Английская Википедия:Battle of the Eureka Stockade
Шаблон:Short description Шаблон:About Шаблон:Infobox military conflict Шаблон:Eureka Rebellion sidebar
The Battle of the Eureka Stockade was fought in Ballarat, Victoria, on 3 December 1854, between gold miners and the colonial forces of Australia. It was the culmination of the 1851–1854 Eureka Rebellion during the Victorian gold rush. The fighting resulted in at least 27 deaths and many injuries, the majority of casualties being rebels. The miners had various grievances, chiefly the cost of mining permits and the officious way the system was enforced.
Background
The colony of Victoria was created on 1 July 1851[1] gaining autonomy within the British Empire after a decade of de facto independence from New South Wales.Шаблон:Sfn The Victorian constitution was awaiting a ratification by the Imperial parliament. An election for a provisional legislative council was held, with the chamber having 20 elected and ten appointed members subject to property-based franchise and membership requirements.[2]
Gold prospectors were offered 200 guineas for making discoveries within Шаблон:Convert of Melbourne.Шаблон:Sfn In August 1851, the news was received worldwide that, on top of several earlier finds, Thomas Hiscock, outside of Buninyong in central Victoria, had found still more deposits.[3] As gold fever took hold, the colony's population increased from 77,000 in 1851 to 198,496 in 1853.Шаблон:Sfn Among this number was "a heavy sprinkling of ex-convicts, gamblers, thieves, rogues and vagabonds of all kinds."[4]
The local authorities soon found themselves with fewer police officers and lacking the infrastructure needed to support the expansion of the mining industry. The number of public servants, factory and farm workers leaving for the goldfields to seek their fortune led to a chronic labour shortage that needed to be resolved. The response was a universal mining tax based on time stayed, rather than what was seen as the more equitable option, being an export duty levied only on gold found, meaning it was always designed to make life unprofitable for most prospectors.Шаблон:Sfn
Licence inspections, known as "digger hunts," were treated as a great sport and "carried out in the style of an English fox-hunt"Шаблон:Sfn by mounted officials who received a fifty per cent commission from any fines imposed.Шаблон:Sfn Many recruits were former prisoners from Tasmania and prone to brutal means, having been sentenced to serve in the military.Шаблон:Sfn Miners were often arrested for not carrying licences on their person because of the typically wet and dirty conditions in the mines, then subjected to such indignities as being chained to trees and logs overnight.Шаблон:Sfn
In the years leading up to the Eureka Stockade, several mass public meetings were held to address the miner's grievances. The Bendigo Petition received over 5,000 signatures and was presented to Lieutenant-Governor Charles La Trobe by a miner's delegation in August 1853. There were also delegations received by the Ballarat gold commissioner Robert William Rede and La Trobe's successor Charles Hotham in October and November 1854. The ever-present "physical force" faction of the mining tax protest movement gained the ascendancy over those who advocated "moral force," including John Basson Humffray, after a judicial enquiry into the murder of miner James Scobie outside the Eureka Hotel. There was no finding of guilt regarding the owner, James Bently, who was deeply suspected of involvement, with the case being presided over by a police magistrate accused of having a conflict of interest.Шаблон:Sfn
Then, there was an uproar over the arrest of Catholic Father Smyth's disabled Armenian servant Johannes Gregorious. He was subjected to police brutality and false arrest for licence evasion, even though it was revealed he was exempt from the requirement. Gregorious was instead convicted of assaulting a constable and fined 5 pounds, despite the court hearing testimony to the contrary.Шаблон:Sfn The discontent began to spiral out of control when a mob of many thousands of aggrieved miners burned the Eureka Hotel on 17 October 1854.Шаблон:Sfn
On 28 November, there was a skirmish as the approaching 12th Regiment (East Suffolk) had their wagon train looted in the vicinity of the Eureka lead, where the rebels ultimately made their last stand.Шаблон:Sfn The next day, the Eureka Flag appeared on the platform for the first time. Mining licences were burnt at the final fiery mass meeting of the Ballarat Reform League – the miner's lobby. The league's founding charter proclaims that "it is the inalienable right of every citizen to have a voice in making the laws he is called upon to obey" and "taxation without representation is tyranny,"[5] in the language of the United States Declaration of Independence.
