Английская Википедия:Bruges

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Шаблон:Short description Шаблон:Other uses Шаблон:Expand Dutch Шаблон:Use dmy dates Шаблон:Infobox Belgium municipality

Bruges (Шаблон:IPAc-en Шаблон:Respell, Шаблон:IPA-fr; Шаблон:Lang-nl Шаблон:IPA-nl; Шаблон:Lang-de Шаблон:IPA-de) is the capital and largest city of the province of West Flanders in the Flemish Region of Belgium, in the northwest of the country. It is the sixth most populous city in the country.

The area of the whole city amounts to more than 14,099 hectares (140.99 km2; 54.44 sq miles), including 1,075 hectares off the coast, at Zeebrugge (from Шаблон:Lang,[1] meaning 'Bruges by the Sea').[2] The historic city centre is a prominent World Heritage Site of UNESCO. It is oval and about 430 hectares in size. The city's total population is 117,073 (1 January 2008),[3] of whom around 20,000 live in the city centre. The metropolitan area, including the outer commuter zone, covers an area of Шаблон:Convert and had a total of 255,844 inhabitants as of 1 January 2008.[4]

Along with a few other canal-based northern cities, such as Amsterdam and Saint Petersburg, it is sometimes referred to as the Venice of the North. Bruges has significant economic importance, thanks to its port, and was once one of the world's chief commercial cities.[5][6] Bruges is a major tourism destination within Belgium and is well known as the seat of the College of Europe, a university institute for European studies.[7]

Etymology

The earliest mention of the location's name is as Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang or Шаблон:Lang in AD 840–875. Afterwards, it appears as Шаблон:Lang and Шаблон:Lang (892); as Шаблон:Lang (late ninth century); as Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Circa); as Шаблон:Lang (1012); as Шаблон:Lang in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle (1037); as Шаблон:Lang (1046); as Шаблон:Lang in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle (1049–1052); as Шаблон:Lang (1072); as Шаблон:Lang (1080–1085); as Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Circa); as Шаблон:Lang (1089); and as Шаблон:Lang (1116).[8]

The name probably derives from the Old Dutch for 'bridge': Шаблон:Wikt-lang. Also compare Middle Dutch Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang (or Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang), and modern Dutch Шаблон:Lang ('bridgehead') and Шаблон:Lang ('bridge').[9] The form Шаблон:Lang would be a southern Dutch variant.[10] The Dutch word and the English bridge both derive from Proto-Germanic Шаблон:Lang.[11]

History

Шаблон:For timeline

Origins

Bruges was a location of coastal settlement during prehistory. This Bronze Age and Iron Age settlement are unrelated to medieval city development. In the Bruges area, the first fortifications were built after Julius Caesar's conquest of the Menapii in the first century BC, to protect the coastal area against pirates. The Franks took over the whole region from the Gallo-Romans around the fourth century and administered it as the Pagus Flandrensis. The Viking incursions of the ninth century prompted Count Baldwin I of Flanders to reinforce the Roman fortifications; trade soon resumed with England and Scandinavia. Early medieval habitation starts in the ninth and tenth centuries on the Burgh terrain, probably with a fortified settlement and church.[12]

Golden age (12th to 15th centuries)

Файл:Belgium-36 (26598965719).jpg
The Markt (market square)

In 1089, Bruges became the capital of the County of Flanders. Bruges received its city charter on 27 July 1128, and new walls and canals were built. By the 12th century, the city had gained an autonomous administration.[13] Het Zwin (Golden Inlet), the tidal inlet of Bruges, was crucial to the development of local commerce.[14][15] Since about 1050, gradual silting had caused the city to lose its direct access to the sea. A storm in 1134, however, re-established this access, through the creation of a natural channel at the Zwin. The new sea arm stretched to Damme,[14] a city that became the commercial outpost for Bruges.

Bruges had a strategic location at the crossroads of the northern Hanseatic League trade, who had a kontor in the city, and the southern trade routes. Bruges was already included in the circuit of the Flemish and French cloth fairs at the beginning of the 13th century, but when the old system of fairs broke down, the entrepreneurs of Bruges innovated. They developed, or borrowed from Italy, new forms of merchant capitalism, whereby several merchants would share the risks and profits and pool their knowledge of markets. They employed new forms of economic exchange, including bills of exchange (i.e. promissory notes) and letters of credit.[16] The city eagerly welcomed foreign traders, most notably the Portuguese traders selling pepper and other spices.[17]

With the reawakening of town life in the 12th century, a wool market, a woollens weaving industry, and the cloth market all profited from the shelter of city walls, where surpluses could be safely accumulated under the patronage of the counts of Flanders. The city's entrepreneurs reached out to make economic colonies of England and Scotland's[18] wool-producing districts. English contacts brought Normandy grain and Gascon wines. Hanseatic ships filled the harbor, which had to be expanded beyond Damme to Sluys to accommodate the new cog-ships.

