Английская Википедия:A Voyage Round the World
Шаблон:Short description Шаблон:Featured article Шаблон:Use British English Шаблон:Use dmy dates
Шаблон:Infobox book A Voyage Round the World (complete title A Voyage Round the World in His Britannic Majesty's Sloop, Resolution, Commanded by Capt. James Cook, During the Years 1772, 3, 4, and 5) is Georg Forster'sШаблон:Refn report on the second voyage of the British explorer James Cook. During the preparations for Cook's voyage, the expedition's naturalist Joseph Banks had withdrawn his participation, and Georg's father, Johann Reinhold Forster, had taken his place at very short notice, with his seventeen-year-old son as his assistant. They sailed on Шаблон:HMS with Cook, accompanied by Шаблон:HMS under Tobias Furneaux. On the voyage, they circumnavigated the world, crossed the Antarctic Circle and sailed as far south as 71° 10Шаблон:Prime, discovered several Pacific islands, encountered diverse cultures and described many species of plants and animals.
When they returned to England after more than three years, disagreement about the publication rights for a narrative of the journey arose. After plans agreed with John Montagu, 4th Earl of Sandwich, the First Lord of the Admiralty, to publish a joint work with contributions by both Cook and Reinhold Forster had fallen through, Georg, who was not bound by any agreement with the Admiralty, began writing Voyage in July 1776. He published on 17 March 1777, six weeks before Cook's A Voyage Towards the South Pole and Round the World appeared. While 63 copper engravings, paid for by the Admiralty, illustrated Cook's account, only a chart of the Southern Hemisphere showing the expedition ships' courses illustrated Forster's Voyage, which was sold for the same price.
While Forster organised Voyage chronologically, he wrote it as entertaining literature, focusing not on the nautical aspects of the voyage but on scientific observations and on the cultural encounters with the peoples of the South Pacific. This was well received by critics, who praised the writing, especially in contrast to Cook's book, but sales were slow. Controversy continued after the publication. Resolution astronomer William Wales suspected Reinhold Forster of being the true author and published many accusations in his Remarks on Mr Forster's Account of Captain Cook's last Voyage round the World that prompted a Reply to Mr Wales's Remarks in which Georg defended his father against the attacks. Voyage brought Georg Forster great fame, especially in Germany. It is regarded as a seminal book in travel writing, considered a major influence on the explorer Alexander von Humboldt, and has become a classic of travel literature.
Background
The Royal Society of London suggested James Cook's first voyage, 1768–1771, to observe the 1769 transit of Venus from Tahiti.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Following proposals by the geographer Alexander Dalrymple, the scope was widened to a voyage of discovery that was hoped to find the hypothetical continent of Terra Australis Incognita.Шаблон:Sfn Cook circumnavigated New Zealand, proving it was not attached to a landmass farther south, and mapped the east coast of Australia but had not found evidence for a large southern continent. After Cook's return, a second voyage was commissioned with the aim of circumnavigating the globe as far south as possible to finally find this famed continent.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn In the preparations for Cook's second voyage, Joseph Banks, the botanist on the first voyage, had been designated as the main scientific member of the crew. He asked for major changes to the expedition ship, HMS Resolution, which made it top-heavy and had to be mostly undone. Subsequently, dissatisfied with the ship, Banks announced on 24 May 1772 his refusal to go on the expedition.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn
On 26 May 1772,Шаблон:Sfn Johann Reinhold Forster, who had attempted unsuccessfully to become part of Banks's scientific entourage,Шаблон:Sfn was visited by the naval surgeon and inventor Charles Irving, who told Forster of Banks's decision and asked whether he would go instead.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Forster accepted but requested that his seventeen-year-old son Georg should accompany him as his assistant.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Irving relayed this to the First Secretary of the Admiralty, Philip Stephens. Forster was supported by the Royal Society's vice president Daines Barrington, whose friendship he had cultivated.Шаблон:Sfn The First Lord of the Admiralty, Lord Sandwich obtained the king's assent for Forster's appointment on 5 June, pre-empting attempts by Banks to force the Admiralty to comply with his demands.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Financial questions still needed to be resolved. Barrington attempted to secure for Forster the £4,000 that Parliament had approved for Banks's would-be companion, James Lind. After Lord Sandwich recommended Forster to the prime minister, Lord North, as "one of the fittest persons in Europe for such an undertaking", mentioning Georg as a "very able draughtsman and designer",Шаблон:Sfn Lord North obtained the King's approval for a payment of £1,795 for equipment that Forster received on 17 June, as the first instalment of the £4,000.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Additionally, despite not having a written contract and relying on Barrington's word only, Reinhold Forster believed he would be allowed to publish a narrative of the journey.Шаблон:Sfn
The second voyage of James Cook began with Resolution and Adventure sailing from Plymouth on 13 July 1772.Шаблон:Sfn Other than sailing to the Cape of Good Hope and back, the journey can be broken up into three "ice edge cruises" during the Southern hemisphere summers, where Cook attempted to find Terra Australis, broken up by "tropical sweeps" in the South Pacific and stays at a base in New Zealand.Шаблон:Sfn While they did not reach mainland Antarctica, they made the first recorded crossing of the Antarctic Circle on 17 January 1773.Шаблон:Sfn They discovered New Caledonia, South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands. Finally, Cook's ship returned to England on 30 July 1775.Шаблон:Sfn An abstract of one of Forster's letters to Barrington summarised the achievements for Banks as "260 new Plants, 200 new Animals – 71° 10Шаблон:Prime farthest Sth – no continent – Many Islands, some 80 Leagues long – The Bola Bola savage an [in]corrigible Blockhead – Glorious Voyage – No man lost by sickness."Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Refn
