Английская Википедия:Battle of the Camel

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The Battle of the Camel (Шаблон:Lang-ar) took place outside of Basra, Iraq, in 36 AH (656 CE). The battle was fought between the army of the fourth caliph Ali (Шаблон:Reign), on one side, and the rebel army led by Aisha, Talha and Zubayr, on the other side. Ali was the cousin and son-in-law of the Islamic prophet Muhammad, while Aisha was a widow of Muhammad, of whom Talha and Zubayr were both prominent companions. Ali emerged victorious from the battle, Talha and Zubayr were both killed, and Aisha was sent back to Hejaz afterward. The triumvirate had revolted against Ali ostensibly to avenge the assassination of the third caliph Uthman (Шаблон:Reign), although Aisha and Talha are both known to have actively opposed him. The three also called for the removal of Ali from office and for a Qurayshite council (shura) with Talha and Zubayr to appoint his successor.

Background

Opposition to Uthman

Ali frequently accused the third caliph Uthman of deviating from the Quran and the Sunna,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn and he was joined in this criticism by most of the senior companions, including Talha and Zubayr.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Uthman was also widely accused of nepotism,Шаблон:Sfn corruption,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn and injustice,Шаблон:Sfn and Ali is known to have protested his conduct,Шаблон:Sfn including his lavish gifts for his kinsmen.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Ali also protected outspoken companions, such as Abu Dharr and Ammar,Шаблон:Sfn against the wrath of the caliph.Шаблон:Sfn Ali appears in early sources as a restraining influence on Uthman without directly opposing him.Шаблон:Sfn Some supporters of Ali were part of the opposition to Uthman,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn joined in their efforts by TalhaШаблон:Sfn and Zubayr, who were both companions of Muhammad, and by his widow Aisha.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn The last was critical of Uthman for religious innovations and nepotism, but also objected to him for reducing her pension.Шаблон:Sfn Among the supporters of Ali were Malik al-Ashtar (Шаблон:Died in) and other religiously learnedШаблон:Sfn Шаблон:Transliteration (Шаблон:Lit).Шаблон:Sfn These wanted to see Ali as the next caliph, though there is no evidence that he communicated or coordinated with them.Шаблон:Sfn Ali is also said to have rejected the requests to lead the rebels,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn although he might have sympathized with their grievances,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn and was thus considered a natural focus for the opposition,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn at least morally.Шаблон:Sfn It is also likely that some companions supported the protests with the hope of either deposing Uthman,Шаблон:Sfn or changing his policies,Шаблон:Sfn thus underestimating the severity of the opposition to Uthman.Шаблон:Sfn

Assassination of Uthman

Шаблон:Main As their grievances mounted, discontented groups from provinces began arriving in Medina in 35/656.Шаблон:Sfn On their first attempt,Шаблон:Sfn the Egyptian opposition sought the advice of Ali, who urged them to send a delegation to negotiate with Uthman, unlike Talha and Ammar ibn Yasir, who might have encouraged the Egyptians to advance on the town.Шаблон:Sfn Ali similarly asked the Iraqi opposition to avoid violence, which was heeded.Шаблон:Sfn He also acted as a mediator between Uthman and the provincial dissidentsШаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn more than onceШаблон:Sfn to address their economicalШаблон:Sfn and politicalШаблон:Sfn grievances. In particular, he negotiated and guaranteed on behalf of Uthman the promises that persuaded the rebels to return home and ended the first siege.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Ali then urged Uthman to publicly repent, which he did.Шаблон:Sfn The caliph soon retracted his statement, however, possibly because his secretary Marwan convinced him that repentance would only embolden the opposition.Шаблон:Sfn On their way back home, some Egyptian rebels intercepted an official letter ordering their punishment. They now returned to Medina and laid siege to Uthman's residence for a second time, demanding that he abdicate. The caliph refused and claimed he was unaware of the letter,Шаблон:Sfn for which Marwan is often blamed in the early sources.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Ali and another companion sided with Uthman about the letter,Шаблон:Sfn and suspected Marwan,Шаблон:Sfn while a report by the Sunni al-Baladhuri (Шаблон:Died in) suggests that the caliph accused Ali of forging the letter.Шаблон:Sfn This is likely when Ali refused to further intercede for Uthman.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn That Ali was behind the letter is also the opinion of Leone Caetani (Шаблон:Died in). Giorgio Levi della Vida (Шаблон:Died in) is unsure, while Wilferd Madelung strongly rejects the accusation, saying that it "stretches the imagination" in the absence of any evidence.Шаблон:Sfn In turn, he accuses Marwan,Шаблон:Sfn the bellicose secretary of Uthman,Шаблон:Sfn while Hugh N. Kennedy holds Uthman responsible for the letter.Шаблон:Sfn The caliph was assassinated soon afterward in the final days of 35 AH (June 656) by the Egyptian rebelsШаблон:Sfn during a raid on his residence in Medina.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn

Role of Ali in the assassination

Ali played no role in the deadly attack,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn and his son Hasan was injured while guarding Uthman's besieged residence at the request of Ali.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn He also convinced the rebels not to prevent the delivery of water to Uthman's house during the siege.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Beyond this, historians disagree about his measures to protect the third caliph.Шаблон:Sfn Ali is represented by al-Tabari (Шаблон:Died in) as an honest negotiator genuinely concerned for Uthman.Шаблон:Sfn Husain M. Jafri (Шаблон:Died in) and Madelung highlight multiple attempts by Ali for reconciliation,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn and Martin Hinds (Шаблон:Died in) believes that Ali could not have done anything more for Uthman.Шаблон:Sfn Reza Shah-Kazemi points to Ali's "constructive criticism" of Uthman and his opposition to violence,Шаблон:Sfn while Moojan Momen writes that Ali mediated between Uthman and the rebels, urging the former to alter his policies and refusing the requests from the latter to lead them.Шаблон:Sfn This is similar to the view of John McHugo, who adds that Ali withdrew in frustration when his peace efforts where thwarted by Marwan.Шаблон:Sfn Fred Donner and Robert Gleave suggest that Ali was the immediate beneficiary of Uthman's death.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn This is challenged by Madelung, who argues that Aisha would have not actively opposed Uthman if Ali had been the prime mover of the rebellion and its future beneficiary.Шаблон:Sfn He and others observe the hostility of Aisha toward Ali,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn which resurfaced immediately after his accession in the Battle of the Camel.Шаблон:Sfn Laura Veccia Vaglieri (Шаблон:Died in) notes that Ali refused to lead the rebellion but sympathized with them and possibly agreed with their calls for abdication.Шаблон:Sfn Hossein Nasr and Asma Afsaruddin,Шаблон:Sfn Levi della Vida,Шаблон:Sfn and Julius Wellhausen (Шаблон:Died in) believe that Ali remained neutral,Шаблон:Sfn while Caetani labels Ali as the chief culprit in the murder of Uthman, even though the evidence suggests otherwise.Шаблон:Sfn Mahmoud M. Ayoub (Шаблон:Died in) notes the often pro-Umayyad stance of the Western classical orientalists, with the exception of Madelung.Шаблон:Sfn

Ali and retribution for Uthman

Ali was openly critical of the conduct of Uthman, though he generally neither justified his violent death nor condemned the killers.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn While he did not condone the assassination,Шаблон:Sfn Ali probably held Uthman responsible through his injustice for the protests which led to his death,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn a view for which Ismail Poonawala cites Waq'at Siffin.Шаблон:Sfn Madelung sides with this judgement of Ali from a judicial point of view, saying that Uthman probably did not sanction the murder of Niyar ibn Iyad Aslami, which triggered the deadly raid on his residence, but he obstructed justice by preventing an investigation into the murder, fearing that his aide Marwan was behind it.Шаблон:Sfn Still, in his letters to Mu'awiya (Шаблон:Reign) and elsewhere,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Ali insisted that he would bring the murderers to justice in due course,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn probably after establishing his authority.Шаблон:Sfn Quoting the Shia al-Ya'qubi (Шаблон:Died in) and Ibn A'tham al-Kufi, Ayoub suggests that a mob from various tribes murdered Uthman and that Ali could have not punished them without risking widespread tribal conflict, even if he could identify them.Шаблон:Sfn Here, Farhad Daftary and John Kelsay say that the actual murderers soon fled (Medina) after the assassination,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn a view for which Jafri cites al-Tabari.Шаблон:Sfn Closely associated with Ali was Malik al-Ashtar, a leader of the Шаблон:Transliteration,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn who had led the Kufan delegation against Uthman,Шаблон:Sfn even though they heeded Ali's call for nonviolence,Шаблон:Sfn and did not participate in the siege of Uthman's residence.Шаблон:Sfn A leading Egyptian rebel with links to Ali was his stepson, Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr, who was allegedly among those who killed Uthman.Шаблон:Sfn Some authors have rejected this accusation,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn though most seem to agree that Muhammad visited Uthman shortly before his death and rebuked him for his conduct.Шаблон:Sfn These two men and some other supporters of Ali were implicated by Mu'awiya in the assassination of Uthman.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn As such, some authors suggest that Ali was unwilling or unable to punish these individuals.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn The revenge for Uthman soon became the pretext for two revolts against Ali.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn

Election of Ali

When Uthman was killed in 656 CE by the Egyptian rebels,Шаблон:Sfn the potential candidates for caliphate were Ali and Talha. The Umayyads had fled Medina, and the provincial rebels and the Ansar (early Medinan Muslims) were in control of the city. Among the Egyptians, Talha enjoyed some support, but the Basrans and Kufans, who had heeded Ali's call for nonviolence, and most of the Ansar supported Ali.Шаблон:Sfn Some authors add the (majority of the) Muhajirun to the above list of Ali's supporters.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn The key tribal chiefs also favored Ali at the time.Шаблон:Sfn The caliphate was offered by these groups to Ali, who was initially reluctant to accept it,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn saying that he preferred to be a minister (Шаблон:Transliteration).Шаблон:Sfn Some early reports emphasize that Ali then accepted the caliphate when it became clear that he enjoyed popular support,Шаблон:Sfn reporting also that Ali demanded a public pledge at the mosque.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Perhaps he also accepted the caliphate so as to prevent further chaos,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn but his nomination by the rebels left Ali exposed to accusations of complicity in Uthman's assassination.Шаблон:Sfn It appears that Ali personally did not force anyone for pledge and, among others, Sa'ad ibn Abi Waqqas, Abd-Allah ibn Umar,Шаблон:Sfn Sa'id ibn al-As, al-Walid ibn Uqba, and Marwan likely refused to give their oaths, some motivated by their personal grudges against Ali.Шаблон:Sfn On the whole, Madelung suggests that there is less evidence for any violence here than in the case of Abu Bakr, even though many broke with Ali later, claiming that they had pledged under duress.Шаблон:Sfn At the same time, that the majority favored Ali in Medina might have created an intimidating atmosphere for those opposed to him.Шаблон:Sfn

Opposition to Ali in Mecca

Talha and Zubayr

Talha and Zubayr, both companions of Muhammad with ambitions for the high office,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn offered their pledges to Ali but later broke them,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn after leaving Medina on the pretext of performing the [[Umrah|Шаблон:Transliteration]] (lesser pilgrimage).Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Some early reports suggest that the duo pledged to Ali under duress.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Ibn Abi Shayba (Шаблон:Died in) writes that Talha told some in Basra that he pledged to Ali with a sword over his head in a walled garden.Шаблон:Sfn Hasan al-Basri (Шаблон:Died in) too said that he saw Talha and Zubayr pledging to Ali with a sword over their head in a walled garden.Шаблон:Sfn Alternatively, a report by al-Baladhuri implies that Talha voluntarily paid his allegiance to Ali,Шаблон:Sfn while other reports by Ibn Sa'd (Шаблон:Died in), al-Tabari,Шаблон:Sfn al-Ya'qubi (Шаблон:Died in), al-Kufi (ninth century), and Ibn Abd Rabbih (Шаблон:Died in) place Talha and Zubayr among the first who voluntarily pledged to Ali.Шаблон:Sfn Laura Veccia Vaglieri (Шаблон:Died in) views the claims about coercion as an invented justification for the later violation of the pacts made by Talha and Zubayr.Шаблон:Sfn Gleave similarly dismisses the (Sunni) reports that Talha and Zubayr did not pledge or did so under duress, saying that these reports reflect their authors' attempts to provide a fuller context for their subsequent rebellion against Ali in the Battle of the Camel.Шаблон:Sfn Madelung argues that the election of Ali could have not happened without the pledge of Talha, as the main rival of Ali, but he also suggests that Talha did not come to the ceremony voluntarily and was dragged there by al-Ashtar.Шаблон:Sfn Alternatively, Hamid Mavani refers to a letter in Nahj al-balagha where Ali rebukes Talha and Zubayr before the Battle of the Camel for breaking their oaths after voluntarily offering them.Шаблон:Sfn Madelung also dismisses as legendary the report by al-Tabari about Zubayr's refusal to pledge.Шаблон:Sfn

Aisha

Файл:Muhammad's widow, Aisha, battling the fourth caliph Ali in the Battle of the Camel.jpg