On 30 November, there was further rioting where missiles were once again directed at military and law enforcement by the protesting miners who had henceforth refused to cooperate with licence inspections en masse.Шаблон:Sfn That afternoon there was a paramilitary display on Bakery Hill. The oath-swearing ceremony took place as the military companies formed were gathered around the Eureka Flag. In the preceding weeks, the men of violence had already been aiming musket balls at the barely fortified government camp during the night.Шаблон:Sfn
Fortification of the Eureka lead
Following the 30 November 1854 oath swearing and Eureka Flag raising ceremony on Bakery Hill, about 1,000 rebels marched in double file to the Eureka lead where the Eureka Stockade was constructed over the next few days. Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn It consisted of pit props held together as spikes by rope and overturned horse carts. Carboni described it in his 1855 memoirs as being "higgledy piggledy."Шаблон:Sfn It encompassed an area said to be one acre; however, that is difficult to reconcile with other estimates that have the dimensions of the stockade as being around Шаблон:Convert x Шаблон:Convert.Шаблон:Sfn Contemporaneous representations vary and render the stockade as either rectangular or semi-circular.Шаблон:Sfn Testimony was heard at the high treason trials for the Eureka rebels that the stockade was four to seven feet high in places and was unable to be negotiated on horseback without being reduced.[6]Шаблон:Refn
Hotham feared that the goldfield's terrain would greatly favour the rebel snipers. Rede would instead order an early morning surprise attack on the rebel camp.Шаблон:Sfn Carboni details the rebel dispositions along:
The location of the stockade has been described by Eureka man John Lynch as "appalling from a defensive point of view" as it was situated on "a gentle slope, which exposed a sizeable portion of its interior to fire from nearby high ground."Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Refn
In the early hours of 1 December, the rebels were observed to be massing on Bakery Hill, but a government raiding party found the area vacated. The riot act was read to a mob that had gathered around Bath's Hotel, with mounted police breaking up the unlawful assembly. A three-man miner's delegation met with Commissioner Rede to present a peace proposal; however, Rede was suspicious of the chartist undercurrent of the anti-mining tax movement and rejected the proposals as being the way forward.Шаблон:Sfn
The rebels sent out scouts and established picket lines in order to have advance warning of Rede's movements and a request for reinforcements to the other mining settlements.Шаблон:Sfn The "moral force" faction had withdrawn from the protest movement as the men of violence moved into the ascendancy. The rebels continued to fortify their position as 300-400 men arrived from Creswick's Creek, and Carboni recalls they were: "dirty and ragged, and proved the greatest nuisance. One of them, Michael Tuohy, behaved valiantly."Шаблон:Sfn Once foraging parties were organised, there was a rebel garrison of around 200 men. Amid the Saturday night revelry, low munitions, and major desertions, Lalor ordered that any man attempting to leave the stockade be shot.Шаблон:Sfn
Vinegar Hill blunder: Irish dimension factors in dwindling numbers at stockade
Шаблон:See also Шаблон:Further
The Argus newspaper of 4 December 1854 reported that the Union Jack "had" to be hoisted underneath the Eureka Flag at the stockade and that both flags were in possession of the foot police.[7] Шаблон:Refn Among those willing to credit the first report of the battle as being true and correct it has been theorised that the hoisting of a Union Jack at the stockade was possibly an 11th-hour response to the divided loyalties among the heterogeneous rebel force which was in the process of melting away.[8]
At one point, up to 1,500 of 17,280 men in Ballarat were garrisoning the stockade, with as few as 120 taking part in the battle.[9][10]Шаблон:Sfn Lalor's choice of Vinegar Hill as the password the night before the battle did not resonate with the non-Irish members of the protest movement and has been cited as the main reason why support for the armed rebellion collapsed.[11]Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Support for the Eureka Rebellion fell away among those who were otherwise disposed to resist the military as word spread that the question of Irish home rule had become involved. There were miners from Bendigo, Forrest Creek, and Creswick who were converging on Ballarat to join the rebel garrison. The latter contingent was said to number a thousand men, "but when the news circulated that Irish independence had crept into the movement, almost all turned back."Шаблон:Sfn FitzSimons points out that although the number of reinforcements converging on Ballarat was probably closer to 500, there is no doubt that as a result of the choice of password "the Stockade is denied many strong-armed men because of the feeling that the Irish have taken over."Шаблон:Sfn Withers states that:
In his memoirs, Lynch states: "On the afternoon of Saturday we had a force of seven hundred men on whom we thought we could rely." However, there was a false alarm from the picket line during the night. The subsequent roll call revealed there had been a sizable desertion that Lynch says "ought to have been seriously considered, but it was not."Шаблон:Sfn
It is certain that Irish-born people were strongly represented at the Eureka Stockade.Шаблон:Sfn Most of the rebels inside the stockade at the time of the battle were Irish, and the area where the defensive position was established was overwhelmingly populated by Irish miners. Blainey has advanced the view that the white cross of the Eureka Flag is "really an Irish cross rather than being [a] configuration of the Southern Cross."[12]
In 2012, military historian Gregory Blake advanced the theory that two flags may have been flown on the day of the battle, as the miners were claiming to be defending their British rights.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Refn Blake leaves open the possibility that the flag being carried by the prisoner had been souvenired from the flag pole as the routed garrison was fleeing the stockade.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:RefnШаблон:Refn
Departing detachment of Independent Californian Rangers leaves small garrison behind
Amid the rising number of rebels absent without leave throughout 2 December, a contingent of 200 Americans under James McGill arrived at 4 pm. Styled as "The Independent Californian Rangers' Revolver Brigade," they had horses and were equipped with sidearms and Mexican knives. In a fateful decision, McGill decided to take most of his two hundred Californian Rangers away from the stockade to intercept rumoured British reinforcements coming from Melbourne. Many Saturday night revellers within the rebel garrison went back to their own tents, assuming that the government camp would not attack on the Sabbath day. A small contingent of miners remained at the stockade overnight, which the spies reported to Rede. Common estimates for the size of the garrison at the time of the attack on 3 December range from 120 to 150 men.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn
According to Lalor's reckoning: "There were about 70 men possessing guns, 30 with pikes and 30 with pistols, but many had no more than one or two rounds of ammunition. Their coolness and bravery were admirable when it is considered that the odds were 3 to 1 against."[13] Lalor's command was riddled with informants, and Rede was kept well advised of his movements, particularly through the work of government agents Henry Goodenough and Andrew Peters, who were embedded in the rebel garrison.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn
Initially outnumbering the government camp considerably, Lalor had already devised a strategy where "if the government forces come to attack us, we should meet them on the Gravel Pits, and if compelled, we should retreat by the heights to the old Canadian Gully, and there we shall make our final stand."Шаблон:Sfn On being brought to battle that day, Lalor stated: "we would have retreated, but it was then too late."[13]
On the eve of the battle, Father Smyth issued a plea for Catholics to down their arms and attend mass the following day.Шаблон:Sfn
Battle of the Eureka Stockade
Rede planned to send the combined military police formation of 276 menШаблон:Refn under the command of Captain John Thomas to attack the Eureka Stockade when the rebel garrison was observed to be at a low watermark. The police and military had the element of surprise timing their assault on the stockade for dawn on Sunday, the Christian Sabbath day of rest. The soldiers and police marched off in silence at around 3:30 am Sunday morning after the troopers had drunk the traditional tot of rum.[14] The British commander used bugle calls to coordinate his forces. The 40th regiment was to provide covering fire from one end, with mounted police covering the flanks. Enemy contact began at approximately 150 yards as the two columns of regular infantry and the contingent of foot police moved into position.[15]