Publication rights dispute
After the return of Cook's expedition, there was disagreement about who should write the official account of the journey. After Cook's first voyage in 1768, the writer and editor John Hawkesworth had compiled a report, An Account of the Voyages, from the journals of Cook and Banks. He had been recommended to Lord Sandwich by their mutual friend Charles Burney and received compensation of £6,000.Шаблон:Sfn Hawkesworth's report was poorly received by critics.Шаблон:Sfn Cook was also dissatisfied with gross inaccuracies in the report,Шаблон:Sfn which according to Hawkesworth had been approved by him.Шаблон:Sfn After this experience, Cook decided to publish his own account.Шаблон:Sfn Reinhold Forster believed he would be allowed to write the official report of the voyage and reap the expected financial rewards from it. Both Cook and Forster had kept journals for this purpose and reworked them in the winter of 1775–76. In April 1776, Sandwich brokered a compromise that both sides agreed to: Cook would write the first volume, containing a narrative of the journey, the nautical observations, and his own remarks on the natives. The elder Forster was to write the second volume concerning the discoveries made in natural history and ethnology and his "philosophical remarks". Costs and profits were to be shared equally, but the Admiralty was to pay for the engravings.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn However, when Forster had completed a sample chapter, Sandwich was dissatisfied with it and asked Richard Owen Cambridge to revise the manuscript.Шаблон:Sfn Forster, who mistakenly assumed that Barrington wanted to correct his work,Шаблон:Sfn was furious about this interference with his writing and refused to submit his drafts for corrections. He offered to sell his manuscripts to the Admiralty for £200,Шаблон:Sfn which Cook and Barrington supported, but Sandwich refused.Шаблон:Sfn In June 1776, it was decided that Cook would publish his report alone,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn giving Cook the full financial benefit of the publication.Шаблон:Sfn Reinhold Forster's agreements with Sandwich made it impossible for him to publish a separate narrative.Шаблон:Sfn
Writing and publication
Not bound by his father's agreements with the Admiralty, Georg Forster began to write A Voyage Round the World in July 1776, which fully engaged him for nine months.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn His father's journals were the main source for the work.Шаблон:Sfn The facts about what they saw and did are typically taken from these journals but recast into Georg's own style, with a different ordering of the details and additional connecting material.Шаблон:Sfn Some parts were based on segments of Cook's journals that Forster's father had accessed while preparing his samples for Sandwich.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Georg used his own notes and recollections,Шаблон:Sfn including his own memorandum Шаблон:Lang, which contains botanical and biological observations up to 1 January 1773.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Refn
Unlike the systematic approach of Johann Reinhold Forster's later book Observations Made during a Voyage round the World (1778), A Voyage Round the World is a chronology of the voyage,Шаблон:Sfn but written as entertaining literature, including the use of quotations from classical literature to frame the narrative,Шаблон:Sfn instead of a dry collection of facts.Шаблон:Sfn Among the first books using such scientific-literary techniques, it is regarded as a seminal book in the history of travel writingШаблон:Sfn and has been described as "unambiguously the finest of the Cook voyage narratives".Шаблон:Sfn The Oxford astronomer Thomas Hornsby proofread the book's manuscript.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Georg Forster drew a chart for the book, which was engraved by William Whitchurch. It shows most of the Southern Hemisphere in stereographic projection from the intersection of the Arctic Circle and the meridian of Greenwich. The chart shows the tracks of the expedition's ships more clearly than the one printed in Cook's account, which included those of other navigators.Шаблон:Sfn Reinhold Forster attempted to access the plates with the engravings that were made for Cook's account, but was refused by the publishers. Nevertheless, Georg had seen proofs of these plates, frequently mentioned and commented on in Voyage.Шаблон:Sfn
The book appeared on 17 March 1777,Шаблон:Sfn printed in two volumes totalling 1200 pages by the publisher Benjamin White. Cook's official account of the voyage, A Voyage Towards the South Pole and Round the World, appeared six weeks later. Cook's book included 63 copper engravings,Шаблон:Sfn some of which were based on Georg Forster's drawings, while A Voyage Round the World was not illustrated except for the chart. Nevertheless, both books were sold at the same price of 2 guineas.Шаблон:Sfn Forster's book sold slowly; in 1778, 570 of about 1000 copies were still unsold,Шаблон:Sfn and the Forsters had to sell most of their collection of Pacific artefacts and Georg's drawings to alleviate their debts. Some of the drawings were not published until 2007, when they appeared in an illustrated German edition of Voyage.Шаблон:Sfn
Content
The book is structured as a travelogue, chronologically retelling the events and observations of the journey. Unlike Cook's report, it does not focus on the nautical aspects of the voyage, but on the scientific and ethnological observations. Forster describes encounters with the peoples and cultures of the South Seas and the corrupting impact of the contact with European sailors.Шаблон:Sfn Peoples described include the Tahitians, the Maori of New Zealand, and the Fuegians of Tierra del Fuego, whose technologies and societies Forster analysed and compared.Шаблон:Sfn
The following is a summary of the contents of each chapter, following the journey of the Resolution under Cook, which was accompanied for parts of the journey by the Adventure under the command of Tobias Furneaux.