Aisha battling the fourth caliph Ali in the Battle of the Camel

Shortly before the assassination of Uthman, Aisha had called for the death of the caliph,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn as reported by al-Baladhuri.Шаблон:Sfn She was already in Mecca at the time of the assassination,Шаблон:Sfn having left Medina earlier for the Шаблон:Transliteration,Шаблон:Sfn despite the pleas by Uthman, who believed her presence in Medina would restrain the rebels from attack.Шаблон:Sfn When she learned about the accession of Ali on her way back to Medina, she immediately returned to Mecca and publicly blamed the assassination on him,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn saying that a mere fingertip of Uthman was better than the whole of Ali.Шаблон:Sfn Citing Tarikh al-Ya'qubi and Tarikh Abulfeda, the Shia Muhammad H. Tabatabai (Шаблон:Died in) similarly suggests that it was the succession of Ali that moved Aisha to action, rather than the assassination of Uthman.Шаблон:Sfn Some authors represent Aisha as an unwilling political victim in this saga, like one by al-Ya'qubi,Шаблон:Sfn and some say that she desired peace,Шаблон:Sfn while others emphasize her central role in mobilizing the rebel party against Ali,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn in favor of her close relatives, namely, Talha and Zubayr.Шаблон:Sfn This last group cites that Aisha gave speeches in Mecca and wrote letters to rally support against Ali.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn She did so ostensibly to seek justice for Uthman, although some question her motives, saying that she had earlier opposed Uthman.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn A representative view is that of Veccia Vaglieri, who writes that Aisha had been an opponent of Uthman. Even though she did not condone his assassination, Aisha could not bear to witness that Ali, whom she deeply hated, had benefited from the assassination.Шаблон:Sfn The opposition of Aisha as a Mother of the Faithful added credibility to the subsequent Meccan rebellion against Ali.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Some reports by al-Baladhuri and al-Ya'qubi indicate that Aisha also attempted to persuade Umm Salama, another widow of Muhammad, to join her.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn According to al-Ya'qubi, she rejected the proposal and criticized Aisha for violating the Islamic rule of seclusion for the wives of Muhammad.Шаблон:Sfn Umm Salama then returned to Medina and gave her allegiance to Ali, as reported by al-Baladhuri and al-Tabari.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn

Umayyads

The Umayyads fled Medina after the assassination of Uthman,Шаблон:Sfn notable among them his secretary, Marwan.Шаблон:Sfn Most of them gathered in Mecca, though some made their way to Damascus.Шаблон:Sfn Mecca was thus in open rebellion against Ali,Шаблон:Sfn and the rebels found an ally in Uthman's governor of the city, Abd-Allah ibn Amir.Шаблон:Sfn The Umayyads joined Talha and Zubayr in their opposition to Ali, although their objectives were different.Шаблон:Sfn These may have believed that the caliphate was their right after Uthman, suggests Madelung.Шаблон:Sfn Indeed, some of the Umayyads later left the campaign as it became clear for them that Talha and Zubayr were eying the caliphate upon victory. These included Sa'id ibn al-As and Abd Allah ibn Khalid ibn Asid. Among those who remained with the rebels were Marwan and Uthman's sons, namely, Aban and Walid.Шаблон:Sfn

Demands and motives

The opposition to Ali decried his leniency towards the rebels,Шаблон:Sfn and accused him of complicity in the assassination.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn They demanded that Ali punish those responsible for the assassination of Uthman.Шаблон:Sfn They also called for the removal of Ali from office and for a (Qurayshite) council (Шаблон:Transliteration) to appoint his successor.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn This removal of Ali was likely their primary goal, rather than vengeance for Uthman,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn against whom Talha, Zubayr,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn and AishaШаблон:Sfn had been active earlier. In particular, Talha and Aisha had likely written to the provinces to stir unrest.Шаблон:Sfn The caliphate of Ali perhaps frustrated the political ambitions of Talha and Zubayr,Шаблон:Sfn and the Quraysh in general.Шаблон:Sfn For these, Ali represented the Ansar and the lower classes of the society.Шаблон:Sfn Fearing that he would end their privileged status as the ruling class of Islam,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn the Quraysh thus challenged Ali to safeguard their entitlements.Шаблон:Sfn Their fears were soon confirmed as Ali opened the governorships to the Ansar.Шаблон:Sfn Ali was also vocal about the divine and exclusive right of Muhammad's kin to succeed him,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn which similarly jeopardized the future ambitions of other Qurayshites for leadership.Шаблон:Sfn In place of Ali, the opposition wished to restore the caliphate of Quraysh on the principles laid by Abu Bakr (Шаблон:Reign) and Umar (Шаблон:Reign).Шаблон:Sfn

