I have my breakfast eaten." Шаблон:Lang

This correlates with an analysis of "H1 Irish" proposed by Adger & Mitrovic, in a deliberate parallel to the status of German as a V2 language.

Recent past construction has been directly adopted into Newfoundland English, where it is common in both formal and casual register. In rural areas of the Avalon peninsula, where Newfoundland Irish was spoken until the early 20th century, it is the grammatical standard for describing whether or not an action has occurred.

Reflection for emphasis

The reflexive version of pronouns is often used for emphasis or to refer indirectly to a particular person, etc., according to context. Herself, for example, might refer to the speaker's boss or to the woman of the house. Use of herself or himself in this way can imply status or even some arrogance of the person in question. Note also the indirectness of this construction relative to, for example, She's coming now. This reflexive pronoun can also be used in a more neutral sense to describe a person's spouse or partner – "I was with himself last night" or "How's herself doing?"

• "'Tis herself that's coming now." Шаблон:Lang
• "Was it all of ye or just yourself?" Шаблон:Lang

Prepositional pronouns

There are some language forms that stem from the fact that there is no verb to have in Irish. Instead, possession is indicated in Irish by using the preposition "at", (in Irish, Шаблон:Lang). To be more precise, Irish uses a prepositional pronoun that combines Шаблон:Lang 'at' and Шаблон:Lang 'me' to create Шаблон:Lang. In English, the verb "to have" is used, along with a "with me" or "on me" that derives from Шаблон:Lang. This gives rise to the frequent

• "Do you have the book?" – "I have it with me."
• "Have you change for the bus on you?"
• "He will not shut up if he has drink taken."

Somebody who can speak a language "has" a language, in which Hiberno-English has borrowed the grammatical form used in Irish.

• "She does not have Irish." Шаблон:Lang literally 'There is no Irish at her.'

When describing something, many Hiberno-English speakers use the term "in it" where "there" would usually be used. This is due to the Irish word Шаблон:Lang fulfilling both meanings.

• "Is it yourself that is in it?" Шаблон:Lang
• "Is there any milk in it?" Шаблон:Lang

Another idiom is this thing or that thing described as "this man here" or "that man there", which also features in Newfoundland English in Canada.

• "This man here." Шаблон:Lang (cf. the related Шаблон:Lang = here)
• "That man there." Шаблон:Lang (cf. the related Шаблон:Lang = there)

Conditionals have a greater presence in Hiberno-English due to the tendency to replace the simple present tense with the conditional (would) and the simple past tense with the conditional perfect (would have).

• "John asked me would I buy a loaf of bread." (John asked me to buy a loaf of bread.)
• "How do you know him? We would have been in school together." (We were in school together.)

Bring and take: Irish use of these words differs from that of British English because it follows the Irish grammar for Шаблон:Lang and Шаблон:Lang. English usage is determined by direction; a person determines Irish usage. So, in English, one takes "from here to there", and brings it "to here from there". In Irish, a person takes only when accepting a transfer of possession of the object from someone elseШаблон:Spaced ndashand a person brings at all other times, irrespective of direction (to or from).

• Don't forget to bring your umbrella with you when you leave.
• (To a child) Hold my hand: I don't want someone to take you.

To be

Шаблон:Unreferenced section The Irish equivalent of the verb "to be" has two present tenses, one (the present tense proper or "Шаблон:Lang") for cases which are generally true or are true at the time of speaking and the other (the habitual present or "Шаблон:Lang") for repeated actions. Thus, "you are [now, or generally]" is Шаблон:Lang, but "you are [repeatedly]" is Шаблон:Lang. Both forms are used with the verbal noun (equivalent to the English present participle) to create compound tenses. This is similar to the distinction between Шаблон:Lang and Шаблон:Lang in Spanish or the use of the "habitual be" in African-American Vernacular English.

The corresponding usage in English is frequently found in rural areas, especially County Mayo and County Sligo in the west of Ireland and County Wexford in the south-east, inner-city Dublin and Cork city along with border areas of the North and Republic. In this form, the verb "to be" in English is similar to its use in Irish, with a "does be/do be" (or "bees", although less frequently) construction to indicate the continuous, or habitual, present:

• "He does be working every day." Шаблон:Lang
• "They do be talking on their mobiles a lot." Шаблон:Lang
• "He does be doing a lot of work at school." Шаблон:Lang
• "It's him I do be thinking of." Шаблон:Lang

From Old and Middle English

In old-fashioned usage, "it is" can be freely abbreviated Шаблон:'tis, even as a standalone sentence. This also allows the double contraction Шаблон:'tisn't, for "it is not".

