Английская Википедия:Catalan language
Шаблон:Short description Шаблон:Redirect Шаблон:Pp-pc Шаблон:Use dmy dates Шаблон:Infobox language
Catalan (Шаблон:IPAc-en Шаблон:Respell or Шаблон:IPAc-en Шаблон:Respell;[1][2] autonym: Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:IPA), known in the Valencian Community and Carche as Valencian (autonym: Шаблон:Lang), is a Western Romance language. It is the official language of Andorra,Шаблон:Sfn and an official language of two autonomous communities in eastern Spain: Catalonia and the Balearic Islands. It is also an official language in Valencia, where it is called Valencian. It has semi-official status in the Italian comune of Alghero,[3] and it is spoken in the Pyrénées-Orientales department of France and in two further areas in eastern Spain: the eastern strip of Aragon and the Carche area in the Region of Murcia. The Catalan-speaking territories are often called the Шаблон:Lang or "Catalan Countries".[4]
The language evolved from Vulgar Latin in the Middle Ages around the eastern Pyrenees. Nineteenth-century Spain saw a Catalan literary revival,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn culminating in the early 1900s.
Etymology and pronunciation
The word Catalan is derived from the territorial name of Catalonia, itself of disputed etymology. The main theory suggests that Шаблон:Lang (Latin Gathia Launia) derives from the name Gothia or Gauthia ("Land of the Goths"), since the origins of the Catalan counts, lords and people were found in the March of Gothia, whence Gothland > Gothlandia > Gothalania > Catalonia theoretically derived.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn
In English, the term referring to a person first appears in the mid 14th century as Catelaner, followed in the 15th century as Catellain (from French). It is attested a language name since at least 1652. The word Catalan can be pronounced in English as Шаблон:IPAc-en, Шаблон:IPAc-en or Шаблон:IPAc-en.[5][2]
The endonym is pronounced Шаблон:IPA-ca in the Eastern Catalan dialects, and Шаблон:IPA-ca in the Western dialects. In the Valencian Community and Carche, the term Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA-ca is frequently used instead. Thus, the name "Valencian", although often employed for referring to the varieties specific to the Valencian Community and Carche, is also used by Valencians as a name for the language as a whole,[6] synonymous with "Catalan".Шаблон:Sfn[6] Both uses of the term have their respective entries in the dictionaries by the Acadèmia Valenciana de la Llengua[note 1] and the Institut d'Estudis Catalans.[note 2] See also status of Valencian below.
History
Middle Ages
Шаблон:Further By the 9th century, Catalan had evolved from Vulgar Latin on both sides of the eastern end of the Pyrenees, as well as the territories of the Roman province of Hispania Tarraconensis to the south.Шаблон:Sfn From the 8th century onwards the Catalan counts extended their territory southwards and westwards at the expense of the Muslims, bringing their language with them.Шаблон:Sfn This process was given definitive impetus with the separation of the County of Barcelona from the Carolingian Empire in 988.Шаблон:Sfn
In the 11th century, documents written in macaronic Latin begin to show Catalan elements,Шаблон:Sfn with texts written almost completely in Romance appearing by 1080.Шаблон:Sfn Old Catalan shared many features with Gallo-Romance, diverging from Old Occitan between the 11th and 14th centuries.Шаблон:Sfn
During the 11th and 12th centuries the Catalan rulers expanded southward to the Ebro river,Шаблон:Sfn and in the 13th century they conquered the Land of Valencia and the Balearic Islands.Шаблон:Sfn The city of Alghero in Sardinia was repopulated with Catalan speakers in the 14th century. The language also reached Murcia, which became Spanish-speaking in the 15th century.Шаблон:Sfn
In the Low Middle Ages, Catalan went through a golden age, reaching a peak of maturity and cultural richness.Шаблон:Sfn Examples include the work of Majorcan polymath Ramon Llull (1232–1315), the Four Great Chronicles (13th–14th centuries), and the Valencian school of poetry culminating in Ausiàs March (1397–1459).Шаблон:Sfn By the 15th century, the city of Valencia had become the sociocultural center of the Crown of Aragon, and Catalan was present all over the Mediterranean world.Шаблон:Sfn During this period, the Royal Chancery propagated a highly standardized language.Шаблон:Sfn Catalan was widely used as an official language in Sicily until the 15th century, and in Sardinia until the 17th.Шаблон:Sfn During this period, the language was what Costa Carreras terms "one of the 'great languages' of medieval Europe".Шаблон:Sfn
Martorell's outstandingШаблон:Sfn novel of chivalry Tirant lo Blanc (1490) shows a transition from Medieval to Renaissance values, something that can also be seen in Metge's work.Шаблон:Sfn The first book produced with movable type in the Iberian Peninsula was printed in Catalan.[7]Шаблон:Sfn
Start of the modern era
Spain
With the union of the crowns of Castille and Aragon in 1479, the Spanish kings ruled over different kingdoms, each with its own cultural, linguistic and political particularities, and they had to swear by the laws of each territory before the respective parliaments. But after the War of the Spanish Succession, Spain became an absolute monarchy under Philip V, which led to the assimilation of the Crown of Aragon by the Crown of Castile through the Nueva Planta decrees, as a first step in the creation of the Spanish nation-state; as in other contemporary European states, this meant the imposition of the political and cultural characteristics of the dominant groups.[8][9] Since the political unification of 1714, Spanish assimilation policies towards national minorities have been a constant.[10][11][12][13][14]Шаблон:POV inline
The process of assimilation began with secret instructions to the corregidores of the Catalan territory: they "will take the utmost care to introduce the Castilian language, for which purpose he will give the most temperate and disguised measures so that the effect is achieved, without the care being noticed."[15] From there, actions in the service of assimilation, discreet or aggressive, were continued, and reached to the last detail, such as, in 1799, the Royal Certificate forbidding anyone to "represent, sing and dance pieces that were not in Spanish."[15] The use of Spanish gradually became more prestigiousШаблон:Sfn and marked the start of the decline of Catalan.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Starting in the 16th century, Catalan literature came under the influence of Spanish, and the nobles, part of the urban and literary classes became bilingual.Шаблон:Sfn
France
With the Treaty of the Pyrenees (1659), Spain ceded the northern part of Catalonia to France, and soon thereafter the local Catalan varieties came under the influence of French, which in 1700 became the sole official language of the region.Шаблон:Sfn[16]
Shortly after the French Revolution (1789), the French First Republic prohibited official use of, and enacted discriminating policies against, the regional languages of France, such as Catalan, Alsatian, Breton, Occitan, Flemish, and Basque.
France: 19th to 20th century
After the French colony of Algeria was established in 1830, many Catalan-speaking settlers moved there. People from the Spanish province of Alicante settled around Oran, while those from French Catalonia and Menorca migrated to Algiers.
By 1911, there were around 100,000 speakers of Patuet,[17] as their speech was called.[18] After the Algerian declaration of independence in 1962, almost all the Pied-Noir Catalan speakers fled to Northern Catalonia [19] or Alicante.Шаблон:Sfn
The French government only recognizes French as an official language. Nevertheless, on 10 December 2007, the then General Council of the Pyrénées-Orientales officially recognized Catalan as one of the départment's languages [20] and seeks to further promote it in public life and education.
Spain: 18th to 20th century
In 1807, the Statistics Office of the French Ministry of the Interior asked the prefects for an official survey on the limits of the French language. The survey found that in Roussillon, almost only Catalan was spoken, and since Napoleon wanted to incorporate Catalonia into France, as happened in 1812, the consul in Barcelona was also asked. He declared that Catalan "is taught in schools, it is printed and spoken, not only among the lower class, but also among people of first quality, also in social gatherings, as in visits and congresses", indicating that it was spoken everywhere "with the exception of the royal courts". He also indicated that Catalan was spoken "in the Kingdom of Valencia, in the islands of Mallorca, Menorca, Ibiza, Sardinia, Corsica and much of Sicily, in the Vall d "Aran and Cerdaña".[21]
The defeat of the pro-Habsburg coalition in the War of Spanish Succession (1714) initiated a series of laws which, among other centralizing measures, imposed the use of Spanish in legal documentation all over Spain. Because of this, use of the Catalan language declined into the 18th century.