Preface
Шаблон:Blockquote Forster explains the history of the work, including the agreements between his father, Cook and Sandwich. He proceeds with an apology for producing a work separate to Cook's, and gives an account of the life in England of Tahitian native Omai, who had arrived in Europe on Adventure in 1774.
Book I
Chapter I. Departure—Passage from Plymouth to Madeira—Description of that Island.
The Forsters travel from London to Plymouth. After final works on the Resolution have been completed, the sea voyage begins. They sail along the coast of Spain, then spend some days in Madeira. Forster describes the island on several pages.
Chapter II. The Passage from Madeira to the Cape Verd Islands, and from thence to the Cape of Good Hope.
The voyage passes the Canary Islands, then crosses the Tropic of Cancer. They visit Cape Verde. Forster comments on its inhabitants and their wretchedness, which he blames on "despotic governors, bigotted priests, and indolence on the part of the court of Lisbon".Шаблон:Sfn On the way south, they encounter dolphins, flying fish, and some luminous sea creatures.
Chapter III. Stay at the Cape of Good Hope.—Account of that Settlement.
The voyagers spend three weeks in Cape Town. Forster describes the colony, which he finds far superior to the Portuguese colony at Cape Verde. They meet Anders Sparrman, a Swedish naturalist, who agrees to accompany them.
Chapter IV. Run from the Cape to the Antarctic Circle; first season spent in high Southern Latitudes.—Arrival on the Coast of New Zeeland.
The voyagers sail south, into unknown waters. As the weather gets colder, Cook provides the seamen with warm clothing. At 51° 5Шаблон:Prime South, they encounter icebergs. William Wales and Forster's father get lost in the fog in a small boat, but eventually manage to return to the ship. The sailors are drunk at Christmas. Ice is brought on board to be melted. On 17 January 1773, they cross the Antarctic Circle: Шаблон:Blockquote The voyage continues eastwards, with occasional attempts to go further south. They lose contact with the Adventure. Several sailors suffer from symptoms of scurvy. They arrive in New Zealand at the end of February, "after a space of four months and two days, out of sight of land".Шаблон:Sfn
Chapter V. Stay at Dusky Bay; description of it, and account of our transactions there.
Resolution arrives at Dusky Bay, where they meet some natives and make several excursions. There are plenty of fish and many ducks to shoot. They leave some geese to breed and restock with water and timber. They stay for some days at Long Island. After six weeks in the area, Forster concludes: Шаблон:Blockquote
Chapter VI. Passage from Dusky Bay to Queen Charlotte's Sound—Junction with the Adventure.—Transactions during our stay there.
The voyagers encounter a waterspout. At Queen Charlotte Sound, they are rejoined by the Adventure, and Forster reports on its journey to New Zealand via Tasmania. Again, they make several excursions, including one to another Long Island, where Cook has some seeds planted. Forster comments on the geology and concludes the existence of volcanoes in New Zealand. They trade with natives and invite them on board the ship, and the unmarried women are forced into prostitution by the natives: Шаблон:Blockquote Forster comments on the moral corruption inflicted upon the natives by the Europeans. The voyagers spend several more days in the areas and converse with the natives, and Cook shows one of them the seed garden on Long Island.
Chapter VII. Run from New Zeeland to O-Taheitee.
The ships pass through Cook's Strait and turn to the northeast. Forster reports on consumption of dog meat and on the relatively better health of the crew on board the Resolution as compared to the Adventure.
Chapter VIII. Anchorage in O-Aitepeha harbour, on the lesser peninsula of O-Taheitee.—Account of our stay there.—Removal to Matavai Bay.
