Английская Википедия:Australian English phonology
Шаблон:Short description Шаблон:IPA noticeШаблон:Listen Шаблон:Listen Australian English (AuE) is a non-rhotic variety of English spoken by most native-born Australians. Phonologically, it is one of the most regionally homogeneous language varieties in the world. Australian English is notable for vowel length contrasts which are absent from most English dialects.
The Australian English vowels Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA are noticeably closer (pronounced with a higher tongue position) than their contemporary Received Pronunciation equivalents. However, a recent short-front vowel chain shift has resulted in younger generations having lower positions than this for the former three vowels.[1]
Vowels
| Phoneme | Lexical set | Phonetic realization | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Cultivated | General | Broad | ||
| Шаблон:IPA | Шаблон:Sc2 | Шаблон:IPA | Шаблон:IPA | Шаблон:IPA |
| Шаблон:IPA | Шаблон:Sc2 | Шаблон:IPA | Шаблон:IPA | Шаблон:IPA |
| Шаблон:IPA | Шаблон:Sc2 | Шаблон:IPA | Шаблон:IPA | Шаблон:IPA |
| Шаблон:IPA | Шаблон:Sc2 | Шаблон:IPA | Шаблон:IPA | Шаблон:IPA |
| Шаблон:IPA | Шаблон:Sc2 | Шаблон:IPA | Шаблон:IPA | Шаблон:IPA |
| Шаблон:IPA | Шаблон:Sc2 | Шаблон:IPA | Шаблон:IPA | Шаблон:IPA |
The vowels of Australian English can be divided according to length. The long vowels, which include monophthongs and diphthongs, mostly correspond to the tense vowels used in analyses of Received Pronunciation (RP) as well as its centring diphthongs. The short vowels, consisting only of monophthongs, correspond to the RP lax vowels. There exist pairs of long and short vowels with overlapping vowel quality giving Australian English phonemic length distinction.[2]
There are two families of phonemic transcriptions of Australian English: revised ones, which attempt to more accurately represent the phonetic sounds of Australian English; and the Mitchell-Delbridge system, which is minimally distinct from Jones' original transcription of RP. This page uses a revised transcription based on Durie and Hajek (1994) and Harrington, Cox and Evans (1997) but also shows the Mitchell-Delbridge equivalents as this system is commonly used for example in the Macquarie Dictionary and much literature, even recent.
- As with General American, the weak vowel merger is nearly complete in Australian English: unstressed Шаблон:IPA is merged with Шаблон:IPA (schwa) except before a following velar. New Zealand English takes it a step further and merges all instances of Шаблон:IPA with Шаблон:IPA (even in stressed syllables), which is why the New Zealand pronunciation of the dish name fish and chips as Шаблон:IPA sounds like 'fush and chups' to Australians.Шаблон:Sfnp In Australian English, Шаблон:IPA is restricted to unstressed syllables, as in most dialects.
- The trap-bath split is a regional variable in Australia, with the Шаблон:Sc2 vowel Шаблон:IPA being more common in South Australia than elsewhere. This is due to the fact that that state was settled later than the rest of Australia, when the lengthened pronunciation was already a feature of London speech. Research done by Шаблон:Harvcoltxt shows that the word graph is pronounced with the Шаблон:Sc2 vowel (Шаблон:IPA) by 86% speakers from Adelaide, whereas 100% speakers from Hobart use the Шаблон:Sc2 vowel in this word: Шаблон:IPA. There are words in which the Шаблон:Sc2 vowel is much less common; for instance, Crystal reports that both the word grasp and the verb to contrast are most commonly pronounced with the Шаблон:Sc2 vowel: Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA. This also affects the pronunciation of some placenames; Castlemaine is locally Шаблон:IPA, but speakers from outside of Victoria often pronounce that name Шаблон:IPA by analogy to the noun castle in their local accent.
Monophthongs
- The target for Шаблон:IPA is closer to cardinal Шаблон:IPAblink than in other dialects.[3] The aforementioned phrase fish and chips as pronounced by an Australian (Шаблон:IPA in narrow transcription) can sound a lot like feesh and cheeps to speakers of New Zealand English and other dialects, whereas words such as bit and sit may sound like beat and seat, respectively.
- The sound Шаблон:IPA is usually pronounced as a diphthong (or disyllabically Шаблон:IPA, like Шаблон:Sc2) only in open syllables. In closed syllables, it is distinguished from Шаблон:IPA primarily by length[4][5] and from Шаблон:IPA by the significant onset in the latter.