However, the 19th century saw a Catalan literary revival (Шаблон:Lang), which has continued up to the present day.Шаблон:Sfn This period starts with Aribau's Ode to the Homeland (1833); followed in the second half of the 19th century, and the early 20th by the work of Verdaguer (poetry), Oller (realist novel), and Guimerà (drama).Шаблон:Sfn In the 19th century, the region of Carche, in the province of Murcia was repopulated with Valencian speakers.Шаблон:Sfn Catalan spelling was standardized in 1913 and the language became official during the Second Spanish Republic (1931–1939). The Second Spanish Republic saw a brief period of tolerance, with most restrictions against Catalan lifted.Шаблон:Sfn The Generalitat (the autonomous government of Catalonia, established during the Republic in 1931) made a normal use of Catalan in its administration and put efforts to promote it at social level, including in schools and the University of Barcelona.
The Catalan language and culture were still vibrant during the Spanish Civil War (1936–1939), but were crushed at an unprecedented level throughout the subsequent decades due to Francoist dictatorship (1939–1975), which abolished the official status of Catalan and imposed the use of Spanish in schools and in public administration in all of Spain, while banning the use of Catalan in them.[22]Шаблон:Sfn Between 1939 and 1943 newspapers and book printing in Catalan almost disappeared.[23] Francisco Franco's desire for a homogenous Spanish population resonated with some Catalans in favor of his regime, primarily members of the upper class, who began to reject the use of Catalan. Despite all of these hardships, Catalan continued to be used privately within households, and it was able to survive Franco's dictatorship. At the end of World War II, however, some of the harsh mesures began to be lifted and, while Spanish language remained the sole promoted one, limited number of Catalan literature began to be tolerated. Several prominent Catalan authors resisted the suppression through literature.[24] Private initiative contests were created to reward works in Catalan, among them Joan Martorell prize (1947), Víctor Català prize (1953) Carles Riba award (1950), or the Honor Award of Catalan Letters (1969).[25] The first Catalan-language TV show was broadcast in 1964.[26] At the same time, oppression of the Catalan language and identity was carried out in schools, through governmental bodies, and in religious centers.[27]
In addition to the loss of prestige for Catalan and its prohibition in schools, migration during the 1950s into Catalonia from other parts of Spain also contributed to the diminished use of the language. These migrants were often unaware of the existence of Catalan, and thus felt no need to learn or use it. Catalonia was the economic powerhouse of Spain, so these migrations continued to occur from all corners of the country. Employment opportunities were reduced for those who were not bilingual.[28] Daily newspapers remained exclusively in Spanish until after Franco's death, when the first one in Catalan since the end of the Civil War, Avui, began to be published in 1976.[29]
Present day
Since the Spanish transition to democracy (1975–1982), Catalan has been institutionalized as an official language, language of education, and language of mass media; all of which have contributed to its increased prestige.Шаблон:Sfn In Catalonia, there is an unparalleled large bilingual European non-state linguistic community.Шаблон:Sfn The teaching of Catalan is mandatory in all schools,Шаблон:Sfn but it is possible to use Spanish for studying in the public education system of Catalonia in two situations – if the teacher assigned to a class chooses to use Spanish, or during the learning process of one or more recently arrived immigrant students.[30] There is also some intergenerational shift towards Catalan.Шаблон:Sfn
More recently, several Spanish political forces have tried to increase the use of Spanish in the Catalan educational system.[31] As a result, in May 2022 the Spanish Supreme Court urged the Catalan regional government to enforce a measure by which 25% of all lessons must be taught in Spanish.[32]
According to the Statistical Institute of Catalonia, in 2013 the Catalan language is the second most commonly used in Catalonia, after Spanish, as a native or self-defining language: 7% of the population self-identifies with both Catalan and Spanish equally, 36.4% with Catalan and 47.5% only Spanish.[33] In 2003 the same studies concluded no language preference for self-identification within the population above 15 years old: 5% self-identified with both languages, 44.3% with Catalan and 47.5% with Spanish.[34] To promote use of Catalan, the Generalitat de Catalunya (Catalonia's official Autonomous government) spends part of its annual budget on the promotion of the use of Catalan in Catalonia and in other territories, with entities such as Шаблон:Ill (Consortium for Linguistic Normalization)[35][36]
In Andorra, Catalan has always been the sole official language.Шаблон:Sfn Since the promulgation of the 1993 constitution, several policies favoring Catalan have been enforced, like Catalan medium education.Шаблон:Sfn
On the other hand, there are several language shift processes currently taking place. In the Northern Catalonia area of France, Catalan has followed the same trend as the other minority languages of France, with most of its native speakers being 60 or older (as of 2004).Шаблон:Sfn Catalan is studied as a foreign language by 30% of the primary education students, and by 15% of the secondary.Шаблон:Sfn The cultural association Шаблон:Lang promotes a network of community-run schools engaged in Catalan language immersion programs.
In Alicante province, Catalan is being replaced by Spanish and in Alghero by Italian.Шаблон:Sfn There is also well ingrained diglossia in the Valencian Community, Ibiza, and to a lesser extent, in the rest of the Balearic islands.Шаблон:Sfn
During the 20th century many Catalans emigrated or went into exile to Venezuela, Mexico, Cuba, Argentina, and other South American countries. They formed a large number of Catalan colonies that today continue to maintain the Catalan language.[37][38] They also founded many Catalan casals (associations).[39]
Classification and relationship with other Romance languages
One classification of Catalan is given by Pèire Bèc:
However, the ascription of Catalan to the Occitano-Romance branch of Gallo-Romance languages is not shared by all linguists and philologists, particularly among Spanish ones, such as Ramón Menéndez Pidal.
Catalan bears varying degrees of similarity to the linguistic varieties subsumed under the cover term Occitan language (see also differences between Occitan and Catalan and Gallo-Romance languages). Thus, as it should be expected from closely related languages, Catalan today shares many traits with other Romance languages.