Irish has separate forms for the second person singular (Шаблон:Lang) and the second person plural (Шаблон:Lang). Mirroring Irish, and almost every other Indo-European language, the plural you is also distinguished from the singular in Hiberno-English, normally by use of the otherwise archaic English word ye Шаблон:IPA; the word yous (sometimes written as youse) also occurs, but primarily only in Dublin and across Ulster. In addition, in some areas in Leinster, north Connacht and parts of Ulster, the hybrid word ye-s, pronounced "yiz", may be used. The pronunciation differs with that of the northwestern being Шаблон:IPA and the Leinster pronunciation being Шаблон:IPA.

• "Did ye all go to see it?" Шаблон:Lang
• "None of youse have a clue!" Шаблон:Lang
• "Are ye not finished yet?" Шаблон:Lang
• "Yis are after destroying it!" Шаблон:Lang

The word ye, yis or yous, otherwise archaic, is still used in place of "you" for the second-person plural, e.g. "Where are yous going?" Ye'r, Yisser or Yousser are the possessive forms.

The verb mitch is very common in Ireland, indicating being truant from school. This word appears in Shakespeare (though he wrote in Early Modern English rather than Middle English), but is seldom heard these days in British English, although pockets of usage persist in some areas (notably South Wales, Devon, and Cornwall). In parts of Connacht and Ulster the mitch is often replaced by the verb scheme, while in Dublin it is often replaced by "on the hop/bounce".

Another usage familiar from Shakespeare is the inclusion of the second person pronoun after the imperative form of a verb, as in "Wife, go you to her ere you go to bed" (Romeo and Juliet, Act III, Scene IV). This is still common in Ulster: "Get youse your homework done or you're no goin' out!" In Munster, you will still hear children being told, "Up to bed, let ye" Шаблон:IPA.

For influence from Scotland, see Ulster Scots and Ulster English.

Other grammatical influences

Шаблон:Original research section Now is often used at the end of sentences or phrases as a semantically empty word, completing an utterance without contributing any apparent meaning. Examples include "Bye now" (= "Goodbye"), "There you go now" (when giving someone something), "Ah now!" (expressing dismay), "Hold on now" (= "wait a minute"), "Now then" as a mild attention-getter, etc. This usage is universal among English dialects, but occurs more frequently in Hiberno-English. It is also used in the manner of the Italian 'prego' or German 'bitte', for example, a barman might say "Now, Sir." when delivering drinks.

So is often used for emphasis ("I can speak Irish, so I can"), or it may be tacked onto the end of a sentence to indicate agreement, where "then" would often be used in Standard English ("Bye so", "Let's go so", "That's fine so", "We'll do that so"). The word is also used to contradict a negative statement ("You're not pushing hard enough" – "I am so!"). (This contradiction of a negative is also seen in American English, though not as often as "I am too", or "Yes, I am".) The practice of indicating emphasis with so and including reduplicating the sentence's subject pronoun and auxiliary verb (is, are, have, has, can, etc.) such as in the initial example, is particularly prevalent in more northern dialects such as those of Sligo, Mayo and the counties of Ulster.

Sure/Surely is often used as a tag word, emphasising the obviousness of the statement, roughly translating as but/and/well/indeed. It can be used as "to be sure" (but the other stereotype of "Sure and …" is not actually used in Ireland.) Or "Sure, I can just go on Wednesday", "I will not, to be sure." The word is also used at the end of sentences (primarily in Munster), for instance, "I was only here five minutes ago, sure!" and can express emphasis or indignation. In Ulster, the reply "Aye, surely" may be given to show strong agreement.

To is often omitted from sentences where it would exist in British English. For example, "I'm not allowed go out tonight", instead of "I'm not allowed to go out tonight".Шаблон:Citation needed

Will is often used where British English would use "shall" or American English "should" (as in "Will I make us a cup of tea?"). The distinction between "shall" (for first-person simple future, and second- and third-person emphatic future) and "will" (second- and third-person simple future, first-person emphatic future), maintained by many in England, does not exist in Hiberno-English, with "will" generally used in all cases.

Once is sometimes used in a different way from how it is used in other dialects; in this usage, it indicates a combination of logical and causal conditionality: "I have no problem laughing at myself once the joke is funny." Other dialects of English would probably use "if" in this situation.

See also

• English language in Europe
• Highland English
• Kiltartanese
• Languages of Ireland
• Manx English
• Regional accents of English
• Welsh English

Bibliography

• Шаблон:Cite book
• Шаблон:Cite journal
• Шаблон:Cite book (Full text not available at this URL, on preview snippets.)
• Шаблон:Cite book
• Шаблон:Cite book
• Шаблон:Cite book

Further reading

• Шаблон:Cite web

External links

• Шаблон:Cite web
• Шаблон:Cite web