- Шаблон:IPA tends to be higher than the corresponding vowel in General American or RP. The typical realization is close-mid Шаблон:IPAblink, although for some speakers it may be even closer Шаблон:IPAblink (according to John Wells, this pronunciation can occur only in Broad varieties).Шаблон:SfnpШаблон:Sfnp A recent change is the lowering of Шаблон:IPA to the Шаблон:IPAblink region.Шаблон:Sfnp
- For some Victorian speakers, Шаблон:IPA has merged with Шаблон:IPA in pre-lateral environments, and thus the words celery and salary are homophonous as Шаблон:IPA.Шаблон:Sfnp See salary-celery merger.
- The sound Шаблон:IPA is traditionally transcribed and analysed the same as the short Шаблон:IPA, but minimal pairs exist in at least some Australians' speech.[6][4] It is found in the adjectives bad, mad, glad and sad, before the Шаблон:IPA sound (for example, hag, rag, bag) and also in content words before Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA in the same syllable (for example, ham, tan, plant).[7] In South Australia, plant is usually pronounced with the vowel sound Шаблон:IPA, as in rather and father. In some speakers, especially those with the broad accent, Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA will be shifted toward Шаблон:IPAblink and Шаблон:IPAblink, respectively.[8]
- There is æ-tensing before a nasal consonant. The nasal sounds create changes in preceding vowels because air can flow into the nose during the vowel. Nasal consonants can also affect the articulation of a vowel. Thus, for many speakers, the Шаблон:IPA vowel in words like jam, man, dam and hand is shifted towards Шаблон:IPA. This is also present in General American and Cockney English.[9] Length has become the main difference between words like 'ban' and 'Ben', with 'ban' pronounced Шаблон:IPA and 'Ben' pronounced Шаблон:IPA.[10]
- Шаблон:IPA is pronounced as open front Шаблон:IPAblink by many younger speakers.Шаблон:Sfnp
- As with New Zealand English, the Шаблон:Sc2/Шаблон:Sc2 vowel in words like park Шаблон:IPA, calm Шаблон:IPA and farm Шаблон:IPA is central (in the past even front)[2] in terms of tongue position and non-rhotic. This is the same vowel sound used by speakers of the Boston accent of North Eastern New England in the United States. Thus the phrase park the car is said identically by a New Zealander, Australian or Bostonian.[11] This vowel is only distinguished from the Шаблон:Sc2 vowel by length, thus: park Шаблон:IPA versus puck Шаблон:IPA.
- The phoneme Шаблон:IPA is pronounced at least as high as Шаблон:IPA (Шаблон:IPAblink), and has a lowered F3 that might indicate that it is rounded Шаблон:IPAblink.[4][5] The Шаблон:Angbr IPA glyph is used — rather than Шаблон:Angbr IPA or Шаблон:Angbr IPA — as most revisions of the phonemic orthography for Australian English predate the 1993 modifications to the International Phonetic Alphabet. At the time, Шаблон:Angbr IPA was suitable for any mid central vowel, rounded or unrounded.
- The schwa Шаблон:IPA is a highly variable sound. For this reason, it is not shown on the vowel charts to the right. The word-final schwa in comma and letter is often lowered to Шаблон:IPAblink so that it strongly resembles the Шаблон:Sc2 vowel Шаблон:IPA: Шаблон:IPA. As the latter is a checked vowel (meaning that it cannot occur in a final stressed position) and the lowering of Шаблон:IPA is not categorical (meaning that those words can be also pronounced Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA, whereas strut is never pronounced Шаблон:IPA), this sound is considered to belong to the Шаблон:IPA phoneme.Шаблон:Sfnp The word-initial schwa (as in enduring Шаблон:IPA) is typically mid Шаблон:IPAblink: Шаблон:IPA. In the word-internal position (as in bottom Шаблон:IPA), Шаблон:IPA is raised to Шаблон:IPAblink: Шаблон:IPA, as in American English roses Шаблон:IPA. Thus, the difference between the Шаблон:IPA of paddock and the Шаблон:IPA of panic lies in the backness of the vowels, rather than their height: Шаблон:IPA.Шаблон:Sfnp In the rest of the article, those allophones of Шаблон:IPA are all transcribed with the broad symbol Шаблон:Angbr IPA: Шаблон:IPA etc. Шаблон:IPA is also broadly transcribed with Шаблон:Angbr IPA: Шаблон:IPA, which does not capture its closeness.