Relationship with other Romance languages
Some include Catalan in Occitan, as the linguistic distance between this language and some Occitan dialects (such as the Gascon language) is similar to the distance among different Occitan dialects. Catalan was considered a dialect of Occitan until the end of the 19th century[40] and still today remains its closest relative.[41]
Catalan shares many traits with the other neighboring Romance languages (Occitan, French, Italian, Sardinian as well as Spanish and Portuguese among others).Шаблон:Sfn However, despite being spoken mostly on the Iberian Peninsula, Catalan has marked differences with the Iberian Romance group (Spanish and Portuguese) in terms of pronunciation, grammar, and especially vocabulary; it shows instead its closest affinity with languages native to France and northern Italy, particularly OccitanШаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn and to a lesser extent Gallo-Romance (Franco-Provençal, French, Gallo-Italian).[42]Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn
According to Ethnologue, the lexical similarity between Catalan and other Romance languages is: 87% with Italian; 85% with Portuguese and Spanish; 76% with Ladin and Romansh; 75% with Sardinian; and 73% with Romanian.[43]
| Latin | Catalan | Spanish |
|---|---|---|
| Шаблон:Wiktla | Шаблон:Wiktca "to bring closer" | Шаблон:Wiktspa "to put to bed" |
| Шаблон:Wiktla | Шаблон:Wiktca "to remove; wake up" |
Шаблон:Wiktspa "to take" |
| Шаблон:Wiktla | Шаблон:Wiktca "to remove" | Шаблон:Wiktspa "to bring" |
| Шаблон:Wiktla | Шаблон:Wiktca "to search" | Шаблон:Wiktspa "to fence" |
| Шаблон:Wiktla | Шаблон:Wiktca "to bury" | Шаблон:Wiktspa "to hang" |
| Шаблон:Wiktla | Шаблон:Wiktca "wife" | Шаблон:Wiktspa "woman or wife" |
During much of its history, and especially during the Francoist dictatorship (1939–1975), the Catalan language was ridiculed as a mere dialect of Spanish.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn This view, based on political and ideological considerations, has no linguistic validity.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Spanish and Catalan have important differences in their sound systems, lexicon, and grammatical features, placing the language in features closer to Occitan (and French).Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn
There is evidence that, at least from the 2nd century Шаблон:Smallcaps, the vocabulary and phonology of Roman Tarraconensis was different from the rest of Roman Hispania.Шаблон:Sfn Differentiation arose generally because Spanish, Asturian, and Galician-Portuguese share certain peripheral archaisms (Spanish Шаблон:Lang, Asturian and Portuguese Шаблон:Lang vs. Catalan Шаблон:Lang, Occitan Шаблон:Lang "to boil") and innovatory regionalisms (Sp Шаблон:Lang, Ast Шаблон:Lang vs. Cat Шаблон:Lang, Oc Шаблон:Lang "bullock"), while Catalan has a shared history with the Western Romance innovative core, especially Occitan.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn
Like all Romance languages, Catalan has a handful of native words which are unique to it, or rare elsewhere. These include:
- verbs: Шаблон:Sm 'to fasten; transfix' > Шаблон:Lang 'to compose, write up', Шаблон:Sm > Шаблон:Lang 'to combine, conjugate', Шаблон:Sm > Шаблон:Lang 'to wake; awaken', Шаблон:Sm 'to thicken; crowd together' > Шаблон:Lang 'to save, keep', Шаблон:Sm > Шаблон:Lang 'to miss, yearn, pine for', Шаблон:Sm 'to investigate, track' > Old Catalan enagar 'to incite, induce', Шаблон:Sm > OCat ujar 'to exhaust, fatigue', Шаблон:Sm > Шаблон:Lang 'to appease, mollify', Шаблон:Sm > Шаблон:Lang 'to reject, refuse';
- nouns: Шаблон:Sm > Шаблон:Lang 'pomace', Шаблон:Sm > Шаблон:Lang 'reedmace', Шаблон:Sm > Шаблон:Lang 'catarrh', Шаблон:Sm > Шаблон:Lang 'snowdrift', Шаблон:Sm > Шаблон:Lang 'ardor, passion', Шаблон:Sm > Шаблон:Lang 'brake', Шаблон:Sm > Шаблон:Lang 'avalanche', Шаблон:Sm > Шаблон:Lang 'edge, border', Шаблон:Sm 'sawfish' > pestriu > Шаблон:Lang 'thresher shark, smooth hound; ray', Шаблон:Sm 'live coal' > Шаблон:Lang 'spark', Шаблон:Sm > tardaó > Шаблон:Lang 'autumn'.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Clarify
The Gothic superstrate produced different outcomes in Spanish and Catalan. For example, Catalan Шаблон:Wikt-lang "mud" and Шаблон:Wikt-lang "to roast", of Germanic origin, contrast with Spanish Шаблон:Wikt-lang and Шаблон:Wikt-lang, of Latin origin; whereas Catalan Шаблон:Wikt-lang "spinning wheel" and Шаблон:Wikt-lang "temple", of Latin origin, contrast with Spanish Шаблон:Wikt-lang and Шаблон:Wikt-lang, of Germanic origin.Шаблон:Sfn
The same happens with Arabic loanwords. Thus, Catalan Шаблон:Lang "large earthenware jar" and Шаблон:Wikt-lang "tile", of Arabic origin, contrast with Spanish Шаблон:Wikt-lang and Шаблон:Wikt-lang, of Latin origin; whereas Catalan Шаблон:Wikt-lang "oil" and Шаблон:Wikt-lang "olive", of Latin origin, contrast with Spanish Шаблон:Wikt-lang and Шаблон:Wikt-lang.Шаблон:Sfn However, the Arabic element is generally much more prevalent in Spanish.Шаблон:Sfn
Situated between two large linguistic blocks (Iberian Romance and Gallo-Romance), Catalan has many unique lexical choices, such as Шаблон:Wikt-lang "to miss somebody", Шаблон:Wikt-lang "to calm somebody down", and Шаблон:Wikt-lang "reject".Шаблон:Sfn
Geographic distribution
Catalan-speaking territories
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Traditionally Catalan-speaking territories are sometimes called the Шаблон:Lang (Catalan Countries), a denomination based on cultural affinity and common heritage, that has also had a subsequent political interpretation but no official status. Various interpretations of the term may include some or all of these regions.
| State | Territory | Catalan name | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|
| Andorra | Andorra | Шаблон:Lang | A sovereign state where Catalan is the national and the sole official language. The Andorrans speak a Western Catalan variety.Шаблон:Efn |
| France | Northern Catalonia | Шаблон:Lang | Roughly corresponding to the Шаблон:Lang of Pyrénées-Orientales.Шаблон:Sfn |
| Spain | Catalonia | Шаблон:Lang | In the Aran Valley (northwest corner of Catalonia), in addition to Occitan, which is the local language, Catalan, Spanish and French are also spoken.Шаблон:Sfn |
| Valencian Community | Шаблон:Lang | Excepting some regions in the west and south which have been Aragonese/Spanish-speaking since at least the 18th century.Шаблон:Sfn The Western Catalan variety spoken there is known as "Valencian". | |
La Franja |
Шаблон:Lang | A part of the Autonomous Community of Aragon, specifically a strip bordering Western Catalonia. It comprises the Шаблон:Lang of Ribagorça, Llitera, Baix Cinca, and Matarranya. | |
| Balearic Islands | Шаблон:Lang | Comprising the islands of Mallorca, Menorca, Ibiza and Formentera. | |
| Carche | Шаблон:Lang | A small area of the Autonomous Community of Murcia, settled in the 19th century.Шаблон:Sfn | |
| Italy | Alghero | Шаблон:Lang | A city in the Province of Sassari, on the island of Sardinia, where the Algherese dialect is spoken. |
Number of speakers
The number of people known to be fluent in Catalan varies depending on the sources used. A 2004 study did not count the total number of speakers, but estimated a total of 9–9.5 million by matching the percentage of speakers to the population of each area where Catalan is spoken.[49] The web site of the Generalitat de Catalunya estimated that as of 2004 there were 9,118,882 speakers of Catalan.[50] These figures only reflect potential speakers; today it is the native language of only 35.6% of the Catalan population.[51] According to Ethnologue, Catalan had 4.1 million native speakers and 5.1 million second-language speakers in 2021.[43]
According to a 2011 study the total number of Catalan speakers was over 9.8 million, with 5.9 million residing in Catalonia. More than half of them spoke Catalan as a second language, with native speakers being about 4.4 million of those (more than 2.8 in Catalonia).[52] Very few Catalan monoglots exist; basically, virtually all of the Catalan speakers in Spain are bilingual speakers of Catalan and Spanish, with a sizable population of Spanish-only speakers of immigrant origin (typically born outside Catalonia or whose parents were both born outside Catalonia) Шаблон:Citation needed existing in the major Catalan urban areas as well.