Файл:Simon Bening - Oktober.jpg
Merchants in Bruges, first half of the 16th century

In 1277, the first merchant fleet from the Republic of Genoa appeared in the port of Bruges, the first of the merchant colony that made Bruges the main link to the trade of the Mediterranean.[19] This development opened not only the trade in spices from the Levant but also advanced commercial and financial techniques and a flood of capital that soon took over the banking of Bruges. The building where the Genoese Republic housed its commercial representation in the city still survives, now housing the Frietmuseum.[20]

Файл:Chroniques de Froissart (15e eeuw) - Slag op het Beverhoutsveld.png
The Battle of Beverhoutsveld (1382) in Froissart's Chronicles, with Bruges as setting

The Bourse opened in 1309 (most likely the first stock exchange in the world) and developed into the most sophisticated money market of the Low Countries in the 14th century. By the time Venetian galleys first appeared, in 1314, they were latecomers.[21] Numerous foreign merchants were welcomed in Bruges, such as the Castilian wool merchants who first arrived in the 13th century. After the Castilian wool monopoly ended, the Basques, many hailing from Bilbao (Biscay), thrived as merchants (wool, iron commodities, etc.) and established their own commercial consulate in Bruges by the mid-15th century.[22] The foreign merchants expanded the city's trading zones. They maintained separate communities governed by their own laws until the economic collapse after 1700.[23]

Such wealth gave rise to social upheavals, which were for the most part harshly contained by the militia. In 1302, however, after the Bruges Matins (the night-time massacre of the French garrison in Bruges by the members of the local Flemish militia on 18 May 1302), the population joined forces with the Count of Flanders against the French, culminating in the victory at the Battle of the Golden Spurs, fought near Kortrijk on 11 July. The statue of Jan Breydel and Pieter de Coninck, the leaders of the uprising, can still be seen on the Big Market square. The city maintained a militia as a permanent paramilitary body. It gained flexibility and high prestige through close ties to a guild of the organized militia, comprising professionals and specialized units. Militia men bought and maintained their own weapons and armour, according to their family status and wealth. Later, Bruges would be consumed in the Flemish revolts that occurred around the County of Flanders between 1323 and 1328.

At the end of the 14th century, Bruges became one of the Four Members, along with Brugse Vrije, Ghent, and Ypres. Together they formed a parliament; however, they frequently quarrelled amongst themselves.[24]

Файл:Jan Baptist van Meunincxhove - The Burg in Bruges.jpg
The Burg in Bruges, painted Шаблон:Circa by Meunincxhove

In the 15th century, Philip the Good, Duke of Burgundy, set up a court in Bruges, as well as Brussels and Lille, attracting several artists, bankers, and other prominent personalities from all over Europe.[25] The weavers and spinners of Bruges were thought to be the best in the world, and the population of Bruges grew to at least 46,000 inhabitants at this time around 1350 AD.[26]

The new oil-painting techniques of the Flemish school gained world renown. The first book in English ever printed was published in Bruges by William Caxton. Edward IV and Richard III of England were then living in exile in Bruges.

Decline after 1500

Файл:Bruges, Belgium ; Ferraris Map.jpg
Bruges on the Ferraris map, Шаблон:Circa

Starting around 1500, the Zwin channel, (the Golden Inlet) which had given the city its prosperity, began silting up and the Golden Era ended.[15] The city soon fell behind Antwerp as the economic flagship of the Low Countries. During the 17th century, the lace industry took off, and various efforts to bring back the glorious past were made. During the 1650s, the city was the base for Charles II of England and his court in exile.[27] The maritime infrastructure was modernized, and new connections with the sea were built, but without much success, as Antwerp became increasingly dominant. Bruges became impoverished and gradually faded in importance.[28]

The symbolist novelist George Rodenbach made the city into a character in his novel Bruges-la-Morte, meaning "Bruges-the-dead", which was adapted into Erich Wolfgang Korngold's opera, Die tote Stadt (The Dead City).[29]