Forster describes the arrival in Tahiti: Шаблон:Blockquote The natives are friendly, and come to the ship unarmed and in large numbers. Forster finds the language very easy to pronounce, and notices that the letter "O" that many words seem to begin with is just an article. Шаблон:Blockquote They continue to trade, and an incident of theft is resolved after Cook confiscates a canoe. The Forsters go ashore to collect plants, and the natives help them, but do not sell their hogs, stating these belong to the king. They continue to enjoy the natives' hospitality and meet a very fat man who appears to be a leader. Some days later, Cook and his crew are granted an audience with the local chief, attended by 500 natives. Forster reports on the recent political history. They continue to Matavai Bay, where Cook had stayed during his previous visit to Tahiti.
Chapter IX. Account of our Transactions at Matavaï Bay.
The voyagers meet the local king O-Too. An exchange of presents ensues, including several live animals. On excursions, the Forsters encounter more hospitality, including a type of refreshing massage. After two weeks, they leave Tahiti, and Forster remarks on the society of Tahiti, which he perceives as more equal than that of England, while still having class distinctions.
Chapter X. Account of our Transactions at the Society Islands.
Forster reports that some seamen have caught venereal diseases from their sexual encounters in Tahiti. They arrive at Huahine, and there is a welcoming ceremony for Cook. On an excursion, Forster and Sparrman notice a woman breastfeeding a puppy; upon inquiry, they find out she lost her child. The interactions with local chief Oree are described. Soon after, on Bora Bora, they shoot some kingfishers, which makes the women unhappy, and the local chief asks them not to kill kingfishers or herons, while allowing them to shoot other species. They discuss the nearby islands with the natives. Forster describes a dance performance. They visit O-Tahà, and Forster describes a feast, the local alcoholic beverages, and another dance performance.
Book II
Chapter I. Run from the Society Isles to the Friendly Isles, with an Account of our Transactions there.
Fully restocked, and with a crew that is healthy except for venereal diseases, the voyagers continue eastwards. Cook discovers Hervey's Isle. They meet the natives at Middelburg Island. Forster criticises related images by Hodges and Sherwin. The natives sing a song for them, a transcription of which is given in the book. Forster comments on the inhabitants' houses and their diet, and describes their tattoos and ear piercings. As there is little opportunity to trade, they continue to Tongatapu. Here again, the natives are friendly, and Forster sees one of their priests. During daytime, many women prostitute themselves on board the ship, all of them unmarried. Forster describes the natives' boats and their habit of colouring their hair with powders. The priest is seen drinking a kava-based intoxicating beverage and shares some with the travellers. Forster compares the Tahitians and the Tongans.
Chapter II. Course from the Friendly Isles to New Zeeland.—Separation from the Adventure.—Second stay in Queen Charlotte's Sound.
The ships sail back to New Zealand, where some natives in Hawke's Bay perform a war dance for them. A storm hinders them from passing west through Cook's Strait, and they have a terrible night, in which most of the beds are under water and the Forsters hear the curses of the sailors "and not a single reflection bridled their blasphemous tongues".Шаблон:Sfn They lose sight of the Adventure, but finally manage to pass through Cook's Strait and return to Queen Charlotte's Sound on South Island. Forster describes various trades and excursions, and comments on the treatment of women: Шаблон:Blockquote A shipmate buys the head of a victim of a recent fight, and takes it on board, where other natives proceed to eat the cheeks, proving the existence of cannibalism in New Zealand. Forster describes the mixed reactions of the company on board; the most shocked is Mahine, a native of Bora Bora, who accompanies them. They take provisions to continue their journey, with the "hope of completing the circle round the South-Pole in a high latitude during the next inhospitable summer, and of returning to England within the space of eight months".Шаблон:Sfn
Chapter III. The second course towards the high southern latitudes from New Zeeland to Easter Island.
Resolution sails south. Forster describes Mahine's reaction to seeing snow for the first time and to life on board. They observe Christmas at the Antarctic Circle, with icebergs often hindering their progress south. Going east and north again, they have finally "proved that no large land or continent exists in the South Sea within the temperate zone, and that if it exists at all, we have at least confined it within the antarctic circle".Шаблон:Sfn Forster comments on the hardship of the voyage. When they turn south again, they are stopped at 71° 10Шаблон:Prime south by "a solid ice-field of immense extent".Шаблон:Sfn They turn north again towards the tropics; many crew are afflicted with scurvy, and the captain with other illnesses. They sail to Easter Island.
Chapter IV. An Account of Easter Island, and our Stay there.
As the voyagers come to Easter Island, the natives provide them with fresh bananas, which are very welcome to the crew that has lacked fresh provisions. Trade with the natives is not very successful, as they do not have much, and sometimes attempt to cheat. The sailors buy sexual favours fairly cheaply. Forster quotes from his father's journal, which describes seeing the moai (statues) and meeting the king. Forster closes with the observation by their companion Mahine, "the people were good, but the island very bad".Шаблон:Sfn
Chapter V. Run from Easter Island to the Marquesas—Stay in Madre-de-Dios harbour on Waitahoo—Course from thence through the Islands to Taheitee.