Diphthongs
- The vowel Шаблон:IPA has an onset Шаблон:IPA, except before laterals.Шаблон:Sfnp The onset is often lowered to Шаблон:IPA, so that beat is Шаблон:IPA for some speakers.
- As in American English and modern RP, the final vowel in words like happy and city is pronounced as Шаблон:IPA (happee, citee), not as Шаблон:IPA (happy-tensing).[12]
- In some parts of Australia, a fully backed allophone of Шаблон:IPA, transcribed Шаблон:IPA, is common before Шаблон:IPA. As a result, the pairs full/fool and pull/pool differ phonetically only in vowel length for those speakers.[4] The usual allophone is further forward in New South Wales than Victoria. It is moving further forwards, however, in both regions at a similar rate.Шаблон:Sfnp
- The second elements of Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA on the one hand and Шаблон:IPA on the other are somewhat different. The first two approach the Шаблон:Sc2 vowel Шаблон:IPA, whereas the ending point of Шаблон:IPA is more similar to the Шаблон:Sc2 vowel Шаблон:IPAblink, which is why it tends to be written with Шаблон:Angbr IPA in modern sources. John Wells writes this phoneme Шаблон:IPA, with the same ending point as Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA (which he writes with Шаблон:Angbr IPA and Шаблон:Angbr IPA). However, the second element of Шаблон:IPA is not nearly as different from that of the other fronting-closing diphthongs as the ending point of Шаблон:IPA is from that of Шаблон:IPA, which is the reason why Шаблон:Angbr IPA is used in this article.
- The first element of Шаблон:IPA may be raised and rounded in broad accents.
- The first element of Шаблон:IPA is significantly lower Шаблон:IPA than in many other dialects of English.
- There is significant allophonic variation in Шаблон:IPA, including a backed allophone Шаблон:IPA before a word-final or preconsonantal Шаблон:IPA. The first part of this allophone is in the same position as Шаблон:IPA, but Шаблон:IPA differs from it in that it possesses an additional closing glide, which also makes it longer than Шаблон:IPA.
- Шаблон:IPA is shifted to Шаблон:IPA among some speakers. This realisation has its roots in South Australia but is becoming more common among younger speakers across the country.Шаблон:Sfnp
- The phoneme Шаблон:IPA is rare and almost extinct. Most speakers consistently use Шаблон:IPA or Шаблон:IPA (before Шаблон:IPA) instead. Many cases of RP Шаблон:IPA are pronounced instead with the Шаблон:IPA phoneme in Australian English. "pour" and "poor", "more" and "moor" and "shore" and "sure" are homophones, but "tore" and "tour" remain distinct.
Examples of vowels
- One needs to be very careful of the symbol Шаблон:IPA, which represents different vowels: the Шаблон:Sc2 vowel in the Harrington, Cox and Evans (1997) system (transcribed Шаблон:IPA in the other system), but the Шаблон:Sc2 vowel in the Mitchell-Delbridge system (transcribed Шаблон:IPA in the other system).[7]
- The fourth column is the OED transcription, taken from the OED website.[13]
It differs somewhat from the ad hoc Wikipedia transcription used in this article. In a few instances the OED example word differs from the others given in this table; these are appended at the end of the second column following a semicolon.
Consonants
Australian English consonants are similar to those of other non-rhotic varieties of English. A table containing the consonant phonemes is given below.
- Australian English is non-rhotic; in other words, the Шаблон:IPA sound does not appear at the end of a syllable or immediately before a consonant. So the words butter Шаблон:IPA, here Шаблон:IPA and park Шаблон:IPA will not contain the Шаблон:IPA sound.[14]
- The Шаблон:IPAblink sound can occur when a word that has a final Шаблон:Angbr in the spelling comes before another word that starts with a vowel. For example, in car alarm the sound Шаблон:IPAblink can occur in car because here it comes before another word beginning with a vowel. The words far, far more and farm do not contain an Шаблон:IPAblink but far out will contain the linking Шаблон:IPAblink sound because the next word starts with a vowel sound.
- An intrusive Шаблон:IPAblink may be inserted before a vowel in words that do not have Шаблон:Angbr in the spelling. For example, drawing will sound like draw-ring, saw it will sound like sore it, the tuner is and the tuna is will both be Шаблон:IPA. This Шаблон:IPAblink occurs between Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA and the following vowel regardless of the historical presence or absence of Шаблон:IPAblink. Between Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA (and Шаблон:IPA whenever it stems from the earlier Шаблон:IPA) and the following vowel, the Шаблон:IPAblink-ful pronunciation is the historical one.