19th century and later revival

Файл:Postcard - Bruges Cranenburg (Excelsior Series 11, No. 51, Albert Sugg a Gand; ca. 1905).jpg
Postcard showing the Cranenburg House[30]

In the second half of the 19th century, Bruges became one of the world's first tourist destinations, attracting wealthy British and French tourists. By 1909, the 'Bruges Forward: Society to Improve Tourist' association had come into operation.[31]

In World War I, German forces occupied Bruges. However, the city suffered virtually no damage, and was liberated on 19 October 1918 by the Allies. The city was occupied by the Germans from 1940 during World War II and was again spared destruction. On 12 September 1944, it was liberated by the 12th Manitoba Dragoons' Canadian troops. The liberation of the city was facilitated by the bridge, now known as the Шаблон:Ill, connecting the outer municipalities with the city centre.

After 1965, the original medieval city experienced a "renaissance". Restorations of residential and commercial structures, historic monuments, and churches generated a surge in tourism and economic activity in the downtown area. International tourism has boomed, and new efforts resulted in Bruges being designated European Capital of Culture in 2002. It attracts some eight million tourists annually.[32]

The port of Zeebrugge was built in 1907. The Germans used it for their U-boats in World War I. It was greatly expanded in the 1970s and early 1980s and has become one of Europe's most important and modern ports. Шаблон:Clear left

Geography

Файл:MnpBruggeMap.svg
Municipality of Bruges

The municipality comprises following sub-municipalities:

Шаблон:Clear left

Climate

Bruges has an oceanic climate (Köppen Cfb).

Шаблон:Weather box

Landmarks, arts, and culture

The Belfry of Bruges
The Belfry of Bruges, a UNESCO World Heritage Site

The medieval architecture in Bruges is mostly intact, making it one of the best-preserved medieval towns in Europe.[33] The "Historic Centre of Bruges" has been a UNESCO World Heritage Site since 2000.[34] Its medieval buildings include the Church of Our Lady, whose brick spire reaches Шаблон:Convert, making it the world's second-highest brick tower/building. The sculpture Madonna and Child, which can be seen in the transept, is believed to be the only of Michelangelo's sculptures to have left Italy within his lifetime.

Bruges' best-known landmark is the Belfry of Bruges, a 13th-century belfry housing a municipal carillon comprising 47 bells.[35] The Belfry of Bruges, independent of the previously mentioned UNESCO World Heritage Site in Bruges, is included on the World Heritage Site of Belfries of Belgium and France.[36] The city still employs a full-time carillonneur, who gives free concerts regularly.

In addition to the "Historic Centre of Bruges" and the tower included in the "Belfries of Belgium and France", Bruges is also home to a third UNESCO World Heritage Site; the Ten Wijngaerde Béguinage, a beguinage built in the 13th century, is included in the World Heritage Site of "Flemish Béguinages".

Craft

Bruges is known for its lace, a textile technique. Moreover, the city and its lace would go on to inspire the Thread Routes film series, the second episode of which, shot in 2011, was partly set in Bruges.[37]

Several beers are named after the city, such as Brugge Blond, Brugge Tripel, Brugs, Brugse Babbelaar, Brugse Straffe Hendrik, and Brugse Zot. However, only the latter two—Brugse Zot and Brugse Straffe Hendrik–is brewed in the city itself, in the De Halve Maan Brewery.

Entertainment

Шаблон:Div col

Шаблон:Div col end

Festivals

Music festivals:
  • Airbag (accordion festival)
  • Blues in Bruges
  • Brugge Tripel Dagen
  • Brugges Festival (world music)
  • Cactusfestival
  • Elements Festival (electronic)
  • Fuse on the Beach (dance festival in Zeebrugge)
  • Hafabrugge (orchestra festival)
  • Internationale Fedekam Taptoe
  • Jazz Brugge
  • Koorfestival ("choir festival")
  • Festival van Vlaanderen – MAfestival
  • Music in Mind (atmospheric [rock] music)
  • September Jazz
  • Sint-Gillis Blues – en Folkfestival
  • BurgRock
  • Comma Rocks Festival
  • Red Rock Rally
  • Thoprock
 Cultural and food festivals:
  • Aristidefeesten
  • BAB-bierfestival ("beer festival")
  • Brugse Kantdagen ("Bruges' Lace Days")
  • Chapter 2 (juggling convention)
  • Choco-Laté (chocolate festival)
  • Cinema Novo (film festival)
  • Cirque Plus (circus festival)
  • European Youth Film Festival of Flanders
  • Ice Magic (ice sculpture festival)
  • Jonge Snaken Festival
  • Midwinterfeest
  • NAFT (theatre festival)
  • Poirot in Bruges – Knack thrillerfestival
  • Razor Reel Fantastic Film Festival
  • Reiefeest (festival on the canals)
 Musical culture festivals:
  • Come On!
  • Coupurefeesten
  • December Dance
  • Feest In 't Park
  • FEST!
  • Klinkers
  • Polé Polé Beach (in Zeebrugge)
  • Sint-Michielse Feeste
  • Summer End Festival
  • Vama Veche festival

