Английская Википедия:/æ/ raising

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Шаблон:Short description Шаблон:Redirect-distinguish Шаблон:Listen In the sociolinguistics of the English language, Шаблон:IPA raising or short-a raising is a phenomenon by which the "short a" vowel Шаблон:IPAc-en, the Шаблон:Sc vowel (found in such words as ash, bath, man, lamp, pal, rag, sack, trap, etc.), is pronounced with a raising of the tongue. In most American and many Canadian English accents, Шаблон:IPA raising is specifically Шаблон:IPA tensing: a combination of greater raising, fronting, lengthening, and gliding that occurs only in certain words or environments. The most common context for tensing Шаблон:IPA throughout North American English, regardless of dialect, is when this vowel appears before a nasal consonant (thus, for example, commonly in fan, but rarely in fat).

The realization of this "tense" (as opposed to "lax") Шаблон:IPA varies from Шаблон:IPAblink to Шаблон:IPA to Шаблон:IPA to Шаблон:IPA, and can be dependent on the particular dialect or even speaker. One common realization is Шаблон:IPA-all, a transcription that will be used throughout this article to represent the tensed pronunciation.

Variable raising of Шаблон:IPA (and Шаблон:IPA, the Шаблон:Sc2 vowel transcribed with Шаблон:Angbr IPA in General American) before nasal consonants also occurs in Australian English.

Distinction between phonemic and non-phonemic /æ/ raising

Short-a (or Шаблон:IPA) tensing has two possible forms: either non-phonemic ("continuous") or phonemic ("split"). In General American, for example, the word man can be pronounced on a continuum from the lax-vowel Шаблон:Audio to the tense-vowel Шаблон:Audio, but the latter pronunciation is much more common. However, both vowel qualities are considered possible variations (allophones) of the single "short a" phoneme in man. Therefore, General American uses a continuous system in which a tensed allophone does not demonstrate that a new phoneme has splintered off from the original.

In some American English dialects, however, including the New York City and Philadelphia ones, the "short a" sound can actually split into two entirely distinct phonemes and so using a tense vowel rather than a lax vowel could change the meanings of words or phrases. For instance, in traditional Philadelphia English, the surname Manning must be pronounced with a lax vowel as Шаблон:IPA. If it is pronounced tensely as Шаблон:IPA, it may be perceived by a Philadelphian as an entirely different word: the verb manning (as in "He was manning the vehicle"). Therefore, such dialects have a phonemic split of the "short a" vowel, sometimes called a "short-a split system". The relationship between two words (like Manning and manning) that differ in only a single differentiating sound is known as a minimal pair. Here are further examples of minimal pairs of the short a that use the Philadelphia and General American accents for reference as, respectively, phonemic and non-phonemic accents:

Example words		Philadelphia	General U.S.
calf Шаблон:Small	caf Шаблон:Small	Шаблон:IPA versus Шаблон:IPA	both homophonous as Шаблон:Audio
halve Шаблон:Small	have Шаблон:Small	Шаблон:IPA versus Шаблон:IPA	both homophonous as Шаблон:Audio
manning Шаблон:Small	Manning Шаблон:Small	Шаблон:IPA versus Шаблон:IPA	both homophonous as Шаблон:IPA
madder Шаблон:Small	matter Шаблон:Small	Шаблон:IPA versus Шаблон:IPA	both homophonous as Шаблон:Audio
mass Шаблон:Small	Mass Шаблон:Small	Шаблон:IPA versus Шаблон:IPA	both homophonous as Шаблон:Audio
plan it Шаблон:Small	planet Шаблон:Small	Шаблон:IPA versus Шаблон:IPA	both homophonous as Шаблон:Audio

Phonemic Шаблон:IPA raising systems

In a North American short-a phonemic split system (or, simply, a short-a split), the terms "raising" and "tensing" can be used interchangeably. Phonemic tensing occurs in the dialects of New York City and the Mid-Atlantic States (centering on the cities of Philadelphia and Baltimore). It is similar in its word patterns but not in its resulting pronunciation to the trap-bath split of certain British English accents, notably the London and Received Pronunciation dialects, which creates a new "broad a" phoneme from words that elsewhere retain a "short a" sound. The environment of "broad a" overlaps with that of Шаблон:IPA tensing in that it occurs before voiceless fricatives in the same syllable and before nasals in certain environments, and both phenomena involve replacement of the short lax vowel Шаблон:IPA with a longer and tenser vowel. However, the "broad a" is lower and backer than Шаблон:IPA, and the result of Шаблон:IPA tensing is higher and fronter.

It is also related to the bad–lad split of Australian English and some Southern British dialects in which a short flat Шаблон:IPA is lengthened to Шаблон:IPA in some conditions. The most significant differences from the Philadelphia system described here are that dialects that split bad–lad have the "broad a" phenomenon, which then prevents the split; 'sad' is long; and lengthening can occur before Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA.