In Roussillon, only a minority of French Catalans speak Catalan nowadays, with French being the majority language for the inhabitants after a continued process of language shift. According to a 2019 survey by the Catalan government, 31.5% of the inhabitants of Catalonia predominantly spoke Catalan at home whereas 52.7% spoke Spanish, 2.8% both Catalan and Spanish and 10.8% other languages.[53]
Spanish was the most spoken language in Barcelona (according to the linguistic census held by the Government of Catalonia in 2013) and it is understood almost universally. According to 2013 census, Catalan was also very commonly spoken in the city of 1,501,262: it was understood by 95% of the population, while 72.3% over the age of two could speak it (1,137,816), 79% could read it (1,246.555), and 53% could write it (835,080).[54] The share of Barcelona residents who could speak it (72.3%)[55] was lower than that of the overall Catalan population, of whom 81.2% over the age of 15 spoke the language. Knowledge of Catalan has increased significantly in recent decades thanks to a language immersion educational system. An important social characteristic of the Catalan language is that all the areas where it is spoken are bilingual in practice: together with French in Roussillon, with Italian in Alghero, with Spanish and French in Andorra, and with Spanish in the rest of the territories.
| Territory | State | Understand Шаблон:Ref[56] | Can speak Шаблон:Ref[56] |
|---|---|---|---|
| Catalonia | Spain | 6,502,880 | 5,698,400 |
| Valencian Community | Spain | 3,448,780 | 2,407,951 |
| Balearic Islands | Spain | 852,780 | 706,065 |
| Roussillon | France | 203,121 | 125,621 |
| Andorra | Andorra | 75,407 | 61,975 |
| La Franja (Aragon) | Spain | 47,250 | 45,000 |
| Alghero (Sardinia) | Italy | 20,000 | 17,625 |
| Carche (Murcia) | Spain | ~600 | 600[57] |
| Total Catalan-speaking territories | 11,150,218 | 9,062,637 | |
| Rest of World | No data | 350,000 | |
| Total | 11,150,218 | 9,412,637 | |
- 1.Шаблон:Note The number of people who understand Catalan includes those who can speak it.
- 2.Шаблон:Note Figures relate to all self-declared capable speakers, not just native speakers.
Level of knowledge
| Area | Speak | Understand | Read | Write |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Catalonia[58] | 81.2 | 94.4 | 85.5 | 65.3 |
| Valencian Community | 57.5 | 78.1 | 54.9 | 32.5 |
| Balearic Islands | 74.6 | 93.1 | 79.6 | 46.9 |
| Roussillon | 37.1 | 65.3 | 31.4 | 10.6 |
| Andorra | 78.9 | 96.0 | 89.7 | 61.1 |
| Franja Oriental of Aragón | 88.8 | 98.5 | 72.9 | 30.3 |
| Alghero | 67.6 | 89.9 | 50.9 | 28.4 |
(% of the population 15 years old and older).
Social use
| Area | At home | Outside home |
|---|---|---|
| Catalonia | 45 | 51 |
| Valencian Community | 37 | 32 |
| Balearic Islands | 44 | 41 |
| Roussillon | 1 | 1 |
| Andorra | 38 | 51 |
| Franja Oriental of Aragón | 70 | 61 |
| Alghero | 8 | 4 |
(% of the population 15 years old and older).
Native language
| Area | People | Percentage |
|---|---|---|
| Catalonia | 2,813,000 | 38.5% |
| Valencian Community | 1,047,000 | 21.1% |
| Balearic Islands | 392,000 | 36.1% |
| Andorra | 26,000 | 33.8% |
| Franja Oriental of Aragon | 33,000 | 70.2% |
| Roussillon | 35,000 | 8.5% |
| Alghero | 8,000 | 20% |
| TOTAL | 4,353,000 | 31.2% |
Phonology
Шаблон:Main Catalan phonology varies by dialect. Notable features include:Шаблон:Sfn
- Marked contrast of the vowel pairs Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA, as in other Western Romance languages, other than Spanish.Шаблон:Sfn
- Lack of diphthongization of Latin short Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang, as in Galician and Portuguese, but unlike French, Spanish, or Italian.Шаблон:Sfn
- Abundance of diphthongs containing Шаблон:IPA, as in Galician and Portuguese.Шаблон:Sfn
In contrast to other Romance languages, Catalan has many monosyllabic words, and these may end in a wide variety of consonants, including some consonant clusters.Шаблон:Sfn Additionally, Catalan has final obstruent devoicing, which gives rise to an abundance of such couplets as Шаблон:Lang ("male friend") vs. Шаблон:Lang ("female friend").Шаблон:Sfn
Central Catalan pronunciation is considered to be standard for the language.Шаблон:Sfn The descriptions below are mostly representative of this variety.[62] For the differences in pronunciation between the different dialects, see the section on pronunciation of dialects in this article.
Vowels
Catalan has inherited the typical vowel system of Vulgar Latin, with seven stressed phonemes: Шаблон:IPA, a common feature in Western Romance, with the exception of Spanish.Шаблон:Sfn Balearic also has instances of stressed Шаблон:IPA.Шаблон:Sfn Dialects differ in the different degrees of vowel reduction,Шаблон:Sfn and the incidence of the pair Шаблон:IPA.Шаблон:Sfn
In Central Catalan, unstressed vowels reduce to three: Шаблон:IPA; Шаблон:IPA; Шаблон:IPA remains distinct.Шаблон:Sfn The other dialects have different vowel reduction processes (see the section pronunciation of dialects in this article).
| Front vowels | Back vowels | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Word pair |
Шаблон:Lang ("ice") Шаблон:Lang ("ice cream") |
Шаблон:Lang ("stone") Шаблон:Lang ("quarry") |
Шаблон:Lang ("he bathes") Шаблон:Lang ("we bathe") |
Шаблон:Lang ("thing") Шаблон:Lang ("little thing") |
Шаблон:Lang ("everything") Шаблон:Lang ("total") |
| IPA transcription |
Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA |
Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA |
Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA |
Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA |
Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA |
Consonants
The consonant system of Catalan is rather conservative.
- Шаблон:IPA has a velarized allophone in syllable coda position in most dialects.Шаблон:Sfn However, Шаблон:IPA is velarized irrespective of position in Eastern dialects like MajorcanШаблон:Sfn and standard Eastern Catalan.
- Шаблон:IPA occurs in Balearic,Шаблон:Sfn Algherese, standard Valencian and some areas in southern Catalonia.Шаблон:Sfn It has merged with Шаблон:IPA elsewhere.Шаблон:Sfn
- Voiced obstruents undergo final-obstruent devoicing: Шаблон:IPA.Шаблон:Sfn
- Voiced stops become lenited to approximants in syllable onsets, after continuants: Шаблон:IPA > Шаблон:IPAblink, Шаблон:IPA > Шаблон:IPAblink, Шаблон:IPA > Шаблон:IPAblink.Шаблон:Sfn Exceptions include Шаблон:IPA after lateral consonants, and Шаблон:IPA after Шаблон:IPA. In coda position, these sounds are realized as stops,[63] except in some Valencian dialects where they are lenited.Шаблон:Sfn
- There is some confusion in the literature about the precise phonetic characteristics of Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA. Some sourcesШаблон:Sfn describe them as "postalveolar". OthersШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn as "back alveolo-palatal", implying that the characters Шаблон:Angbr IPA would be more accurate. However, in all literature only the characters for palato-alveolar affricates and fricatives are used, even when the same sources use Шаблон:Angbr IPA for other languages like Polish and Chinese.[64][65]Шаблон:Sfn
- The distribution of the two rhotics Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA closely parallels that of Spanish. Between vowels, the two contrast, but they are otherwise in complementary distribution: in the onset of the first syllable in a word, Шаблон:IPAblink appears unless preceded by a consonant. Dialects vary in regards to rhotics in the coda with Western Catalan generally featuring Шаблон:IPAblink and Central Catalan dialects featuring a weakly trilled Шаблон:IPAblink unless it precedes a vowel-initial word in the same prosodic unit, in which case Шаблон:IPAblink appears.Шаблон:Sfn
- In careful speech, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA may be geminated. Geminated Шаблон:IPA may also occur.Шаблон:Sfn Some analyze intervocalic Шаблон:IPA as the result of gemination of a single rhotic phoneme.Шаблон:Sfn This is similar to the common analysis of Spanish and Portuguese rhotics.[66]
Phonological evolution
Sociolinguistics
Catalan sociolinguistics studies the situation of Catalan in the world and the different varieties that this language presents. It is a subdiscipline of Catalan philology and other affine studies and has as an objective to analyze the relation between the Catalan language, the speakers and the close reality (including the one of other languages in contact).