As they sail slowly northwest towards the Marquesas Islands, many of the crew are sick again, including the captain. Forster's father has his dog killed to provide better food for Cook. When they arrive at the Marquesas, they trade with the natives for food. A native who has attempted to steal is shot dead by one of the officers. Forster describes the inhabitants and finds them overall very similar to those of the Society Islands. They sail to the King George Islands, discover the Palliser Islands, and return to Tahiti.
Chapter VI. An account of our second visit to the island of o-Taheitee.
Forster describes a war fleet of canoes and some of the background of the war. Red feathers are highly valued by the natives, leading to offers of prostitution from higher-ranked women than before. Mahine marries a Tahitian girl, and the ceremony is witnessed by a midshipman, who can not relate any details; Forster laments the lost opportunity to observe the local customs. Forster describes the recent political and military history of the island. He concludes with a comparison of life in England and in Tahiti.
Chapter VII. The second stay at the Society Islands.
On their way from Tahiti to Huahine, they have a stowaway on board. Arrived at the island, they trade again, and there are various incidents involving theft. They encounter the arioi, a venerated religious order of people who remain childless by killing their newborn. It turns out that Mahine is a member of this order, but he is persuaded not to kill any of his own children. Forster describes more encounters and more of the religion and calendar of the natives.
Chapter VIII. Run from the Society to the Friendly Islands.
As they leave the Society Islands, about half of the crew suffer from venereal diseases. Forster discusses their prevalence and states that there is now proof that they existed before contact with Europeans. They discover Palmerston Island but do not go ashore. They continue to Savage Island, where they are attacked and retreat. They continue to Nomuka and other of the Friendly Islands, where people are similar to those of Tongatapu, and Forster describes their houses and their trade. The sailors celebrate the second anniversary of their departure by drinking.
Book III
Chapter I. An account of our stay at Mallicollo, and discovery of the New Hebrides.
The voyagers sail in the vicinities of Aurora Island, Lepers Island and Whitsun Island. After seeing the volcano on Ambrym, they turn to Mallicollo, where they engage with the natives. Forster reports their language as different from all South Sea dialects they have encountered, especially in its use of consonants. The natives are described as intelligent and perceptive, and an account is given of their body modifications and clothing, their food and their drums. As the voyagers sail south, some of the officers suffer from poisoning after eating a red fish. They discover the Shepherd Islands and then Sandwich Island, and continue south to Erromango. There they attempt to land to obtain fresh water but are attacked by the natives. They see the light from a volcano at night and then anchor close to it at Tanna Island.
Chapter II. Account of our stay at Tanna, and departure from the New Hebrides.
At Tanna, they meet the natives. As a demonstration of might, Cook has a cannon fired. When a man tries to steal the buoy, they fire more shots, without harming the natives. They manage to land and, after giving some presents to the natives and receiving coconuts in return, ask to take some fresh water and wood, which is granted. The next day, the natives come aboard to trade. When a man tries to take what he was bartering for without payment, Cook again uses firearms to punish the theft. Many natives gather on the shore in two groups, but Cook scares them away: Шаблон:Blockquote They stake out an area that the natives should not enter and have no more trouble with them. Forster describes their hairstyle, bodypaint, and scars as well as their weaponry. Forster and his father make several excursions on the island and learn the names of several nearby islands from the natives. Whenever they approach a certain area, they are stopped by the natives who threaten to eat them. They do not succeed in approaching the volcano but measure temperatures at solfataras (shallow craters) and hot springs. A native is shot dead by a marine despite Cook's orders. After 16 days, they depart. Forster comments at length on the island's geography, plants, animals and people. They sail near islands called Irronan and Anattom. Cook names the island group the New Hebrides. They sail north to Espiritu Santo and discover additional small islands off its eastern coast. Again, at Espiritu Santo, the language is different from those previously encountered.
Chapter III. Discovery of New Caledonia.—Account of our stay there.—Range along the coast to our departure.—Discovery of Norfolk Island.—Return to New Zeeland.
Sailing south, they discover New Caledonia, come in contact with the natives and go ashore. Forster describes the clothes, earrings, and tattoos of the natives. With their help, they find a watering place. William Wales and Cook observe a solar eclipse. Forster observes some native women cooking, but they send him away. Cook's clerk purchases a fish that the Forsters identify as a Tetraodon and warn against the possibility that it might be poisonous, but as Cook claims to have eaten the same fish before, a meal is made of its liver. The liver is so oily that Cook and the Forsters eat very little of it but still suffer symptoms of poisoning. When natives come aboard and see the fish, they make signs it is bad and suggest throwing it in the sea. The poisoning makes excursions difficult, and Forster apologises for the lack of interesting content, asking the reader "to consider our unhappy situation at that time, when all our corporeal and intellectual faculties were impaired by this virulent poison".Шаблон:Sfn They meet an albino native. When the natives observe the travellers eating a large beef bone, they are surprised and assume that this is a sign of cannibalism, as they have never seen large quadrupeds. They depart, and Forster compares the people of New Caledonia with others they have encountered. They continue eastwards along the coast of New Caledonia, aiming for New Zealand, discovering further small islands and catching a dolphin. Sailing south, they discover Norfolk Island. They quickly sail onwards to arrive at Queen Charlotte Sound in New Zealand.