- Intervocalic Шаблон:IPA (and for some speakers Шаблон:IPA) undergo voicing and flapping to the alveolar tap Шаблон:IPA after the stressed syllable and before unstressed vowels (as in butter, party) and syllabic Шаблон:IPA or Шаблон:IPA (bottle Шаблон:IPA, button Шаблон:IPA), as well as at the end of a word or morpheme before any vowel (what else Шаблон:IPA, whatever Шаблон:IPA).Шаблон:Sfnp For those speakers where Шаблон:IPA also undergoes the change, there will be homophony, for example, metal and medal or petal and pedal will sound the same (Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA, respectively). In formal speech Шаблон:IPA is retained. Шаблон:IPA in the cluster Шаблон:IPA can elide. As a result, in quick speech, words like winner and winter can become homophonous (as Шаблон:IPA). This is a quality that Australian English shares most notably with North American English.
- Some speakers use a glottal stop Шаблон:IPA as an allophone of Шаблон:IPA in final position, for example trait, habit; or in medial position, such as a Шаблон:IPA followed by a syllabic Шаблон:IPA is often realized as a glottal stop, for example button or fatten. Alveolar pronunciations nevertheless predominate.
- Pronunciation of Шаблон:IPA
- The alveolar lateral approximant Шаблон:IPA is velarised Шаблон:IPAblink in pre-pausal and preconsonantal positions and often also in morpheme-final positions before a vowel. There have been some suggestions that onset Шаблон:IPA is also velarised, although that needs to be further researched. Some speakers vocalise preconsonantal, syllable-final and syllabic instances of Шаблон:IPA to a close back vowel similar to Шаблон:IPA, so that milk can be pronounced Шаблон:IPA and noodle Шаблон:IPA. This is more common in South Australia than elsewhere.Шаблон:Sfnp
- Standard Australian English usually coalesces Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA into Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA respectively. Because of this palatalisation, dune is pronounced as Шаблон:IPA, exactly like June, and the first syllable of Tuesday Шаблон:IPA is pronounced like choose Шаблон:IPA. That said, there is stylistic and social variation in this feature. Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA in the clusters Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA are similarly affricated.Шаблон:Sfnp
- Word initial Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA have merged with Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA respectively. Other cases of Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA are often pronounced respectively Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA, as in assume Шаблон:IPA and resume Шаблон:IPA (ashume and rezhume).[15]Шаблон:Sfnp
- Similarly, Шаблон:IPA has merged with Шаблон:IPA word initially. Remaining cases of Шаблон:IPA are often pronounced simply as Шаблон:IPA in colloquial speech.
- Шаблон:IPA and other common sequences of consonant plus Шаблон:IPA, are retained.Шаблон:Sfnp
- For some speakers, Шаблон:IPA (or "sh") may be uttered instead of /s/ before the stressed /tj/ sound in words like student, history, eschew, street and Australia[16] – As a result, in quick speech, eschew will sound like esh-chew.[17] According to author Wayne P. Lawrence, "this phonemic change seems to be neither dialectal nor regional", as it can also be found among some American, Canadian, British and New Zealand English speakers as well.[18]
Other features
- Between voiced sounds, the glottal fricative Шаблон:IPA may be realised as voiced Шаблон:IPAblink, so that e.g. behind may be pronounced as either Шаблон:IPA or Шаблон:IPA.Шаблон:Sfnp
- The sequence Шаблон:IPA is realised as a voiceless palatal fricative Шаблон:IPAblink, so that e.g. huge is pronounced Шаблон:IPA.Шаблон:Sfnp
- The word foyer is usually pronounced Шаблон:IPA, as in NZ and American English, rather than Шаблон:IPA as in British English.
- The word data is commonly pronounced Шаблон:IPA, with Шаблон:IPA being the second most common, and Шаблон:IPA being very rare.
- The trans- prefix is pronounced Шаблон:IPA, even in South Australia, where the trap–bath split is significantly more advanced than in other states.
- In English, upward inflexion (a rise in the pitch of the voice at the end of an utterance) typically signals a question. Some Australian English speakers commonly use a form of upward inflexion in their speech that is not associated with asking questions. Some speakers use upward inflexion as a way of including their conversational partner in the dialogue.[19] This is also common in Californian English.