Museums and historic sites (non-religious)

Bruges is home to many museums. Its art museums include the Arents House, as well as the Groeningemuseum, which has an extensive collection of medieval and early modern art. Members of the 15th century Early Netherlandish school of painters are represented, including works by Jan van Eyck. Van Eyck, as well as Hans Memling, lived and worked in Bruges.

The preserved old city gateways: the Kruispoort, the Gentpoort, the Smedenpoort and the Ezelpoort. The Dampoort, the Katelijnepoort and the Boeveriepoort are gone.

The Old St. John's Hospital (Hans Memling museum) and Our Lady of the Potteries are Hospital museums. The city is known for Bruggemuseum ("Bruges Museum"), the general name for a group of 11 different historical museums in the city, including:

Bruges' non-municipal museums include the Brewery Museum, Hof Bladelin, Choco-Story (chocolate museum), Lumina Domestica (lamp museum), Museum-Gallery Xpo: Salvador Dalí, Diamond Museum,[38] Frietmuseum (a museum dedicated to Belgian fries), Historium (museum of the medieval history of Bruges), Lace centre, St. George's Archers Guild, St. Sebastian's Archers’ Guild, St. Trudo Abbey, and the Public Observatory Beisbroek.

Religion and religious landmarks

The patron saint of both the city of Bruges and the Roman Catholic Diocese of Bruges is Donatian of Reims.[39] The St. Salvator's Cathedral is therefore also known as Cathedral of the Saviour and St. Donat.

The Basilica of the Holy Blood (Шаблон:Lang-nl) houses the relic of the Holy Blood, which was brought to the city after the Second Crusade by Thierry of Alsace, and is paraded every year through the streets of the city. More than 1,600 inhabitants take part in this mile-long religious procession, many dressed as medieval knights or crusaders.

Other religious landmarks and museums include the Church of Our Lady, English Convent, Jerusalem Church, St. Trudo's Abbey, Ten Wijngaerde Béguinage (Шаблон:Lang-nl), and Ter Doest Abbey (Шаблон:Lang-nl) in Lissewege.

The sub-municipality (or deelgemeente) and former parish of Bruges Sint-Andries has its own patron saint Andrew the Apostle[40][41] to which the parish Church of St. Andrew & St. Anna is dedicated.

Transport

Файл:Cmglee Bruges Boudewijnkanaal aerial.jpg
Aerial view of the Boudewijnkanaal canal linking Zeebrugge (top) with Bruges (middle)

Road

Bruges has motorway connections in all directions:

Driving within the 'egg', the historical centre enclosed by the main circle of canals in Bruges is discouraged by traffic management schemes, including a network of one-way streets. The system encourages the use of set routes leading to central car parks and direct exit routes. The car parks are convenient for the central commercial and tourist areas; they are not expensive.

Railway

Bruges' main railway station is the focus of lines to the Belgian coast. It also provides at least hourly trains to all other major cities in Belgium, as well as to Lille in France.[42] Further there are several regional and local trains.

A third track is being constructed between Bruges and Dudzele, the junction for Zeebrugge to alleviate congestion. Similarly, two extra tracks are being built between Bruges and Ghent.[43]

Bus links to the centre are frequent, though the railway station is just a 10-minute walk from the main shopping streets and a 20-minute walk from Market Square.

Air

The national Brussels Airport, one hour away by train or car, offers the best connections. The nearest airport is the Ostend-Bruges International Airport in Ostend (around Шаблон:Convert from the city centre of Bruges), but it offers limited passenger transport and connections. Recently there also started a direct bus line from Brussels South Charleroi Airport to Bruges.