Chapter IV. Third and last stay at Queen Charlotte's Sound, in New Zeeland.
Resolution stays in Queen Charlotte's Sound for repairs and restocking. They learn that there has been a battle between natives and some Europeans, with many dead, and are concerned for the Adventure. Forster reports on what they found out later: a boat with 10 people had gone ashore to collect celery and scurvy-grass when natives stole one of their jackets. The Europeans fired at them until their ammunition was spent and were then killed by the natives. Forster reports on incidents of killings between New Zealanders and Europeans from other journeys. They make further excursions and interact and trade with the natives. Forster comments on their music, with some excerpts in musical notation. Having restocked with fish and antiscorbutics, they depart.
Chapter V. The course from New Zeeland to Tierra del Fuego.—Stay at Christmas Harbour.
They sail east towards Tierra del Fuego. They drop anchor in a small cove, 41 days after their departure from New Zealand. They make excursions and meet the natives, who Forster finds extraordinarily wretched. They sail on around Cape Horn, pass the eastern side of Tierra del Fuego and sail eastwards to the small islands near Staten Islands that Cook calls New Year's Islands.
Chapter VI. Stay at the New Year's Islands. Discovery of lands to the southward. Return to the Cape of Good Hope.
Forster describes large seals called sea-lions. The crew hunt sea-lions and penguins. They sail to the east and discover Willis Islands and claim South Georgia for Great Britain. They sail around South Georgia, proving it is an island. They continue southward, but are stopped by ice fields, "greatly to the satisfaction of all the crew, who were at present thoroughly tired of this dreadful climate".Шаблон:Sfn They sail east and discover Southern Thule and various other islands that Cook names Sandwich Land. Having exhausted their supply of antiscorbutic sauerkraut, they sail on to the Cape of Good Hope.
Chapter VII. Second stay at the Cape of Good Hope.—Run from thence to the Islands of St. Helena and Ascension.
At the Cape of Good Hope, they are restored to full health and hear news from Europe. They go on some excursions while the ship is repaired. A German stowaway is found on board, who is first punished, then allowed to stay. They sail on to Saint Helena, where Cook learns of its incorrect description by Hawkesworth. They are invited by the governor and to a ball. The next stop is Ascension, which Forster finds dreary. They encounter a ship from New York and catch turtles for food.
Chapter VIII. Run from Ascension, past the Island of Fernando da Noronha, to the Açores.—Stay at Fayal.—Return to England.
From Ascension, they sail west, coming in sight of Fernando de Noronha and exchanging salutes with forts there. They cross the equator after two years and nine months in the Southern hemisphere. Their next stop is the Azores, where they anchor at Fayal, and visit the town of Horta, where they stay in the house of the deputy consul. Forster proceeds to describe the Azores. They soon continue to England. Шаблон:Blockquote
Reception and influence
Contemporary reviews
While it did not sell well, Voyage was well received critically in Britain, with many favourable reviews,Шаблон:Sfn some of which included quotations from both Forster's and Cook's report that demonstrated the superior style of the former.Шаблон:Sfn For example, the Critical Review found fault with many mistakes in the engravings in Cook's book and with Cook's inclusion of nautical details, and after presenting lengthy sections where Forster's presentation is superior, concluded, "We now leave the reader to judge for himself on the merits of each of these performances".Шаблон:Sfn In the Monthly Review, an author identified by Robert L. Kahn, the editor of the 1968 edition of Voyage, as William BewleyШаблон:Sfn reviewed Voyage in the April and June issues, mostly summarizing the Preface in AprilШаблон:Sfn and of the rest of the voyage in June.Шаблон:Sfn The reviewer concludes by "acknowledging the pleasure we have received from the perusal of this amusing and well-written journal; which is rendered every where interesting by the pleasing manner in which the Author relates the various incidents of the voyage in general; as well as those which occurred to himself, in particular, during his several botanical excursions into the country".Шаблон:Sfn In The Lady's Magazine, two anonymous "Letters to the Editor" are followed by excerpts, first from Forster's Tahiti episode,Шаблон:Sfn then from Cook's and Forster's description of the arrival at Middelburg Island.Шаблон:Sfn The letter-writer praises Forster's writing and the engravings in Cook's work, concluding: "In our opinion it is worth every gentleman's while to purchase both, in order to compare the prints of the one, with the descriptions of the other; but where one must be rejected, the choice of the reader will fall on Mr. Forster's narrative, whilst those who delight in pretty pictures, will prefer Cook's."Шаблон:Sfn
Two opinions of other readers are known.Шаблон:Sfn James Boswell spoke favourably of the book, while Samuel Johnson was less impressed: Шаблон:Blockquote
Post-publication controversy