New York City

In the traditional New York accent, the tense Шаблон:IPA is traditionally an entirely separate phoneme from Шаблон:IPA as a result of a phonemic split. The distribution between /æ/ and /ɛə/ is largely predictable. In New York City, tensing occurs uniformly in closed syllables before Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, voiceless fricatives (Шаблон:IPA), and voiced stops (Шаблон:IPA). Tensing occurs much more variably before Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA, in both closed and open syllables, such as in magic and jazz. In other open syllables, /æ/ tends to stay lax, regardless of the following consonant. (Contrasting that with the distinction between /ɒ/ and /ɔ/, Labov et al. reported that, in New York City, /sæd/ and /sɛəd/ were heard as the same word, but /sɒd/ and /sɔd/ were heard as two different words, suggesting minimal pairs of /æ/ and /ɛə/ to be not as likely in New York City as in Philadelphia.)

Exceptions include the following:

1. Function words with simple codas are usually lax

   can (simple coda) with Шаблон:IPA vs. can't (complex coda) with Шаблон:IPA

2. Learned words (often including loanwords) are usually lax

   alas and carafe with Шаблон:IPA

3. Abbreviated words or personal names are usually lax

   Cass, Babs, and math with Шаблон:IPA

4. When a vowel-initial word-level suffix is added to a word with tense Шаблон:IPA, the vowel remains tense even though it now stands in an open syllable

   mannish has Шаблон:IPA like man, not Шаблон:IPA like manage

   classy has Шаблон:IPA like class, not Шаблон:IPA like classic

   passing has Шаблон:IPA like pass, not Шаблон:IPA like Pasadena

5. Words with initial /æ/ are usually lax, except for the most common words

   aspirin and asterisk with Шаблон:IPA vs. ask and after (more common words) with Шаблон:IPA

6. Certain one-off exceptions (The word avenue usually has tense Шаблон:IPA, unlike any other case of Шаблон:IPA before Шаблон:IPA. The word family is quite variable.)

The New York City split system has also diffused, often with slightly different conditioning, into Albany, Cincinnati, New Orleans, and nearby parts of New Jersey.

Northern New Jersey

In Northern New Jersey, Labov finds the New York City split system, though with some variability. East of the Hackensack River—by Hoboken, Weehawken, and Jersey City—and in Newark also, Labov finds the split to occur with no more variation than in New York City itself.

Between the Hackensack and Passaic Rivers, Labov finds that speakers typically lose the city's function word constraint before nasal consonants. Thus, am, can (the verb), an, and and all typically take on tense Шаблон:IPA, while had ordinarily retains lax Шаблон:IPA. Labov also reports variable tensing in open syllables, resulting in potential tensing of words like planet and fashionable.

West of the Passaic River, Шаблон:IPA tensing only occurs before nasal consonants.

Albany

Like in Northern New Jersey, Labov finds that the New York split system has also diffused in Albany with some alterations. Although the function is lost in Northern New Jersey, Labov reports that the function constraint is weakened only in Albany. Thus, can, an, and has may be tensed while have and had may be lax. Also, the open syllable constraint is variable in Northern New Jersey, but Labov reports that in Albany, that constraint is absent altogether. Thus, national, cashew, family, camera, planet, and manner are all tense.

Older Cincinnati

Labov finds the remnants of the New York split system present in the now-declining traditional dialect of Cincinnati, with similar variations to Northern New Jersey and Albany. Like in Albany, the open-syllable constraint is completely absent. However, the function word and is reported as being lax.

Labov further reports consistently laxing before /g/. In New York, tensing before voiced fricatives is variable, but it is reported as consistent in Cincinnati.

New Orleans

Шаблон:Main Labov finds the New York split system in New Orleans with similar variations. As in older Cincinnati, tensing may also occur before voiced fricatives. As in Northern New Jersey, the function constraint is virtually absent. However, closer to the split of New York City proper, the open syllable constraint is still retained. Also, the tense variant Шаблон:IPA appears to always be present before voiced fricatives like Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA.

Philadelphia and Baltimore

Philadelphia and Baltimore use a different short-a system than New York City, but it is similar in that it is also a split system. Tensing does not occur before voiced stops and Шаблон:IPA, with the only exceptions being mad, bad, and glad. Here are further examples that are true for Philadelphia and Baltimore, as well as for New York City:

Tense Шаблон:IPA		Lax Шаблон:IPA
man	Шаблон:IPA	hang	Шаблон:IPA
ham	Шаблон:IPA	pal	Шаблон:IPA
laugh	Шаблон:IPA	lap	Шаблон:IPA
bath	Шаблон:IPA	bat	Шаблон:IPA
pass	Шаблон:IPA	passage	Шаблон:IPA

Philadelphia/Baltimore exceptions include the New York exceptions listed above, as well as the following:

1. When a polysyllabic word with Шаблон:IPA in an open syllable gets truncated to a single closed syllable, the vowel remains lax:

   caf (truncation of cafeteria) has Шаблон:IPA, not Шаблон:IPA like calf

   path (truncation of pathology) has Шаблон:IPA, not Шаблон:IPA like path 'way, road'

   Mass (truncation of Massachusetts) has Шаблон:IPA, not Шаблон:IPA like mass

2. Function words and irregular verb tenses have lax Шаблон:IPA, even in an environment which would usually cause tensing:

   and (a function word) has Шаблон:IPA, not Шаблон:IPA like sand

   ran (a strong verb tense) has Шаблон:IPA, not Шаблон:IPA like man

Non-phonemic Шаблон:IPA raising systems

Before nasals

Most American and many Canadian English speakers, at the very least, display an Шаблон:IPA that is raised (tensed) and diphthongized before the front nasals Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA, such as in camp, man, ram, pan, ran, clamber, Sammy, which are otherwise lower and laxer. However, they fail to split the "short a" into two contrasting phonemes, which the New York, Baltimore, Philadelphia, and Yat accents do. A common form is what William Labov calls the "nasal system" in which Шаблон:IPA is raised and tensed most severely but not necessarily exclusivelyШаблон:Citation needed before nasal consonants, regardless of whether there is a syllabic or morphemic boundary present. The nasal system is found in several separate and unrelated dialect regions, including the southern Midwest, Northern New Jersey, Florida, and parts of Canada, but it is most prominent, the difference between the two allophones of Шаблон:IPA being the greatest and speakers with the nasal system being most concentrated, in eastern New England, including in Boston.

More widespread among speakers of the Western United States, Canada, and the southern Midwest is a "continuous system," which also revolves around "short a" before nasal consonants but has a less-extreme raising of the tongue than the "nasal system." Most varieties of General American English fall under that category. The system resembles the nasal system in that Шаблон:IPA is usually raised and tensed to Шаблон:IPA before nasals, but instead of a sharp divide between a high, tense allophone before nasals and a low, lax one before other consonants, allophones of Шаблон:IPA occupy a continuum of varying degrees of height and tenseness between both extremes, with a variety of phonetic and phonological factors interacting (sometimes differently in different dialects) to determine the height and tenseness of any particular example of Шаблон:IPA.

The pattern most characteristic of Southern American English does not use Шаблон:IPA raising at all but uses what has been called the "Southern drawl" instead, with Шаблон:IPA becoming in essence a triphthong Шаблон:IPA. However, many speakers from the South still use the nasal Шаблон:IPA-raising system described above, particularly in Charleston, Atlanta, and Florida. Also, some speakers from the New Orleans area have been reported to have a system that is very similar to the phonemic split of New York.

Before Шаблон:IPA

For speakers in much of Canada and in the North-Central and the Northwestern United States, a following Шаблон:IPA (as in magazine, rag, bags, etc.) or Шаблон:IPA (as in bang, pang, gangster, angler, etc.) tenses an Шаблон:IPA as much as or more than a following nasal does.Шаблон:Sfnp In Wisconsin, Minnesota, and Central Canada, a merger of Шаблон:IPA with Шаблон:IPA before Шаблон:IPA has been reported, making, for example, haggle and Hegel homonyms.Шаблон:Sfnp

General Шаблон:IPA raising

In accents that have undergone the Northern Cities Vowel Shift, mostly those of the Inland Northern United States, the phoneme Шаблон:IPA is raised and diphthongized in all possible environments: a "general raising" system. The Inland North dialect is spoken in such areas as Chicago, Cleveland, Detroit, Buffalo, Rochester, and Syracuse. However, a reversal of the raising (except before nasal consonants) has been observed in at least some communities in which it has been studied, including Lansing, Michigan, and Syracuse, New York.

Australian English

In Australian English, Шаблон:IPA and the backing diphthong Шаблон:IPA (which corresponds to Шаблон:IPA in General American and RP) may be raised to Шаблон:IPA before nasal consonants. In the case of Шаблон:IPA, the raised allophone approaches the Шаблон:Sc2 vowel Шаблон:IPA but is typically somewhat longer, similar to the Шаблон:Sc2 vowel Шаблон:IPA. In the case of Шаблон:IPA, it is only the first element that is variably raised, the second element remains unchanged.

For some speakers this raising is substantial, yet for others it is nonexistent.

Vowel length has become the main perceptual difference between Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA when before Шаблон:IPA or Шаблон:IPA. For example, a word like 'Ben' would be pronounced Шаблон:IPA, while 'ban' would be pronounced Шаблон:IPA.

Sources

• Шаблон:Cite book
• Шаблон:Cite journal
• Шаблон:Cite book
• Шаблон:Cite journal
• Шаблон:Cite book
• Шаблон:Cite journal