Relationship to other varieties
Australian English pronunciation is most similar to that of New Zealand English; many people from other parts of the world often cannot distinguish them but there are differences. New Zealand English has centralised Шаблон:IPA and the other short front vowels are higher. New Zealand English more strongly maintains the diphthongal quality of the NEAR and SQUARE vowels and they can be merged as something around Шаблон:IPA. New Zealand English does not have the bad-lad split, but like Victoria has merged Шаблон:IPA with Шаблон:IPA in pre-lateral environments.Шаблон:Citation needed
Both New Zealand English and Australian English are also similar to South African English, so they have even been grouped together under the common label "southern hemisphere Englishes".[20] Like the other two varieties in that group, Australian English pronunciation bears some similarities to dialects from the South-East of Britain;[21]Шаблон:Sfnp[22][23] Thus, it is non-rhotic and has the trap-bath split although, as indicated above, this split was not completed in Australia as it was in England, so many words that have the Шаблон:Sc2 vowel in Southeastern England retain the Шаблон:Sc2 vowel in Australia.
Historically, the Australian English speaking manuals endorsed the [[Phonological history of the low back vowels#Lot-cloth split|lengthening of Шаблон:IPA]] before unvoiced fricatives however this has since been reversed. Australian English lacks some innovations in Cockney since the settling of Australia, such as the use of a glottal stop in many places where a Шаблон:IPA would be found, th-fronting, and h-dropping. Flapping, which Australian English shares with New Zealand English and North American English, is also found in Cockney, where it occurs as a common alternative to the glottal stop in the intervocalic position. The word butter Шаблон:IPA as pronounced by an Australian or a New Zealander can be homophonous with the Cockney pronunciation (which can be Шаблон:IPA instead).
AusTalk
AusTalk is a database of Australian speech from all regions of the country.[24][25] Initially, 1000 adult voices were planned to be recorded in the period between June 2011 and June 2016. By the end of it, voices of 861 speakers with ages ranging from 18 to 83 were recorded into the database, each lasting approximately an hour. The database is expected to be expanded in future, to include children's voices and more variations. As well as providing a resource for cultural studies, the database is expected to help improve speech-based technology, such as speech recognition systems and hearing aids.[26]
The AusTalk database was collected as part of the Big Australian Speech Corpus (Big ASC) project, a collaboration between Australian universities and the speech technology experts.[27][28][29]
See also
References
Bibliography
- Шаблон:Citation
- Шаблон:Citation
- Шаблон:Citation
- Шаблон:Citation
- Шаблон:Citation
- Шаблон:Citation
- Шаблон:Citation
- Шаблон:Citation
- Palethorpe, S. and Cox, F. M. (2003) Vowel Modification in Pre-lateral Environments. Poster presented at the International Seminar on Speech Production, December 2003, Sydney.
- Шаблон:Citation
- Шаблон:Accents of English
Further reading
External links
Шаблон:Language phonologies Шаблон:English dialects by continent
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ 2,0 2,1 Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ 4,0 4,1 4,2 4,3 Durie, M.; Hajek, J (1994), "A revised standard phonemic orthography for Australian English vowels", Australian Journal of Linguistics 14: 93–107
- ↑ 5,0 5,1 Cox, Felicity (2006), "The acoustic characteristics of /hVd/ vowels in the speech of some Australian teenagers", Australian Journal of Linguistics 26: 147–179
- ↑ Blake, B. J. (1985), "'Short a' in Melbourne English", Journal of the International Phonetic Association 15: 6–20
- ↑ 7,0 7,1 Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite conference
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Wyld, H.C., A History of Modern Colloquial English, Blackwell 1936, cited in Шаблон:Harvp.
- ↑ Durian, David (2007) "Getting [ʃ]tronger Every Day?: More on Urbanization and the Socio-geographic Diffusion of (str) in Columbus, OH," University of Pennsylvania Working Papers in Linguistics: Vol. 13: Iss. 2, Article 6
- ↑ Cole, J., Hualde, J.I., Laboratory Phonology 9, Walter de Gruyter 2007, p. 69.
- ↑ Lawrence, Wayne P. (2000) "Assimilation at a Distance," American Speech Vol. 75: Iss. 1: 82-87; doi:10.1215/00031283-75-1-82
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Gordon, Elizabeth and Andrea Sudbury. 2002. The history of southern hemisphere Englishes. In: Richard J. Watts and Peter Trudgill. Alternative Histories of English. P.67
- ↑ Gordon, Elizabeth and Andrea Sudbury. 2002. The history of southern hemisphere Englishes. In: Richard J. Watts and Peter Trudgill. Alternative Histories of English. P.79
- ↑ Gordon, Elizabeth. New Zealand English: its origins and evolution. 2004. P.82
- ↑ Hammarström, Göran. 1980. Australian English: its origin and status. passim
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Citation
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