William Wales, who had been the astronomer on board the Resolution, took offence at the word "was" in the statement that "[Arnold's watch] was unfortunately stopped immediately after our departure from New Zeeland in June 1773",Шаблон:Sfn reading it as a claim that he as the keeper of the watch had deliberately sabotaged it. An exchange of letters ensued, with Wales asking for a recantation.Шаблон:Sfn Wales, who had quarrelled with Reinhold on the voyage, later published what the editor of Cook's journals, John Beaglehole called "an octavo pamphlet of 110 indignant pages"Шаблон:Sfn attacking the Forsters. In this book, Remarks on Mr Forster's Account of Captain Cook's last Voyage round the World,Шаблон:Sfn Wales considered Johann Reinhold Forster to be the true author,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn and accused him of lies and misrepresentations.Шаблон:Sfn Georg Forster responded with a Reply to Mr Wales's Remarks,Шаблон:Sfn containing some factual corrections and defending his father against the attacks. He claimed Wales was motivated by jealousy or acting on behalf of Sandwich.Шаблон:Sfn In June 1778, this was followed up by a Letter to the Right Honourable the Earl of Sandwich, portraying Reinhold as victim of Sandwich's malice and claiming that the latter's mistress, Martha Ray, had caused this. The letter also apportioned blame to Barrington, and openly questioned his mistaken belief that sea water could not freeze.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Refn After this publication, there was no more possibility of reconciliation with the Admiralty, and the Forsters worked on plans to move to Germany.Шаблон:Sfn
Authorship
The extent of Georg's authorship of Voyage continued to be a subject of debate after Wales's attacks. Beaglehole refers to Georg's claims of originality as "not strictly truthful" in his biography of Cook.Шаблон:Sfn Kahn calls the book a "family enterprise" and a joint work based on Reinhold's journals, stating "probably sixty percent of it was finally written by George".Шаблон:Sfn According to Leslie Bodi, the style and philosophy both point towards Georg.Шаблон:Sfn Thomas P. Saine similarly states in his biography of Georg Forster that the quality of the English writing is too good to be Reinhold's work, and the comments and observations "reveal more of the youthful enthusiasm and attitude to be expected from Georg than of the more scientific temperament to be expected of Reinhold".Шаблон:Sfn In her 1973 thesis, which has been described as the most reliable account of the history of writing and publication of Voyage,Шаблон:Sfn Ruth Dawson describes the style of the work as "convincing evidence" for Georg's authorship and notes that his father was "involved in other matters" during the six months of writing.Шаблон:Sfn On sources, she states: "While the role which J. R. Forster personally played in the writing of Voyage round the World and Reise um die Welt is a limited one, his records are the major source for almost all the facts and events described."Шаблон:Sfn Her overall conclusion is: "It seems certain however that it was Georg Forster who wrote the account."Шаблон:Sfn Philip Edwards, while pointing out many observations that clearly are Georg's, calls Voyage a "collaborative, consensual work; a single author has been created out of the two minds involved in the composition".Шаблон:Sfn Nicholas Thomas and Oliver Berghof, the editors of the 2000 edition, find Kahn's conclusions unpersuasive and state the text is "in effect an independent account, an additional source for the events of Cook's second voyage, rather than simply a revised version of another primary source", differentiating Voyage from earlier publications where Georg had been his father's assistant.Шаблон:Sfn
Translations
Georg Forster and Rudolf Erich Raspe translated the book into German as Шаблон:Lang.Шаблон:Sfn The translation included some additional material taken from Cook's report.Шаблон:Sfn After publication of the German edition, excerpts of which were published in Wieland's influential journal Шаблон:Lang, both Forsters became famous, especially Georg, who was celebrated upon his arrival in Germany.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Шаблон:Lang let Georg Forster become one of the most widely read writers in Germany.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Both Forsters eventually obtained professorships in Germany: Georg at the Collegium Carolinum in Kassel in 1778 and his father at Halle in 1780.Шаблон:Sfn The first German edition, published by Шаблон:Ill in Berlin in two volumes in 1778 and 1780,Шаблон:Sfn sold out in 1782 and was followed by a second edition in 1784, and has become a classic of travel literature, reprinted in many editions.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Refn Voyage was also translated into other European languages. Before 1800, translations into Danish,Шаблон:Sfn French, Russian, and Swedish appeared; additionally, a Spanish translation contained parts of Cook's official account.Шаблон:Sfn
Influence