Preferential subjects of study
- Dialects of Catalan
- Variations of Catalan by class, gender, profession, age and level of studies
- Process of linguistic normalization
- Relations between Catalan and Spanish or French
- Perception on the language of Catalan speakers and non-speakers
- Presence of Catalan in several fields: tagging, public function, media, professional sectors
Dialects
Overview
The dialects of the Catalan language feature a relative uniformity, especially when compared to other Romance languages;Шаблон:Sfn both in terms of vocabulary, semantics, syntax, morphology, and phonology.Шаблон:Sfn Mutual intelligibility between dialects is very high,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn estimates ranging from 90% to 95%.[43] The only exception is the isolated idiosyncratic Algherese dialect.Шаблон:Sfn
Catalan is split in two major dialectal blocks: Eastern and Western.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn The main difference lies in the treatment of unstressed Шаблон:Lang and Шаблон:Lang; which have merged to Шаблон:IPA in Eastern dialects, but which remain distinct as Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA in Western dialects.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn There are a few other differences in pronunciation, verbal morphology, and vocabulary.Шаблон:Sfn
Western Catalan comprises the two dialects of Northwestern Catalan and Valencian; the Eastern block comprises four dialects: Central Catalan, Balearic, Rossellonese, and Algherese.Шаблон:Sfn Each dialect can be further subdivided in several subdialects. The terms "Catalan" and "Valencian" (respectively used in Catalonia and the Valencian Community) refer to two varieties of the same language.[67] There are two institutions regulating the two standard varieties, the Institute of Catalan Studies in Catalonia and the Valencian Academy of the Language in the Valencian Community.
Central Catalan is considered the standard pronunciation of the language and has the largest number of speakers.Шаблон:Sfn It is spoken in the densely populated regions of the Barcelona province, the eastern half of the province of Tarragona, and most of the province of Girona.Шаблон:Sfn
Catalan has an inflectional grammar. Nouns have two genders (masculine, feminine), and two numbers (singular, plural). Pronouns additionally can have a neuter gender, and some are also inflected for case and politeness, and can be combined in very complex ways. Verbs are split in several paradigms and are inflected for person, number, tense, aspect, mood, and gender. In terms of pronunciation, Catalan has many words ending in a wide variety of consonants and some consonant clusters, in contrast with many other Romance languages.Шаблон:Sfn
| Block | Western Catalan | Eastern Catalan | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Dialect | Northwestern | Valencian | Central | Balearic | Northern/Rossellonese | Algherese |
| Area | Spain, Andorra | Spain | France | Italy | ||
| Andorra, Provinces of Lleida, western half of Tarragona, La Franja | Autonomous community of Valencia, Carche | Provinces of Barcelona, eastern half of Tarragona, most of Girona | Balearic islands | Roussillon/Northern Catalonia | City of Alghero in Sardinia | |
Шаблон:AnchorPronunciation
Vowels
Catalan has inherited the typical vowel system of Vulgar Latin, with seven stressed phonemes: Шаблон:IPA, a common feature in Western Romance, except Spanish.Шаблон:Sfn Balearic has also instances of stressed Шаблон:IPA.Шаблон:Sfn Dialects differ in the different degrees of vowel reduction,Шаблон:Sfn and the incidence of the pair Шаблон:IPA.Шаблон:Sfn
In Eastern Catalan (except Majorcan), unstressed vowels reduce to three: Шаблон:IPA; Шаблон:IPA; Шаблон:IPA remains distinct.Шаблон:Sfn There are a few instances of unreduced Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA in some words.Шаблон:Sfn Algherese has lowered Шаблон:IPA to Шаблон:IPA.
In Majorcan, unstressed vowels reduce to four: Шаблон:IPA follow the Eastern Catalan reduction pattern; however Шаблон:IPA reduce to Шаблон:IPA, with Шаблон:IPA remaining distinct, as in Western Catalan.Шаблон:Sfn
In Western Catalan, unstressed vowels reduce to five: Шаблон:IPA; Шаблон:IPA; Шаблон:IPA remain distinct.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn This reduction pattern, inherited from Proto-Romance, is also found in Italian and Portuguese.Шаблон:Sfn Some Western dialects present further reduction or vowel harmony in some cases.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn
Central, Western, and Balearic differ in the lexical incidence of stressed Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA.Шаблон:Sfn Usually, words with Шаблон:IPA in Central Catalan correspond to Шаблон:IPA in Balearic and Шаблон:IPA in Western Catalan.Шаблон:Sfn Words with Шаблон:IPA in Balearic almost always have Шаблон:IPA in Central and Western Catalan as well.Шаблон:VagueШаблон:Sfn As a result, Central Catalan has a much higher incidence of Шаблон:IPA.Шаблон:Sfn
|
| ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Word pairs: the first with stressed root, the second with unstressed root |
Western | Eastern | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Majorcan | Central | Northern | |||
| Front vowels |
Шаблон:Lang ("ice") Шаблон:Lang ("ice cream") |
Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA |
Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA |
Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA | |
| Шаблон:Lang ("pear") Шаблон:Lang ("pear tree") |
Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA |
Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA |
Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA |
Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA | |
| Шаблон:Lang ("stone") Шаблон:Lang ("quarry") |
Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA |
Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA | |||
| Шаблон:Lang ("he bathes") Шаблон:Lang ("we bathe") Majorcan: Шаблон:Lang ("we bathe") |
Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA |
Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA |
Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA |
Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA | |
| Back vowels |
Шаблон:Lang ("thing") Шаблон:Lang ("little thing") |
Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA |
Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA |
Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA |
Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA |
| Шаблон:Lang ("everything") Шаблон:Lang ("total") |
Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA |
Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA |
Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA | ||
Consonants
Morphology
Western Catalan: In verbs, the ending for 1st-person present indicative is Шаблон:Lang in verbs of the 1st conjugation and -∅ in verbs of the 2nd and 3rd conjugations in most of the Valencian Community, or Шаблон:Lang in all verb conjugations in the Northern Valencian Community and Western Catalonia.
E.g. Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang (Valencian); Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang (Northwestern Catalan).
Eastern Catalan: In verbs, the ending for 1st-person present indicative is Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang, or -∅ in all conjugations.
E.g. Шаблон:Lang (Central), Шаблон:Lang (Balearic), and Шаблон:Lang (Northern), all meaning ('I speak').
| Conjugation | Eastern Catalan | Western Catalan | Gloss | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Central | Northern | Balearic | Valencian | Northwestern | ||||
| 1st | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | 'I speak' | ||
| 2nd | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | 'I fear' | ||
| 3rd | Шаблон:Small | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | 'I feel', 'I hear' | |
| Шаблон:Small | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang or Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang or Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | 'I polish' | ||
Western Catalan: In verbs, the inchoative endings are Шаблон:Lang/Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang/Шаблон:Lang.
Eastern Catalan: In verbs, the inchoative endings are Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang.
Western Catalan: In nouns and adjectives, maintenance of Шаблон:IPA of medieval plurals in proparoxytone words.
E.g. Шаблон:Lang 'men', Шаблон:Lang 'youth'.
Eastern Catalan: In nouns and adjectives, loss of Шаблон:IPA of medieval plurals in proparoxytone words.