Alternatively, Talha and Zubayr revolted after Ali refused to grant them favors.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn In particular, Ali did not offer the two any posts in his government,Шаблон:Sfn specifically the governorships of Basra and Kufa.Шаблон:Sfn There is, however, one report by al-Ya'qubi, according to which Ali offered the governorship of Yemen to Talha and the rule of al-Yamama and Bahrain to Zubayr, but the two asked for even more and Ali balked.Шаблон:Sfn For the Shia Tabatabai, the equal distribution of the treasury funds among Muslims by Ali antagonized Talha and Zubayr,Шаблон:Sfn while Hassan Abbas suggests that the two jumped ship when Ali began to reverse the excessive entitlements of the ruling elite during the caliphate of Uthman,Шаблон:Sfn under whom Talha and Zubayr had amassed considerable wealth.Шаблон:Sfn Veccia Vaglieri suggests that the triumvirate of Talha, Zubayr, and Aisha had opposed Uthman with plans for "moderate" changes after him which did not materialize under Ali. Then they revolted because apparently they feared the influence of extremists on him.Шаблон:Sfn Not only Talha and Zubayr, Ayoub suggests that the egalitarian policies of Ali also antagonized much of the Quraysh.Шаблон:Sfn Alternatively, a report by the Mu'tazilite Ibn Abi'l-Hadid (Шаблон:Died in) suggests it was a letter by Mu'awiya that convinced Talha and Zubayr to revolt. The letter also offered them support should the duo seize the control of Kufa and Basra.Шаблон:Sfn

Preparations

Rebels' march on Basra

In October 656,Шаблон:Sfn led by Aisha, Talha and Zubayr, six to nine hundred Meccan rebels marched on the garrison city of Basra,Шаблон:Sfn some 1300 kilometers away from Hejaz, where they were unable to muster much support.Шаблон:Sfn The war efforts were funded by the likes of Ya'la ibn Munya, Uthman's governor of Yemen who had brought the public funds with him to Mecca.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Rivalling each other for the caliphate,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Talha and Zubayr are said to have quarrelled for leading the prayers during the campaign,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn while Aisha mediated between them.Шаблон:Sfn As for her, al-Tabari and some others write that Aisha was disheartened by the incessant howling of dogs at a place called Hawab on the way to Basra,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn which is said to have reminded her of Muhammad's warning to his wives,Шаблон:Sfn "The day will come that the dogs of Hawab will bark at one of you, and that would be the day when she would be in manifest error."Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn She was, however, dissuaded from any change of plans.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn

Rebel occupation of Basra

The arrival of the rebels and their propaganda divided the Basrans for and against Ali,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn though they largely remained loyal to him,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn perhaps because Ali had earlier replaced Uthman's unpopular governorШаблон:Sfn with the upright Uthman ibn Hunayf from the Ansar.Шаблон:Sfn Some apparently opposed Talha and his call for vengeance, having seen his earlier letters that called for Uthman's death.Шаблон:Sfn After an inconclusive fight,Шаблон:Sfn in which Ali's chief of police Hukaym ibn Jabala and many others were killed,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn both sides agreed to a truce until the arrival of Ali and the rebel army then camped outside of Basra.Шаблон:Sfn The agreement stipulated that governor's residence and the mosque and the treasury should remain under the governor's control, while the rebels were free to reside where they chose.Шаблон:Sfn Soon, however, they raided the town on "a cold, dark night with wind and rain,"Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn killing many and seizing the control of Basra and its treasury.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn The governor was tortured and then imprisoned,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn but later released and expelled from the city.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Some (Sunni) traditions praise the moderation and self-defense of the rebels, though these are dismissed by Veccia Vaglieri. She says that the rebels must have instigated the violence as they needed provisions and money, and it was unfavorable for them to wait for Ali.Шаблон:Sfn This last point is also echoed by Madelung.Шаблон:Sfn The rebels then asked Basrans to surrender those who had participated in Uthman's siege and some six hundred men were thus killed by the rebels. The killings and the distribution of town supplies among the rebels are said to have driven a large number of Basrans to join Ali in fighting.Шаблон:Sfn In Basra, Aisha wrote letters to incite against Ali, addressed to Kufans and their governor, to Medinans, and to Hafsa bint Umar, another widow of Muhammad. The last one, however, refused to join the opposition.Шаблон:Sfn