According to Gregory Blake, the fighting in Ballarat on 3 December 1854 was not one-sided and full of indiscriminate murder by the colonial forces. In his memoirs, one of Lalor's captains, John Lynch, mentions "some sharp shooting."Шаблон:Sfn For at least 10 minutes, the rebels offered stiff resistance, with ranged fire coming from the Eureka Stockade garrison such that Thomas's best formation, the 40th regiment, wavered and had to be rallied. Blake says this is "stark evidence of the effectiveness of the defender's fire."Шаблон:Sfn
Contradictory accounts as to which side fired the first shot
Despite Lalor's insistence that his standing orders to all but the riflemen were to engage at a distance of fifteen feet and that "the military fired the first volley," it appears as if the first shots came from the Eureka Stockade garrison.Шаблон:Sfn
It has been claimed that Harry de Longville, who was on picket duty when the early morning shootout started, fired the first shot that was possibly intended to be a warning that the government forces were approaching. John O'Neill serving with the 40th regiment, later recalled:
A magistrate by the name of Charles Hackett said to have been generally well-liked by the miners in Ballarat, had accompanied Captain Thomas in the hopes of being able to read the riot act to the rebels; however, he had no time before the commencement of hostilities. He later gave sworn testimony that: "No shots were fired by the military or the police previous to shots being fired from the stockade."Шаблон:Sfn
Withers mentions an American rebel who claimed that:
Withers also published an account of one of Lalor's captains who stated: "The first shot was fired from our party, and the military answered by a volley at 100 paces distance."Шаблон:Sfn
Lynch recalled the course of the battle, saying:
In the area where the first contact was made, Carboni mentions:
Eureka Stockade garrison routed
The rebels eventually ran short of ammunition, and the government forces resumed their advance. The Victorian police contingent led the way over the top as the forlorn hope in a bayonet charge.[15]Шаблон:Sfn Carboni says it was the pikemen who stood their ground that suffered the heaviest casualties,Шаблон:Sfn with Lalor ordering the musketeers to take refuge in the mine holes and crying out, "Pikemen, advance! Now for God's sake do your duty."Шаблон:Sfn There were twenty to thirty Californians at the stockade during the battle. After the rebel garrison had already begun to flee and all hope was lost a number of them gamely joined in the final melee bearing their trademark colt revolvers.Шаблон:Sfn
At the height of the battle, Lalor's left arm was shattered by a bullet which later required amputation. He was hidden under some slabs before being secreted out of Ballarat to hide as an outlaw with supporters.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Golden Point local Dr Timothy Doyle performed the operation with Lalor quoted as saying, "Courage, courage, take it off!" It was Doyle who, in May 1853, exclaimed, "Eureka!" as he found the first nuggets of gold near where the stockade was located by which the locality became known.Шаблон:Sfn[17]
Most of the killings happened after resistance by the rebels had slackened.Шаблон:Sfn The government forces destroyed tents and belongings without justification, bayoneting the wounded and targeting non-combatants. The Commission of Inquiry would later find that:
Stories tell how women ran forward and threw themselves over the injured to prevent further indiscriminate killing. The second in command, Captain Pasley, threatened to shoot anyone involved in murdering prisoners. His valuable assistance was acknowledged in dispatches printed and laid before the Victorian Legislative Council.[18] Captain Thomas finally ordered the bugler to sound the retreat, with around 120 rebels, some wounded, being rounded up and marched back to the government camp two kilometres away as prisoners.Шаблон:Sfn They were kept there in an overcrowded lock-up before being moved to a more spacious barn on Monday morning.Шаблон:Citation needed
The Geelong Advertiser, 6 December 1854 edition, reported that:
Carboni recalls the casualties being piled onto horse carts with the rebel dead destined for a mass grave.Шаблон:Sfn
Eureka Flag seized by Constable John King
Called as a witness in the Eureka treason trials, George Webster, the chief assistant civil commissary and magistrate, testified that upon entering the stockade, the besieging forces "immediately made towards the flag, and the police pulled down the flag."[19] Constable John King volunteered to take the Eureka Flag into police custody while the battle was still raging.Шаблон:Sfn The report of Captain John Thomas dated 14 December 1854 mentioned: "the fact of the Flag belonging to the Insurgents (which had been nailed to the flagstaff) being captured by Constable King of the Force."[20] W. Bourke, a miner who lived about 250 yards from the Eureka Stockade, recalled that: "The police negotiated the wall of the Stockade on the south-west, and I then saw a policeman climb the flag-pole. When up about 12 or 14 feet the pole broke, and he came down with a run."Шаблон:Sfn