E.g. Шаблон:Lang 'men', Шаблон:Lang 'youth' (Ibicencan, however, follows the model of Western Catalan in this case[68]).
Vocabulary
Despite its relative lexical unity, the two dialectal blocks of Catalan (Eastern and Western) show some differences in word choices.Шаблон:Sfn Any lexical divergence within any of the two groups can be explained as an archaism. Also, usually Central Catalan acts as an innovative element.Шаблон:Sfn
| Gloss | "mirror" | "boy" | "broom" | "navel" | "to exit" |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Eastern Catalan | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang |
| Western Catalan | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang |
Standards
| Catalan (IEC) | Valencian (AVL) | gloss |
|---|---|---|
| Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | English |
| Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | to know |
| Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | take out |
| Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | to be born |
| Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | pitcher |
| Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | round |
| Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | my, mine |
| Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | almond |
| Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | star |
| Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | hit |
| Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | lobster |
| Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | men |
| Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | service |
Standard Catalan, virtually accepted by all speakers,Шаблон:Sfn is mostly based on Eastern Catalan,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn which is the most widely used dialect. Nevertheless, the standards of the Valencian Community and the Balearics admit alternative forms, mostly traditional ones, which are not current in eastern Catalonia.Шаблон:Sfn
The most notable difference between both standards is some tonic Шаблон:Angbr accentuation, for instance: Шаблон:Lang (IEC) – Шаблон:Lang (AVL). Nevertheless, AVL's standard keeps the grave accent Шаблон:Angbr, while pronouncing it as Шаблон:IPA rather than Шаблон:IPA, in some words like: Шаблон:Lang ('what'), or Шаблон:Lang. Other divergences include the use of Шаблон:Angbr (AVL) in some words instead of Шаблон:Angbr like in Шаблон:Lang/Шаблон:Lang ('almond'), Шаблон:Lang/Шаблон:Lang ('back'), the use of elided demonstratives (Шаблон:Lang 'this', Шаблон:Lang 'that') in the same level as reinforced ones (Шаблон:Lang) or the use of many verbal forms common in Valencian, and some of these common in the rest of Western Catalan too, like subjunctive mood or inchoative conjugation in Шаблон:Lang at the same level as Шаблон:Lang or the priority use of Шаблон:Lang morpheme in 1st person singular in present indicative (Шаблон:Lang verbs): Шаблон:Lang instead of Шаблон:Lang ('I buy').
In the Balearic Islands, IEC's standard is used but adapted for the Balearic dialect by the University of the Balearic Islands's philological section. In this way, for instance, IEC says it is correct writing Шаблон:Lang as much as Шаблон:Lang ('we sing'), but the university says that the priority form in the Balearic Islands must be Шаблон:Lang in all fields. Another feature of the Balearic standard is the non-ending in the 1st person singular present indicative: Шаблон:Lang ('I buy'), Шаблон:Lang ('I fear'), Шаблон:Lang ('I sleep').
In Alghero, the IEC has adapted its standard to the Algherese dialect. In this standard one can find, among other features: the definite article Шаблон:Lang instead of Шаблон:Lang, special possessive pronouns and determinants Шаблон:Lang ('mine'), Шаблон:Lang ('his/her'), Шаблон:Lang ('yours'), and so on, the use of Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA in the imperfect tense in all conjugations: Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang; the use of many archaic words, usual words in Algherese: Шаблон:Lang instead of Шаблон:Lang ('less'), Шаблон:Lang instead of Шаблон:Lang ('someone'), Шаблон:Lang instead of Шаблон:Lang ('which'), and so on; and the adaptation of weak pronouns. In 1999, Catalan (Algherese dialect) was among the twelve minority languages officially recognized as Italy's "historical linguistic minorities" by the Italian State under Law No. 482/1999.[69]
In 2011,[70] the Aragonese government passed a decree approving the statutes of a new language regulator of Catalan in La Franja (the so-called Catalan-speaking areas of Aragon) as originally provided for by Law 10/2009.[71] The new entity, designated as Шаблон:Lang, shall allow a facultative education in Catalan and a standardization of the Catalan language in La Franja.
Шаблон:Anchor Status of Valencian
Шаблон:Wikisourcelang Шаблон:Main
Valencian is classified as a Western dialect, along with the northwestern varieties spoken in Western Catalonia (provinces of Lleida and the western half of Tarragona).Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Central Catalan has 90% to 95% inherent intelligibility for speakers of Valencian.[43]
Linguists, including Valencian scholars, deal with Catalan and Valencian as the same language. The official regulating body of the language of the Valencian Community, the Valencian Academy of Language (Acadèmia Valenciana de la Llengua, AVL) declares the linguistic unity between Valencian and Catalan varieties.[6]
The AVL, created by the Valencian parliament, is in charge of dictating the official rules governing the use of Valencian, and its standard is based on the Norms of Castelló (Normes de Castelló). Currently, everyone who writes in Valencian uses this standard, except the Royal Academy of Valencian Culture (Acadèmia de Cultura Valenciana, RACV), which uses an independent standard for Valencian.
Despite the position of the official organizations, an opinion poll carried out between 2001 and 2004[72] showed that the majority of the Valencian people consider Valencian different from Catalan. This position is promoted by people who do not use Valencian regularly.Шаблон:Sfn Furthermore, the data indicates that younger generations educated in Valencian are much less likely to hold these views. A minority of Valencian scholars active in fields other than linguistics defends the position of the Royal Academy of Valencian Culture (Acadèmia de Cultura Valenciana, RACV), which uses for Valencian a standard independent from Catalan.[73]
This clash of opinions has sparked much controversy. For example, during the drafting of the European Constitution in 2004, the Spanish government supplied the EU with translations of the text into Basque, Galician, Catalan, and Valencian, but the latter two were identical.[74]
Vocabulary
Word choices
Despite its relative lexical unity, the two dialectal blocks of Catalan (Eastern and Western) show some differences in word choices.Шаблон:Sfn Any lexical divergence within any of the two groups can be explained as an archaism. Also, usually Central Catalan acts as an innovative element.Шаблон:Sfn
Literary Catalan allows the use of words from different dialects, except those of very restricted use.Шаблон:Sfn However, from the 19th century onwards, there has been a tendency towards favoring words of Northern dialects to the detriment of others, Шаблон:Clarify spanШаблон:Sfn
Latin and Greek loanwords
Like other languages, Catalan has a large list of loanwords from Greek and Latin. This process started very early, and one can find such examples in Ramon Llull's work.Шаблон:Sfn In the 14th and 15th centuries Catalan had a far greater number of Greco-Latin loanwords than other Romance languages, as is attested for example in Roís de Corella's writings.Шаблон:Sfn The incorporation of learned, or "bookish" words from its own ancestor language, Latin, into Catalan is arguably another form of lexical borrowing through the influence of written language and the liturgical language of the Church. Throughout the Middle Ages and into the early modern period, most literate Catalan speakers were also literate in Latin; and thus they easily adopted Latin words into their writing—and eventually speech—in Catalan.