Ali's march on Basra

Ali had set off in pursuit earlier with about seven hundred men but failed to intercept the rebels in time.Шаблон:Sfn In al-Rabadha, he thus changed direction to Kufa and sent delegates to raise an army there.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn His first delegate was Hashim ibn Utba, a nephew of Sa'd ibn Abi Waqqas, according to al-Baladhuri and al-Dinawari (Шаблон:Died in).Шаблон:Sfn When the governor of Kufa, Abu Musa al-Ash'ari,Шаблон:Sfn hampered the war efforts, he was expelled from the town by the supporters of Ali,Шаблон:Sfn who then deposed the governor, saying that he had not found Abu Musa trustworthy and that he would have removed him earlier had it not been for al-Ashtar's advice to confirm him after the assassination of Uthman.Шаблон:Sfn Ali then sent his son Hasan and Ammar ibn Yasir or al-Ashtar himself to rally the support of the Kufans,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn who met the caliph outside of the town with an army of six to seven thousand men.Шаблон:Sfn Ali marched on Basra when his forces were ready,Шаблон:Sfn and stationed his army at the nearby al-Zawiya. From there, he sent messengers and letters to discourage the rebels from opposition, but to no avail.Шаблон:Sfn

Line-up

The two armies soon camped across from each other just outside of Basra.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn After Ali appealed to the opposite camp, large numbers defected to his side, possibly tipping the numerical strength in his favor.Шаблон:Sfn Alternatively, Hugh N. Kennedy writes that Ali had brought a large following from Kufa whereas the rebels' support in Basra was modest.Шаблон:Sfn Asma Afsaruddin has a similar view.Шаблон:Sfn Alternatively, Hazleton says that both armies had about 10,000 men.Шаблон:Sfn Both armies were also multi-tribal and many tribes were represented on both sides, which must have created some hesitation among the soldiers. Many apparently withdrew,Шаблон:Sfn either because they did not wish to fight other Muslims,Шаблон:Sfn or because they did not want to take sides in a war between the prophet's cousin and his widow. This last one was apparently what the pro-Ali al-Ahnaf ibn Qays told Talha and Zubayr to keep his pro-Aisha tribesmen from fighting against Ali.Шаблон:Sfn For the rebels, Zubayr was the overall commander, while his son, Talha and his son, and Marwan were assigned to lead various divisions, reports the Twelver al-Mufid (Шаблон:Died in).Шаблон:Sfn

Negotiations

A tent was pitched between the two armies where Ali, Talha, and Zubayr negotiated to avoid the impending war.Шаблон:Sfn There are reports, including some by al-Baladhuri and al-Tabari,Шаблон:Sfn to the effect that Ali reminded Zubayr of Muhammad's prediction that Zubayr would one day unjustly fight Ali.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn This reminder greatly disturbed Zubayr, writes al-Tabari, but he was persuaded to continue the campaign, contrary to the reports that he left before the battle.Шаблон:Sfn Another report by al-Mas'udi suggests that Ali reminded Talha of the prayer attributed to Muhammad at the Ghadir Khumm (632), where he is said to have implored God to befriend the friend of Ali and to be the enemy of his enemy. The report adds that this exchange convinced Talha to give up the leadership of the rebels.Шаблон:Sfn The details of the negotiations are not reliable for Madelung but he does conclude that the talks broke the resolve of Zubayr, who might have realized his small chances for the caliphate and perhaps the immorality of his bloody rebellion.Шаблон:Sfn At the negotiations, Aisha's party demanded the removal of Ali from office and a council to elect his successor, but Ali countered that he was the legitimate caliph.Шаблон:Sfn The two sides also accused each other of responsibility in the assassination of Uthman.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn The negotiations thus failed after three days and the two sides readied for battle.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Alternatively, Hossein Nasr and his coauthor write that the negotiations were nearly successful but were sabotaged by those who had killed Uthman.Шаблон:Sfn Veccia Vaglieri similarly says that the "extremists" in Ali's camp provoked the war,Шаблон:Sfn while Madelung argues that the account of Sayf to this effect is fictitious and not backed by the other sources.Шаблон:Sfn

Battle

Rules of war

Before the battle, Ali ordered that the wounded or captured enemies should not be killed. Those who surrender should not be fought, and those fleeing the battlefield should not be pursued. Only captured weapons and animals were to be considered war booty.Шаблон:Sfn These instructions form the basis for the ruling of the prominent Sunni Muhammad al-Shaybani (Шаблон:Died in) about rebellions.Шаблон:Sfn Both rulings prohibit looting,Шаблон:Sfn but the ruling of al-Shaybani is said to be less generous than Ali's as the former allows for chasing the fugitives, killing the prisoners, and dispatching the wounded until the rebellion subsides.Шаблон:Sfn Both rulings are, however, intended to uphold the rebels' rights as Muslims, even though they are considered a threat to order.Шаблон:Sfn

