Английская Википедия:Chinese salvationist religions
Шаблон:Short description Шаблон:Chinese salvationism Chinese salvationist religions or Chinese folk religious sects are a Chinese religious tradition characterised by a concern for salvation (moral fulfillment) of the person and the society.[1] They are distinguished by egalitarianism, a founding charismatic person often informed by a divine revelation, a specific theology written in holy texts, a millenarian eschatology and a voluntary path of salvation, an embodied experience of the numinous through healing and self-cultivation, and an expansive orientation through evangelism and philanthropy.[2]
Some scholars consider these religions a single phenomenon, and others consider them the fourth great Chinese religious category alongside the well-established Confucianism, Buddhism and Taoism.Шаблон:Sfnb Generally these religions focus on the worship of the universal God (Shangdi), represented as either male, female, or genderless, and regard their holy patriarchs as embodiments of God.
Terminology and definition
Шаблон:Multiple image "Chinese salvationist religions" (Шаблон:Lang jiùdù zōngjiào) is a contemporary neologism coined as a sociological category[3] and gives prominence to folk religious sects' central pursuit that is the salvation of the individual and the society, in other words the moral fulfillment of individuals in reconstructed communities of sense.[1] Chinese scholars traditionally describe them as "folk religious sects" (Шаблон:Lang mínjiān zōngjiào, Шаблон:Lang mínjiān jiàomén or Шаблон:Lang mínjiān jiàopài) or "folk beliefs" (Шаблон:Lang mínjiān xìnyǎng).[4][5]
They are distinct from the Chinese folk religion consisting in the worship of gods and ancestors,[6] although in English language there is a terminological confusion between the two. The 20th-century expression for these salvationist religious movements has been "redemptive societies" (Шаблон:Lang jiùshì tuántǐ), coined by scholar Prasenjit Duara.[7]
A collective name that has been in use possibly since the latter part of the Qing dynasty is huìdàomén (Шаблон:Lang "churches, ways and gates"), as their names interchangeably use the terms huì (Шаблон:Lang "church, society, association, congregation"; when referring to their corporate form), dào (Шаблон:Lang "way") or mén (Шаблон:Lang "gate[way], door").
Their congregations and points of worship are usually called táng (Шаблон:Lang "church, hall") or tán (Шаблон:Lang "altar"). Western scholars often mistakenly identify them as "Protestant" churches.Шаблон:Sfnb
The Vietnamese religions of Minh Đạo and Caodaism emerged from the same tradition of Chinese folk religious movements.[8]
Secret religions
A category overlapping with that of the salvationist movements is that of the "secret societies" (Шаблон:Lang mìmì shèhuì, or Шаблон:Lang mìmì jiéshè),[9] religious communities of initiatory and secretive character, including rural militias and fraternal organisations which became very popular in the early republican period, and often labeled as "heretical doctrines" (Шаблон:Lang zōngjiào yìduān).[10]
Recent scholarship has begun to use the label "secret sects" (Шаблон:Lang mìmì jiàomén) to distinguish the peasant "secret societies" with a positive dimension of the Yuan, Ming and Qing periods, from the negatively viewed "secret societies" of the early republic that became instruments of anti-revolutionary forces (the Guomindang or Japan).[10]
Origin and history
Many of these religions are traced to the White Lotus tradition[11] ("Chinese Maternism", as mentioned by Philip Clart[12]) that was already active in the Song dynasty;Шаблон:Sfnb others claim a Taoist legacy and are based on the recovery of ancient scriptures attributed to important immortals such as Lü Dongbin and Zhang Sanfeng, and have contributed to the popularisation of neidan;[13] other ones are distinctively Confucian and advocate the realisation of a "great commonwealth" (datong Шаблон:Lang) on a world scale, as dreamt of in the Book of Rites.[14] Some scholars even find influences from Manichaeism, Mohism and shamanic traditions.[15][16]
In the Ming and Qing dynasties many folk religious movements were outlawed by the imperial authorities as "evil religions" (Шаблон:Lang xiéjiào).[17] With the collapse of the Qing state in 1911 the sects enjoyed an unprecedented period of freedom and thrived, and many of them were officially recognised as religious groups by the early republican government.[18]
The founding of the People's Republic in 1949 saw them suppressed once again,[19] although since the 1990s and 2000s the climate was relaxed and some of them have received some form of official recognition.[20] In Taiwan all the still existing restrictions were rescinded in the 1980s.
Folk religious movements began to rapidly revive in mainland China in the 1980s, and now if conceptualised as a single group they are said to have the same number of followers of the five state-sanctioned religions of China taken together.[21] Scholars and government officials have been discussing to systematise and unify this large base of religious organisations; in 2004 the State Administration of Religious Affairs created a department for the management of folk religions.[21] In the late 2015 a step was made at least for those of them with a Confucian identity, with the foundation of the Holy Confucian Church of China which aims to unite in a single body all Confucian religious groups.