Word formation
The process of morphological derivation in Catalan follows the same principles as the other Romance languages,Шаблон:Sfn where agglutination is common. Many times, several affixes are appended to a preexisting lexeme, and some sound alternations can occur, for example Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ("electrical") vs. Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA. Prefixes are usually appended to verbs, as in Шаблон:Lang ("foresee").Шаблон:Sfn
There is greater regularity in the process of word-compounding, where one can find compounded words formed much like those in English.Шаблон:Sfn
| Type | Example | Gloss |
|---|---|---|
| two nouns, the second assimilated to the first | Шаблон:Lang | "banknote paper" |
| noun delimited by an adjective | Шаблон:Lang | "military staff" |
| noun delimited by another noun and a preposition | Шаблон:Lang | "typewriter" |
| verb radical with a nominal object | Шаблон:Lang | "parachute" |
| noun delimited by an adjective, with adjectival value | Шаблон:Lang | "robin" (bird) |
Writing system
Catalan uses the Latin script, with some added symbols and digraphs.Шаблон:Sfn The Catalan orthography is systematic and largely phonologically based.Шаблон:Sfn Standardization of Catalan was among the topics discussed during the First International Congress of the Catalan Language, held in Barcelona October 1906. Subsequently, the Philological Section of the Institut d'Estudis Catalans (IEC, founded in 1911) published the Normes ortogràfiques in 1913 under the direction of Antoni Maria Alcover and Pompeu Fabra. In 1932, Valencian writers and intellectuals gathered in Castelló de la Plana to make a formal adoption of the so-called Normes de Castelló, a set of guidelines following Pompeu Fabra's Catalan language norms.[75]
Grammar
The grammar of Catalan is similar to other Romance languages. Features include:Шаблон:Sfn
- Use of definite and indefinite articles.Шаблон:Sfn
- Nouns, adjectives, pronouns, and articles are inflected for gender (masculine and feminine), and number (singular and plural). There is no case inflexion, except in pronouns.Шаблон:Sfn
- Verbs are highly inflected for person, number, tense, aspect, and mood (including a subjunctive).Шаблон:Sfn
- There are no modal auxiliaries.Шаблон:Sfn
- Word order is freer than in English.Шаблон:Sfn
Gender and number inflection
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In gender inflection, the most notable feature is (compared to Portuguese, Spanish or Italian), the loss of the typical masculine suffix Шаблон:Lang. Thus, the alternance of Шаблон:Lang/Шаблон:Lang, has been replaced by ø/Шаблон:Lang.Шаблон:Sfn There are only a few exceptions, like Шаблон:Lang/Шаблон:Lang ("scarce").Шаблон:Sfn Many not completely predictable morphological alternations may occur, such as:Шаблон:Sfn
- Affrication: Шаблон:Lang/Шаблон:Lang ("insane") vs. Шаблон:Lang/Шаблон:Lang ("ugly")
- Loss of Шаблон:Lang: Шаблон:Lang/Шаблон:Lang ("flat") vs. Шаблон:Lang/Шаблон:Lang ("second")
- Final obstruent devoicing: Шаблон:Lang/Шаблон:Lang ("felt") vs. Шаблон:Lang/Шаблон:Lang ("said")
Catalan has few suppletive couplets, like Italian and Spanish, and unlike French. Thus, Catalan has Шаблон:Lang/Шаблон:Lang ("boy"/"girl") and Шаблон:Lang/Шаблон:Lang ("cock"/"hen"), whereas French has Шаблон:Lang/Шаблон:Lang and Шаблон:Lang/Шаблон:Lang.Шаблон:Sfn
There is a tendency to abandon traditionally gender-invariable adjectives in favor of marked ones, something prevalent in Occitan and French. Thus, one can find Шаблон:Lang/Шаблон:Lang ("boiling") in contrast with traditional Шаблон:Lang/Шаблон:Lang.Шаблон:Sfn
As in the other Western Romance languages, the main plural expression is the suffix Шаблон:Lang, which may create morphological alternations similar to the ones found in gender inflection, albeit more rarely.Шаблон:Sfn The most important one is the addition of Шаблон:Lang before certain consonant groups, a phonetic phenomenon that does not affect feminine forms: Шаблон:Lang/Шаблон:Lang ("the pulse"/"the pulses") vs. Шаблон:Lang/Шаблон:Lang ("the dust"/"the dusts").Шаблон:Sfn
Determiners
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The inflection of determinatives is complex, specially because of the high number of elisions, but is similar to the neighboring languages.Шаблон:Sfn Catalan has more contractions of preposition + article than Spanish, like Шаблон:Lang ("of + the [plural]"), but not as many as Italian (which has Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang, etc.).Шаблон:Sfn
Central Catalan has abandoned almost completely unstressed possessives (Шаблон:Lang, etc.) in favor of constructions of article + stressed forms (Шаблон:Lang, etc.), a feature shared with Italian.Шаблон:Sfn
Personal pronouns
| singular | plural | ||
|---|---|---|---|
| 1st person | Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | |
| 2nd person | informal | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang |
| formal | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | |
| respectful | (Шаблон:Lang)[76] | ||
| 3rd person | masculine | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang |
| feminine | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | |
Шаблон:Main The morphology of Catalan personal pronouns is complex, especially in unstressed forms, which are numerous (13 distinct forms, compared to 11 in Spanish or 9 in Italian).Шаблон:Sfn Features include the gender-neutral Шаблон:Lang and the great degree of freedom when combining different unstressed pronouns (65 combinations).Шаблон:Sfn
Catalan pronouns exhibit T–V distinction, like all other Romance languages (and most European languages, but not Modern English). This feature implies the use of a different set of second person pronouns for formality.
This flexibility allows Catalan to use extraposition extensively, much more than French or Spanish. Thus, Catalan can have Шаблон:Lang ("they recommended me to him"), whereas in French one must say Шаблон:Lang, and Spanish Шаблон:Lang.Шаблон:Sfn This allows the placement of almost any nominal term as a sentence topic, without having to use so often the passive voice (as in French or English), or identifying the direct object with a preposition (as in Spanish).Шаблон:Sfn
Verbs
Like all the Romance languages, Catalan verbal inflection is more complex than the nominal. Suffixation is omnipresent, whereas morphological alternations play a secondary role.Шаблон:Sfn Vowel alternances are active, as well as infixation and suppletion. However, these are not as productive as in Spanish, and are mostly restricted to irregular verbs.Шаблон:Sfn
The Catalan verbal system is basically common to all Western Romance, except that most dialects have replaced the synthetic indicative perfect with a periphrastic form of Шаблон:Lang ("to go") + infinitive.Шаблон:Sfn
Catalan verbs are traditionally divided into three conjugations, with vowel themes Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang, the last two being split into two subtypes. However, this division is mostly theoretical.Шаблон:Sfn Only the first conjugation is nowadays productive (with about 3500 common verbs), whereas the third (the subtype of Шаблон:Lang, with about 700 common verbs) is semiproductive. The verbs of the second conjugation are fewer than 100, and it is not possible to create new ones, except by compounding.Шаблон:Sfn
Syntax
Шаблон:Main The grammar of Catalan follows the general pattern of Western Romance languages. The primary word order is subject–verb–object.[77] However, word order is very flexible. Commonly, verb-subject constructions are used to achieve a semantic effect. The sentence "The train has arrived" could be translated as Шаблон:Lang or Шаблон:Lang. Both sentences mean "the train has arrived", but the former puts a focus on the train, while the latter puts a focus on the arrival. This subtle distinction is described as "what you might say while waiting in the station" versus "what you might say on the train."Шаблон:Sfn
Catalan names
In Spain, every person officially has two surnames, one of which is the father's first surname and the other is the mother's first surname.Шаблон:Sfn The law contemplates the possibility of joining both surnames with the Catalan conjunction i ("and").Шаблон:Sfn[78]
Sample text
Selected textШаблон:Sfn from Manuel de Pedrolo's 1970 novel Шаблон:Lang ("A love affair outside the city").