Public city transport

Файл:Busstationtzandbrugge.jpg
Шаблон:Interlanguage link bus station

Bruges has an extensive web of bus lines, operated by De Lijn, providing access to the city centre and the suburbs (city lines, Шаблон:Lang-nl) and to many towns and villages in the region around the city (regional lines, Шаблон:Lang-nl).

In support of the municipal traffic management (see "Road" above), free public transport is available for those who park their cars in the main railway station car park.

Cycling

Although a few streets are restricted, no part of Bruges is car-free.[44]

Cars are required to yield to pedestrians and cyclists. Plans have long been underway to ban cars altogether from the historic center of Bruges or to restrict traffic much more than it currently is, but these plans have yet to come to fruition. In 2005, signs were changed for the convenience of cyclists, allowing two-way cycle traffic on more streets; however, car traffic has not decreased. Шаблон:Citation needed Nevertheless, in common with many cities in the region, there are thousands of cyclists in the city of Bruges. Шаблон:Citation needed

Port

Файл:Elly Maersk.jpg
The Elly Mærsk, at Zeebrugge, one of the world's largest container ships

Шаблон:Main The port of Bruges is Zeebrugge (Flemish for Bruges-on-Sea).

On 6 March 1987, the British ferry MS Herald of Free Enterprise capsized after leaving the port, killing 187 people, in the worst disaster involving a British civilian vessel since 1919; it had set sail with its bow door open.[45] The Herald of Free Enterprise was a passenger ship bound for the Port of Dover in Kent. Most of the occupants had taken advantage of a newspaper promotion offering a £1 return trip from Dover to Zeebrugge.[46]

Demographics

Group of origin Year
2023[47]
Number %
Belgians with Belgian background 97,936 81.93%
Belgians with foreign background 12,006 10.04%
Neighbouring country 2,433 2.04%
EU27 (excluding neighbouring country) 1,350 1.13%
Outside EU 27 8,223 6.88%
Non-Belgians 9,599 8.03%
Neighbouring country 1,541 1.29%
EU27 (excluding neighbouring country) 3,266 2.73%
Outside EU 27 4,792 4.01%
Total 119,541 100%

Sports

Файл:Panoramio - V&A Dudush - Jan Breydel Stadion.jpg
Jan Breydel Stadium

Between 1998 and 2016, Bruges hosted the start of the annual Tour of Flanders cycle race, held in April and one of the biggest sporting events in Belgium.

Football is also popular in Bruges; the city hosts two professional football teams, both of which play at the top level (Belgian First Division) Club Brugge K.V. are the current national champions, while the second team, Cercle Brugge K.S.V., was recently promoted to the first tier. Both teams play their home games at the Jan Breydel Stadium (30,000 seats) in Sint-Andries. There are plans for a new stadium for Club Brugge with about 45,000 seats in the north of the city, while the city council would renovate and reduce the capacity of the Jan Breydel Stadium for Cercle Brugge.[48]

In 2000, Bruges was one of the eight host cities for the UEFA European Football Championship, co-hosted by Belgium and its neighbour the Netherlands.

In 2021, Bruges, along with Leuven, is to host the UCI Road Racing Championship.

Файл:KHBO St-Michiels Brugge.jpg
The KHBO campus in Sint-Michiels

Education

Bruges is a centre for education in West Flanders. Next to the several common primary and secondary schools, there are a few colleges, like the VIVES (a fusion of the former KHBO (Katholieke Hogeschool Brugge Oostende) and the KATHO (katholieke hogeschool) or the HOWEST (Hogeschool West-Vlaanderen) and Sint-Leocollege. Furthermore, the city is home to the College of Europe, a prestigious institution of postgraduate studies in European Economics, Law, and Politics, and of the United Nations University Institute on Comparative Regional Integration Studies (UNU-CRIS), a Research and Training Institute[49] of the United Nations University specialising in the comparative study of regional integration.

Town twinning policy

Bruges has never formally ratified any twin towns and sister cities collaboration. In the 1950s, Bruges refused a jumelage with Nice, Nuremberg, Locarno and Venice that had been signed by a Belgian ambassador without consultation. The twinning between some of the former municipalities, merged with Bruges in 1971, was discontinued.