Georg Forster and his works, especially Voyage, had a great influence on Alexander von Humboldt and his Шаблон:Lang (Personal Narrative of Travels to the Equinoctial Regions of the New Continent).Шаблон:Sfn In the article on Georg Forster in the 9th edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica, Richard Garnett wrote about Voyage: "His account of Cook's voyage is almost the first example of the glowing yet faithful description of natural phenomena which has since made a knowledge of them the common property of the educated world, a prelude to Humboldt, as Humboldt to Darwin and Wallace."Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Humboldt himself wrote about Forster, "through him has been commenced a new era of scientific travelling, having for its object the comparative knowledge of nations and of nature in different parts of the earth's surface".Шаблон:Sfn
The book has been studied as one of the sources for Samuel Coleridge's The Rime of the Ancient Mariner, which according to the Australian academic Bernard Smith has been influenced by reports of Cook's second journey including Forster's, possibly because William Wales was one of Coleridge's teachers at Christ's Hospital.Шаблон:Sfn The literary scholar Arnd Bohm even goes as far as claiming that there are "details of imagery and wording that suggest Forster as the strongest influence".Шаблон:Sfn
Modern reception
There has been a large body of literature studying Voyage since the 1950s,Шаблон:Sfn including the PhD thesis of Ruth Dawson,Шаблон:Sfn which contains the most extensive account of the genesis of the text.Шаблон:Sfn The most widely studied part of the work is the content relating to Tahiti.Шаблон:Sfn Despite making up less than five per cent of the text, almost half of the literature about Voyage has focused exclusively on this part of the journey, often studying Forster's comparisons of European and Tahitian culture and of civilisation and nature.Шаблон:Sfn Other authors portrayed his moral disdain for Tahitian sexual indulgence as European self-discipline,Шаблон:Sfn in contrast to the first reports about Tahiti by French explorer Louis Antoine de Bougainville that had started the European perception of the South Pacific as a place of sexual freedom.Шаблон:Sfn
In the 1968 edition, the first English edition since the 18th century, part of the East German Academy of Sciences' edition of Forster's collected works, Kahn found high praise for his subject, stating: "I consider the Voyage to be the finest work with regard to style and presentation to come out of the three expeditions of Cook and one of the greatest travelogues written in any tongue or age."Шаблон:Sfn
The 2000 edition was well received by critics. In his review of it, the anthropologist John Barker praises both Forster's "marvelous narrative" and the editors and ends "... modern scholars, Pacific islanders and casual readers alike are greatly in their debt for bringing this wonderful text out of the archives and making it available in this beautifully produced edition".Шаблон:Sfn The historian Kay Saunders notes the "ethnographic sophistication that was in many respects remarkably free of contemporary Eurocentrism", and praises the editors, stating "commentary over such a vast range of disciplines that defy modern scholarly practice requires an extraordinary degree of competency".Шаблон:Sfn The welcoming review of historian Alan Frost discusses the importance of Cook's second journey at length. Forster's writing is described as the "most lyrical of all the large narratives of Europe's reconnaissance of the Pacific", but also "stilted and his literary analogies too frequent and forced".Шаблон:Sfn The historian Paul Turnbull notes the book has been "overshadowed for 200 years by Cook's lavishly illustrated account" and praises the editors, contrasting their approach against received Eurocentric Cook scholarship.Шаблон:Sfn The anthropologist Roger Neich, calling the edition "magnificent", comments that the "narrative initiated a stage in the evolution of travel writing as a literary genre, representing an insightful empiricism and empathy showing that the 'Noble Savage' was not a complete description".Шаблон:Sfn The cultural historian Rod Edmond, while calling Cook's report "often dull" and Reinhold Forster's Observations "a meditation on the voyage but not the thing itself", states the book "combines the immediacy of experience with developed reflection upon it, and is much better written than anything by either Cook or his own father".Шаблон:Sfn The review of James C. Hamilton, a historian and Cook scholar, states: "George Forster's enjoyable narrative serves as a valuable record of the Second Voyage and a useful reference for persons interested in Captain Cook."Шаблон:Sfn
English editions
Other than an unauthorised reprint of both Cook's and Forster's reports that appeared in Dublin in 1777, the book was not reprinted in English for almost two centuries.Шаблон:Refn In 1968, it appeared (edited by the Rice University professor of German studies Robert L. Kahn) as the first volume of an edition of Forster's collected works, published by the East German Akademie-Verlag. Finally, in 2000 the [[University of HawaiШаблон:Okinai Press]] published an edition by Nicholas Thomas and Oliver Berghof.Шаблон:Sfn The list of all editions is as follows:
Notes
References
Footnotes
Sources
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External links
- Complete text at Digital Archives and Pacific Cultures.
- Scan and transcript of the German first edition: vol. 1, vol. 2
Шаблон:Portalbar Шаблон:Captain James Cook Шаблон:Authority control
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