Carboni records the Eureka Flag was then trailed in an age-old celebration of victory, saying:
The Geelong Advertiser reported that the flag "was carried by in triumph to the Camp, waved about in the air, then pitched from one to another, thrown down and trampled on."Шаблон:Sfn The soldiers also danced around the flag on a pole that was "now a sadly tattered flag from which souvenir hunters had cut and torn pieces."Шаблон:Sfn The morning after the battle, "the policeman who captured the flag exhibited it to the curious and allowed such as so desired to tear off small portions of its ragged end to preserve as souvenirs."[21]
Estimates of the death toll
Victorian death register
The exact numbers of deaths and injuries cannot be determined as, according to researcher Dorothy Wickham, many miners "fled to the surrounding bush, and it is likely a good many more died a lonely death or suffered the agony of their wounds, hidden from the authorities for fear of repercussions."[22] On 20 June 1855, the registrar of Ballarat, William Thomas Pooley, entered 27 consecutive names into the Victorian death register. There are a least three dead buried outside of Ballarat. In total, it has been discovered that there are at least ten other individuals not found on the register but referred to elsewhere as having died.[23]
It has been thought that all the deaths at Eureka were men. However, the diary of Charles Evans describes a funeral cortege for a woman who was mercilessly butchered by a mounted trooper while pleading for the life of her husband during the battle. Her name and the fate and identity of her husband remain unknown.Шаблон:Sfn
Captain Thomas' list
Thomas' interim casualty report for the 12th and 40th regiments dated 3 December 1854 lists one killed in action, two died of wounds, and fourteen wounded.Шаблон:Sfn The Eureka Improvement Committee's 1923 honour roll contains the names of six soldiers. They are Captain Wise (DOW) along with Privates Webb (DOW), Roney (KIA), Wall (DOW), Boyle (DOW), and Hall (DOW). In addition, Private Denis Brian was killed in action on 3 December 1854, and Private James Hammond died of wounds after the battle en route to Geelong.Шаблон:Sfn
There is also the case of Captain George Richard Littlehales, who, according to the 12th regiment's muster list, "Died 12 February 1855 at Ballarat Camp." He was buried in the same enclosure as Privates Webb and Boyle, who died of wounds sustained in the battle. Littlehales' grave initially had a wooden monument. It was replaced by a headstone in the 1880s when the soldiers' memorial was erected. In Christ Church Cathedral, Ballarat, a large font bears the inscriptions "by his loving parents" and "in memory of G.R. Littlehales." At the Winchester Cathedral in England, two flagstones are dedicated to the Littlehales family members on the floor. The inscription on the stone dedicated to Captain Littlehales confirms that he "died in Camp at Ballarat and was there buried" at the age of 31.[23] Blake estimates that the total military casualties are more likely to have been around 30 as those suffering from slight injuries were unreported.Шаблон:Sfn
There are no recorded casualties among the Victorian police officers that took part in the battle.Шаблон:Sfn
Peter Lalor's list
Lalor listed fourteen miners (mostly Irish) as having died at the stockade and another eight who died later from injuries they sustained. A further dozen were wounded but recovered. Published by several newspapers three months after the battle, his letter to the colonists of Victoria states that:
In the Geelong Advertiser, 8 December edition, readers were told that casualties from the battle were "more numerous than originally supposed." In 1892 the Peter Lalor statue in Ballarat was inscribed with the names of the dead and wounded taken from his open letter along with the words "and others who were killed."Шаблон:Sfn Blake makes the unsourced claim that there was at least 21 unidentified dead buried.Шаблон:Sfn Superintendent Henry Foster said that "many persons killed whose names were not known, I buried five myself whose names were not known."Шаблон:Sfn
Captain Thomas estimated that thirty diggers died on the spot, and "many more died of their wounds subsequently."Шаблон:Sfn Dan Calwell told his US relations thirty had died. Huyghue reckoned that the battle had claimed thirty to forty lives. On 6 December, Thomas Pierson noted in his diary that twenty-five had been killed and later scrawled in the margin, "time has proved that near 60 have died of the diggers in all."Шаблон:Sfn Reverend Taylor initially estimated 100 deaths but reconsidered writing:
Last known survivor
The last known survivor of the battle is believed to be William Edward Atherdon (1838–1936).[24][25] John Lishman Potter claimed that he was the last, which nobody questioned during his lifetime. However, later research has shown that Potter was aboard the Falcon en route to Melbourne from Liverpool on the day of the battle.Шаблон:Sfn
Weapons of the Eureka Rebellion
A variety of weapons were used at the Battle of the Eureka Stockade. The assorted handguns and long arms include Colt revolvers, horse pistols, pepperbox revolvers, percussion pistols, American carbines, muzzle-loading carbines, rifles, shotguns, and the Lovell 1842 pattern smooth bore muzzle-loading musket used by the government forces. In terms of edged and bladed weapons, there were Bowie knives, Mexican knives, swords and pikes.[26]
Location of the Eureka Stockade
Шаблон:Further As the materials used by the rebels to fortify the Eureka lead were quickly removed and the landscape subsequently altered by mining, the exact location of the Eureka Stockade is unknown.Шаблон:Sfn Various studies have been undertaken that have arrived at different conclusions. Jack Harvey (1994) has conducted an exhaustive survey and has concluded that the Eureka Stockade Memorial is situated within the confines of the historical Eureka Stockade.Шаблон:Sfn[27]
See also
Notes
References
Bibliography
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite magazine
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite book
Further reading
- Eurekapedia
- Heretic Press - Ballarat 3rd Dec 1854
- The Eureka Rebellion Шаблон:Webarchive Radical nationalist database
- 150th Anniversary of the Eureka Stockade - Official site
External links
- Art Gallery of Ballarat
- Ballarat and District Genealogical Society
- Ballarat Heritage Services
- Ballarat Historical Society
- Ballarat Reform League Inc.
- Eureka Australia
- Eureka Centre Ballarat
- Public Record Office Victoria
- Sovereign Hill/Gold Museum
- State Library of Victoria
- The C.J. La Trobe Society
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite act
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite act
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite news
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite magazine
- ↑ Ballarat Reform League Charter, 11 November 1854, VPRS 4066/P Unit 1, November no. 69, VA 466 Governor (including Lieutenant Governor 1851–1855 and Governor's Office), Public Record Office Victoria.
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite court
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite news
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite news
- ↑ The figures 1500 and 120 are estimates. Official statistics kept by the colonial administration showed a total of 24,600 people in Ballarat on 2 December 1854, as given by Ian MacFarlane in his authoritative Eureka From the Official Records (Public Records Office, Melbourne, 1995).
- ↑ Anne Sunter, 'Eureka; Gathering 'the Oppressed of All Nations', 'Eureka; Releasing the Spirit of Democracy' (2008) 10(1) Journal of Australian Colonial History (special issue based on papers presented at the Eureka Conference at the University of Ballarat, November 2004).
- ↑ H.R. Nicholls. "Reminiscences of the Eureka Stockade", The Centennial Magazine: An Australian Monthly, (May 1890) (available in an annual compilation; Vol. II: August 1889 to July 1890), p. 749.
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite episode
- ↑ 13,0 13,1 Ошибка цитирования Неверный тег
<ref>; для сносокlalor letterне указан текст - ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ 15,0 15,1 Ошибка цитирования Неверный тег
<ref>; для сносокThomasне указан текст - ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:DNB
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite court
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite report
- ↑ R.E. Johns Papers, MS10075, Manuscript Collection, La Trobe Library, State Library of Victoria.
- ↑ Dorothy Wickham, Deaths at Eureka Шаблон:Webarchive an extract from her book "Deaths at Eureka", 64pp, 1996 Шаблон:ISBN
- ↑ 23,0 23,1 Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite news
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite news
- ↑ http://www.eurekapedia.org/Weapons
- ↑ Harvey, J.T., 'Locating the Eureka Stockade: Use of Geographical Information Systems (GIS) in a Historiographical Research Context: Computers and the Humanities', Vol. 37, No. 2, May 2003.
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