Aggressors

After three days of failed negotiations,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn the battle took place near Basra on a December day in 656, lasting from noon to sunset,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn perhaps only four hours.Шаблон:Sfn Ali is said to have barred his men from commencing hostilities.Шаблон:Sfn Possibly in a last-ditch effort to avoid war, early sources widely report that the caliph ordered one of his men to raise a copy of the Quran between the battle lines and appeal to its contents. When this man was shot and killed by the rebel army, Ali gave the order to advance,Шаблон:Sfn according to al-Tabari and al-Baladhuri.Шаблон:Sfn The rebels were thus the aggressors and Ali might have wanted them to be seen as such.Шаблон:Sfn

Tactical developments

The battle involved intense hand-to-hand combat, as reported by al-Baladhuri and al-Mufid (Шаблон:Died in).Шаблон:Sfn The latter adds that the caliph fought intensely during the battle.Шаблон:Sfn Nevertheless, the sources are mostly silent about the tactical developments, but Veccia Vaglieri suggests that the battle consisted of a series of duels and encounters, as this was the Arab custom at the time.Шаблон:Sfn Aisha was also led onto the battlefield, riding in an armored palanquin atop a red camel, after which the battle is named.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Aisha was likely the rallying point of the rebel army, urging them to fight on with the battle cry of avenging Uthman.Шаблон:Sfn Ludwig W. Adamec (Шаблон:Died in) similarly suggests that Aisha was on the battlefield to provide moral support for the rebels.Шаблон:Sfn Because of her presence on the battlefield, the rebel army continued to fight to defend her, even after both Talha and Zubayr were killed.Шаблон:Sfn The fighting was thus particularly fierce around Aisha's camel.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn

Death of Talha

Talha was soon killed apparently by the Umayyad's Marwan, another rebel, who later told Uthman's son that he had now exacted revenge for Uthman,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn indicating that he held Talha responsible in the assassination of Uthman.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Even so, Hassan Abbas suggests that Marwan's main motive in killing Talha was to rid his kinsman Mu'awiya of a serious contender for the caliphate. Marwan received only minor wounds during the battle,Шаблон:Sfn and afterward joined the court of Mu'awiya in Damascus.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Madelung similarly believes that the murder of Talha was premeditated and postponed by Marwan long enough for him to be confident that he would not face any retribution from a victorious Aisha.Шаблон:Sfn In contrast, Ali Bahramian suggests that Marwan claimed to have killed Talha to gratify the Umayyads, who held Talha responsible in Uthman's death.Шаблон:Sfn

Death of Zubayr

Zubayr, an experienced fighter, left shortly after the battle began,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn possibly without having fought at all,Шаблон:Sfn or after Talha was killed,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn or after single combat with Ammar, according to al-Tabari.Шаблон:Sfn Madelung and Veccia Vaglieri suggest that it was the serious misgivings of Zubayr about the justice of their cause that led Zubayr to desertion.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Apparently al-Ahnaf ibn Qays, a pro-Ali chief of the Banu Sa'd, who had remained on the sidelines of the battle, learned about the desertion.Шаблон:Sfn Some of his men then followed and killed Zubayr,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn either to gratify Ali, or more likely for his dishonorable act of leaving other Muslims behind in a civil war he had ignited,Шаблон:Sfn as suggested by al-Ya'qubi, Ayoub, and Madelung.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Some early sources introduce Amr ibn Jurmuz al-Muj'ashi'i as the killer and Wadi al-Siba near Basra as the location of his death.Шаблон:Sfn When the news of his death reached Ali, he commented that Zubayr had many times fought valiantly in front of Muhammad but that he had come to an evil end.Шаблон:Sfn This account is narrated by Marwan and also by Muhammad ibn Ibrahim ibn al-Harith al-Taymi, as reported by the prominent Twelver al-Mufid.Шаблон:Sfn This account is preferred by Shias because it suggests that Ali did not forgive Zubayr.Шаблон:Sfn According to another account, preferred by Sunnis, Ali said that the killer of Zubayr was damned to hell.Шаблон:Sfn In another version of this account, Ali adds that Zubayr was a good man, who made mistakes. Then he recites verse 15:47 and expresses hope that it applies to both Talha and Zubayr.Шаблон:Sfn The latter account is not credible in the opinion of Madelung.Шаблон:Sfn