Many of the movements of salvation of the 20th and 21st century aspire to become the repository of the entirety of the Chinese tradition in the face of Western modernism and materialism,[22] advocating an "Eastern solution to the problems of the modern world",[23] or even interacting with the modern discourse of an Asian-centered universal civilisation.[23]
Geography and diffusion
The Chinese folk religious movements of salvation are mostly concentrated in northern and northeastern China, although with a significant influence reaching the Yangtze River Delta since the 16th century.[24] The northern provinces have been a fertile ground for the movements of salvation for a number of reasons: firstly, popular religious movements were active in the region already in the Han dynasty, and they deeply penetrated local society; secondly, northern provinces are characterised by social mobility around the capital and weak traditional social structure, thus folk religious movements of salvation fulfill the demand of individual searching for new forms of community and social network.[24]
According to the Chinese General Social Survey of 2012, approximately 2.2% of the population of China, which is around 30 million people, claim to be members of folk religious sects.[25] The actual number of followers may be higher, about the same as the number of members of the five state-sanctioned religions of China if counted together.[21] In Taiwan, recognised folk religious movements of salvation gather approximately 10% of the population as of the mid-2000s.
Chronological record of major sects
Earliest influences (Yuan, 1277–1377)
- White Lotus (Шаблон:Lang Báiliánjiào)
- Maitreya teachings (Шаблон:Lang Mílèjiào)[26]
Ming (1367–1644) and Qing (1644–1911)
- Baguadao (Шаблон:Lang "Way of the Eight Trigrams") networks
- Denghua (Шаблон:Lang "Flower of Light") sect[11]
- Hongyang (Шаблон:Lang "Great Sun") or Hunyuan (Шаблон:Lang "Original Undetermined") sect[27]
- Huangtiandao (Шаблон:Lang "Way of the Yellow Sky") or Xuangu (Шаблон:Lang "Dark Drum") sect[28]
- Luo teaching (Шаблон:Lang Luójiào, "Luo (Menghong)'s tradition"[29]): Patriarch Luo was reportedly polemical towards the Bailian, Maitreyan, and Huangtian sects[28]
- Dacheng (Шаблон:Lang "Great Vehicle") or Yuandun (Шаблон:Lang "Sudden Stillness") sect,[11] the eastern branch of Luoism
- Sects requiring fasting (Шаблон:Lang zhāijiāo), including Xiantiandao dubbed the Qinglian (Шаблон:Lang "Black [Blue, or Green] Lotus") sect during the Qing[30]Шаблон:Sfnb
- Mohou Yizhu (Шаблон:Lang "Final Salvation") sect[11] founded by Wang Jueyi in the 1870s, renamed Yiguandao in 1905
- Sects requiring fasting (Шаблон:Lang zhāijiāo), including Xiantiandao dubbed the Qinglian (Шаблон:Lang "Black [Blue, or Green] Lotus") sect during the Qing[30]Шаблон:Sfnb
- Dacheng teaching of Mount Jizu (Шаблон:Lang Jīzúshān dàchéngjiào), a western branch of Luoism founded by Zhang Baotai in Yunnan
- Dacheng (Шаблон:Lang "Great Vehicle") or Yuandun (Шаблон:Lang "Sudden Stillness") sect,[11] the eastern branch of Luoism
- Church of the Highest Supreme (Шаблон:Lang Tàishànghuì; also known as 太上门 Tàishàngmén, the "Gate of the Highest Supreme")
- This sect has many schools, one of them is Xiao Yao Pai (逍遥派 Xiāoyáo Pài)
- Church of the Heaven and the Earth (Шаблон:Lang Tiāndìhuì) or Tiandimen (Шаблон:Lang "Gate of the Heaven and the Earth")Шаблон:Sfnb
- Sanyi teaching (Шаблон:Lang "Three-One"), founded by Lin Zhao'en on the base of Confucian principles[31]
Mainland Republican Era (1912–49)
- Zaili teaching (Шаблон:Lang Zàilǐjiào, "Abiding Principle")—registered in 1913[32]
- Daode Xueshe (Шаблон:Lang "Community for the Study of the Way and its Virtue")—1916[32]
- Xiantiandao (Шаблон:Lang "Way of the Former Heaven") networks
- Shengdao (Шаблон:Lang "Holy Way"), best known by its incorporate name of Tongshanshe (Шаблон:Lang "Community of the Goodness")—1917[32]
- Guiyidao (Шаблон:Lang, "Way of the Return to the One"), best known by its corporate name of School of the Way of the Return to the One or simply School of the Way (Шаблон:Lang Dàoyuàn)—1921-27[33]Шаблон:Sfnb
- Yiguandao (Шаблон:Lang "Consistent Way")—registered in 1947[34]
- Haizidao (Шаблон:Lang "Way of the Children")—branched out in the 1980s[26]
- Miledadao (Шаблон:Lang "Great Way of Maitreya")—branched out in the 1980s[26]
- Dragon Flower Church of the Heart-bound Heavenly Way (Шаблон:Lang Yīxīn Tiāndào Lónghuá Huì)—1932[34]Шаблон:Sfnb
- Yuanmingdao (Шаблон:Lang "Way of the Bright Circle")
- Yaochidao (Шаблон:Lang "Way of the Jasper Lake")
- Guigendao (Шаблон:