| Original | Word-for-word translationШаблон:Sfn | Free translation |
|---|---|---|
| Шаблон:Lang | I was having close to eighteen years, when I go Шаблон:IPA know (=I met) | I was about eighteen years old when I met |
| Шаблон:Lang | the Raül, at the station of (=in) Manresa. | Raül, at Manresa railway station. |
| Шаблон:Lang | The my father had died, unexpectedly and still young, | My father had died, unexpectedly and still young, |
| Шаблон:Lang | a couple of years before, and of those times | a couple of years before; and from that time |
| Шаблон:Lang | I keep a memory of acute loneliness | I still harbor memories of great loneliness. |
| Шаблон:Lang | The my relations with the mother | My relationship with my mother |
| Шаблон:Lang | not had at all improved, all the contrary, | had not improved; quite the contrary, |
| Шаблон:Lang | perhaps even they were worsening | and arguably it was getting even worse |
| Шаблон:Lang | at step that (=in proportion as) myself I was making big (=I was growing up). | as I grew up. |
| Шаблон:Lang | Not it was existing, not it existed never between us, | There did not exist, at no point had there ever existed between us |
| Шаблон:Lang | a community of interests, of affections. | shared interests or affection. |
| Шаблон:Lang | It is necessary to believe that I was seeking... a person | I guess I was seeking... a person |
| Шаблон:Lang | in whom to center the my life affective. | in whom I could center my emotional life. |
See also
- Organizations
- Institut d'Estudis Catalans (Catalan Studies Institute)
- Acadèmia Valenciana de la Llengua (Valencian Academy of the Language)
- Òmnium Cultural
- Plataforma per la Llengua
- Scholars
- Other
- Languages of Catalonia
- Languages of France
- Languages of Italy
- Languages of Spain
- Normes de Castelló
- Pompeu Fabra
Notes
Шаблон:Reflist Шаблон:Notelist
References
Works cited
- Шаблон:Citation
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite journal
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite journal
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite journal
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite journal
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite journal
- Шаблон:Cite journal
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite journal
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite book
External links
Шаблон:Sister project links Шаблон:External links
Institutions
- Consorci per a la Normalització Lingüística
- Institut d'Estudis Catalans
- Acadèmia Valenciana de la Llengua
About the Catalan language
- llengua.gencat.cat, by the Government of Catalonia
- Gramàtica de la Llengua Catalana (Catalan grammar), from the Institute for Catalan Studies
- Gramàtica Normativa Valenciana (2006, Valencian grammar) Шаблон:Webarchive, from the Acadèmia Valenciana de la Llengua
- verbs.cat (Catalan verb conjugations with online trainers)
- Catalan and its dialects
- LEXDIALGRAM – online portal of 19th-century dialectal lexicographical and grammatical works of Catalan hosted by the University of Barcelona
Monolingual dictionaries
- DIEC2, from the Institut d'Estudis Catalans
- Gran Diccionari de la Llengua Catalana Шаблон:Webarchive, from Enciclopèdia Catalana
- Diccionari Català-Valencià-Balear d'Alcover i Moll Шаблон:Webarchive, from the Institut d'Estudis Catalans
- Diccionari Normatiu Valencià (AVL), from the Acadèmia Valenciana de la Llengua
- diccionarivalencia.com (online Valencian dictionary)
- Diccionari Invers de la Llengua Catalana (dictionary of Catalan words spelled backwards)
Bilingual and multilingual dictionaries
- Diccionari de la Llengua Catalana Multilingüe (Catalan ↔ English, French, German and Spanish), from Enciclopèdia Catalana
- DACCO – open source, collaborative dictionary (Catalan–English)
Automated translation systems
- Traductor automated, online translations of text and web pages (Catalan ↔ English, French and Spanish), from gencat.cat by the Government of Catalonia
Phrasebooks
Learning resources
- Catalan Swadesh list of basic vocabulary words, from Wiktionary's Swadesh-list appendix
Catalan-language online encyclopedia
Шаблон:Navboxes Шаблон:Navboxes
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ 2,0 2,1 Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite newsШаблон:Cbignore
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ 6,0 6,1 6,2 Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Trobes en llaors de la Verge Maria ("Poems of praise of the Virgin Mary") 1474.
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Antoni Simon, Els orígens històrics de l'anticatalanisme, páginas 45-46, L'Espill, nº 24, Universitat de València
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ 15,0 15,1 Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite news
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite journal
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite journal
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite news
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite news
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite bookШаблон:Dead link
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ 43,0 43,1 43,2 43,3 Ошибка цитирования Неверный тег
<ref>; для сносокe25не указан текст - ↑ 44,0 44,1 Portuguese and Spanish have Шаблон:Lang and Шаблон:Lang, respectively, for drought, dry season or low water levels.
- ↑ 45,0 45,1 Portuguese and Spanish have Шаблон:Lang and Шаблон:Lang, respectively, for eve, or the day before.
- ↑ Spanish also has Шаблон:Lang, and it is actually a borrowing from Catalan Шаблон:Lang. Colón 1993, p 39. Portuguese has Шаблон:Lang, but aside from also being a loanword, it has a very different meaning: "thing", "gadget", "tool", "paraphernalia".
- ↑ Modern Spanish also has Шаблон:Lang, but it is a modern borrowing from Occitan. The original word was Шаблон:Lang, which stands for "reddish, yellow-orange, medium-dark and of moderate to weak saturation. It also can mean ochre, pale ochre, dark ohre, brownish, tan, greyish, grey, desaturated, dirty, dark, or opaque." Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ A 20th century introduction from French.
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Citation
- ↑ Población según lengua habitual. Datos comparados 2003–2008. Cataluña. Año 2008, Encuesta de Usos Lingüísticos de la población (2003 y 2008), Instituto de Estadística de Cataluña
- ↑ Шаблон:Citation
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite news
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ 56,0 56,1 Sources:
- Catalonia: Statistic data of 2001 census, from Шаблон:Lang [1].
- Land of Valencia: Statistical data from 2001 census, from Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Cite web.
- Land of Valencia: Statistical data from 2001 census, from Шаблон:Lang [2] Шаблон:Webarchive.
- Balearic Islands: Statistical data from 2001 census, from Шаблон:Lang [3] Шаблон:Webarchive.
- Northern Catalonia: Шаблон:Lang Survey commissioned by Prefecture of Languedoc-Roussillon Region done in October 1997 and published in January 1998 Шаблон:Cite web.
- Andorra: Sociolinguistic data from Andorran Government, 1999.
- Aragon: Sociolinguistic data from Euromosaic [4].
- Alguer: Sociolinguistic data from Euromosaic [5].
- Rest of World: Estimate for 1999 by the Шаблон:Lang outside the Catalan Countries.
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite news
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Red Cruscat del Instituto de Estudios Catalanes
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Wheeler 2005 takes the same approach
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Harvnb. Here Recasens labels these Catalan sounds as "laminoalveolars palatalitzades".
- ↑ Шаблон:Harvnb. Here the authors label these Catalan sounds as "laminal postalveolar".
- ↑ See Шаблон:Cite book for more information.
- ↑ Шаблон:Citation
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Law No. 482 of 15 December 1999. "Rules on the protection of historical linguistic minorities". Article 2. Gazzetta Ufficiale n. 297. 20 December 1999
- ↑ Decreto 89/2011, de 5 de abril, del Gobierno de Aragón, por el que se aprueban los Estatutos de la Academia Aragonesa del Catalán. BOA núm. 77, de 18 de abril de 2011
- ↑ Ley 10/2009, de 22 de diciembre, de uso, protección y promoción de las lenguas propias de Aragón BOE núm. 30, de 4 de febrero de 2010.
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Archaic in most dialects.
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ article 19.1 of Law 1/1998 stipulates that "the citizens of Catalonia have the right to use the proper regulation of their Catalan names and surnames and to introduce the conjunction between surnames"
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- Английская Википедия
- Страницы с неработающими файловыми ссылками
- Catalan language
- Subject–verb–object languages
- Stress-timed languages
- Страницы, где используется шаблон "Навигационная таблица/Телепорт"
- Страницы с телепортом
- Википедия
- Статья из Википедии
- Статья из Английской Википедии
- Страницы с ошибками в примечаниях
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