Surrender of Aisha

The deaths of Talha and Zubayr likely sealed the fate of the battle,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn despite the intense fighting that continued possibly for hours around Aisha's camel.Шаблон:Sfn One by one, the rebels stepped up to lead the camel and, one by one, they were killed.Шаблон:Sfn The fighting stopped only when Ali's troops succeeded in killing Aisha's camel and capturing the Mother of the Faithful.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Surviving poems about the battle portray this final episode, while the lowest figures for the battle are 2500 dead from Aisha's side and 400-500 from Ali's army.Шаблон:Sfn

Aftermath

Pardon of Aisha

Aisha was treated with respect and temporarily housed in Basra.Шаблон:Sfn Still, both Ali and his representative Ibn Abbas reprimanded Aisha as they saw her responsible for the loss of life and for leaving her home in violation of the Quran's instructions for Muhammad's widows.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Ali later ordered Aisha's half-brother, Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr, to escort her back to MeccaШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn or Medina.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn The treatment of Aisha is viewed by Shah-Kazemi as an example of Ali's magnanimity.Шаблон:Sfn Following her defeat, John Cappucci writes that Aisha acknowledged the caliphate of Ali.Шаблон:Sfn Some traditions indeed show Aisha as remorseful and that she wished not to have lived to witness the battle.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn In one such tradition, avoiding the battle is preferred over bearing ten sons for the prophet.Шаблон:Sfn Her view of Ali might have not changed though, suggests Madelung.Шаблон:Sfn He cites a tradition related by Kabsha bint Ka'b ibn Malik, in which Aisha praises Uthman and regrets that she incited revolt against him (but not against Ali). At any rate, her defeat put an end to her political ambitions,Шаблон:Sfn and she only engaged in a few minor political events henceforth.Шаблон:Sfn Her defeat was presumably cited to discourage medieval Muslim women from engaging in politics.Шаблон:Sfn

General pardon

Ali announced a public pardon after the battle,Шаблон:Sfn setting free the war prisoners and prohibiting the enslavement of their women and children. The properties seized were to be returned to the enemy soldiers,Шаблон:Sfn otherwise to their legal Muslim heirs. Ali instead compensated his army from the treasury of Basra.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn These instructions upset those whom Madelung and Veccia Vaglieri describe as the radicals in the camp of Ali.Шаблон:Sfn The orders indeed later became a rallying cry for the Kharijites against Ali.Шаблон:Sfn The discontented soldiers questioned why they were not allowed to take enemy's possessions and enslave their women and children when shedding their blood was considered lawful.Шаблон:Sfn If that was to be the case, Ali retorted, then they had to first decide whom among them would take possession of the prophet's widow.Шаблон:Sfn With this ruling, Ali thus recognized his enemies' rights as Muslims. Alongside this, Ali also set the prisoners free upon his victory,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn and both practices were soon enshrined in the Islamic law.Шаблон:Sfn Ali also extended this pardon to high-profile rebels such as Marwan and the sons of Uthman, Talha, and Zubayr.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn A Qurayshite prisoner named Musahiq ibn Abd Allah ibn Makhrama al-Amiri relates that Ali asked them if he was not the closest to Muhammad in kinship and the most entitled to the leadership after his death. He then let them go after they pledged allegiance to him.Шаблон:Sfn A different report on the authority of Abu Mikhnaf states that a defiant Marwan was still let go without giving his oath of allegiance.Шаблон:Sfn Marwan soon after joined the court of Mu'awiya.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn For Madelung, that Ali released such a "dangerous and vicious enemy" signals how little he was willing to engage in the ongoing political games of the civil war.Шаблон:Sfn

Kufa as the de facto capital

Before leaving Basra, Ali chastized its residents for breaking their oath of allegiance and dividing the community. He then appointed Ibn Abbas as the governor of Basra after receiving their renewed pledges.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn M.A. Shaban adds that Ali divided the treasury funds equally in Basra,Шаблон:Sfn which nevertheless remained a haven for years for pro-Uthman sentiments.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn The caliph soon set off for Kufa,Шаблон:Sfn arriving there in December 656 or January 657. He refused to reside in the governor's castle, calling it Шаблон:Transliteration (Шаблон:Lit), and instead stayed with his nephew Ja'da ibn Hubayra.Шаблон:Sfn Kufa thus became Ali's main base of activity during his caliphate.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn With this move, the Medinan elite permanently lost their authority over the Muslim community, remarks Maria M. Dakake.Шаблон:Sfn Kennedy similarly highlights the strategic disadvantages of Medina, saying that it was far from population centers of Iraq and Syria, and heavily depended on grain shipments from Egypt.Шаблон:Sfn Kufa was to remain the main center of Shia Islam until mid-second century AH (mid-eighth century), when Baghdad was founded.Шаблон:Sfn

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