Bruges has had the following international contacts:

Шаблон:Flagicon Bastogne, Luxembourg, Belgium
After World War II and into the 1970s, Bruges, more specifically the Fire Brigade of Bruges, entertained friendly relations with Bastogne. Each year a free holiday was offered at the seaside in Zeebrugge, to children from the Nuts city.
Шаблон:Flagicon Arolsen, Hesse, Germany
From the 1950s until the 1980s, Bruges was the patron of the Belgian First Regiment of Horse Guards, quartered in Arolsen.
Шаблон:Flagicon Salamanca, Castilla y León, Spain
Both towns having been made European Capital of Culture in 2002, Bruges had some exchanges organized with Salamanca.
Шаблон:Flagicon Mons, Hainaut, Belgium
In 2007, cultural and artistic cooperation between Mons and Bruges was inaugurated.
Шаблон:Flagicon Burgos, Castilla y León, Spain
On 29 January 2007, the mayors of Burgos and Bruges signed a declaration of intent about future cooperation on cultural, touristic and economic matters.

In popular culture

Notable people

Шаблон:Main

The following people were born in Bruges: In the 15th century, the city became the magnet for several prominent personalities:

Literature

Film

Television and music

Notes

Шаблон:Reflist

Further reading

Шаблон:See also

External links

Шаблон:Geographic location Шаблон:Populated places in Bruges Шаблон:Municipalities in West Flanders Шаблон:European Capital of Culture Шаблон:World Heritage Sites in Belgium Шаблон:Hanseatic League Шаблон:Authority control

Партнерские ресурсы
Криптовалюты
Магазины
Хостинг
Разное

  1. ↑ Шаблон:Cite book, Snippet pages 143
  2. ↑ Шаблон:Cite book, page 140
  3. ↑ Statistics Belgium; Population de droit par commune au 1 janvier 2008 (excel-file) Шаблон:Webarchive Population of all municipalities in Belgium, as of 1 January 2008. Retrieved on 19 October 2008.
  4. ↑ Statistics Belgium; De Belgische Stadsgewesten 2001 (pdf-file) Шаблон:Webarchive Definitions of metropolitan areas in Belgium. The metropolitan area of Bruges is divided into three levels. First, the central agglomeration (Шаблон:Lang), which in this case is Bruges municipality, with 117,073 inhabitants (1 January 2008). Adding the closest surroundings (Шаблон:Lang) gives a total of 166,502. And, including the outer commuter zone (Шаблон:Lang) the population is 255,844. Retrieved on 19 October 2008.
  5. ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
  6. ↑ Шаблон:Cite journal
  7. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  8. ↑ Maurits Gysseling, Toponymisch woordenboek van België, Nederland, Luxemburg, Noord-Frankrijk en West-Duitsland (vóór 1226), Brussel 1960, p. 195.
  9. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  10. ↑ M. Philippa, F. Debrabandere, A. Quak, T. Schoonheim & N. van der Sijs (2003–2009), Etymologisch woordenboek van het Nederlands, AUP: Amsterdam.
  11. ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
  12. ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
  13. ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
  14. ↑ 14,0 14,1 Шаблон:Cite journal
  15. ↑ 15,0 15,1 Шаблон:Cite journal
  16. ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
  17. ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
  18. ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
  19. ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
  20. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  21. ↑ Braudel, Fernand, The Perspective of the World, in Vol. III Civilization and Capitalism, 1984
  22. ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
  23. ↑ Шаблон:Cite journal
  24. ↑ Philip the Good: the apogee of Burgundy by Richard Vaughan, p201
  25. ↑ Шаблон:Cite journal
  26. ↑ De Brugse stadsmagistraat in de late 14e eeuw - Een prosopografische studie voor de periode 1359-1375
  27. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  28. ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
  29. ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
  30. ↑ (Excelsior Series 11, No. 51, Albert Sugg a Gand; ca. 1905): Cranenburg, from the windows of which, in olden times, the Counts of Flanders, with the lords and ladies of their Court, used to watch the tournaments and pageants for which Bruges was celebrated, and in which Maximilian was imprisoned by the burghers in 1488 (Bruges and West Flanders, George W. T. Omond, Illustrated by Amédée Forestier, 1906. Project Gutenberg Edition.)
  31. ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
  32. ↑ Шаблон:Cite newsШаблон:Cbignore
  33. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  34. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  35. ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
  36. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  37. ↑ [1] Шаблон:Webarchive
  38. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  39. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  40. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  41. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  42. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  43. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  44. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  45. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  46. ↑ Шаблон:Cite news
  47. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  48. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  49. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  50. ↑ Gillespie, John Thomas and Corinne J. Naden. 1996. The Newbery Companion: Booktalk and Related Materials for Newbery Medal and Honor Books (revised ed.). Libraries Unlimited (2001).
  51. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
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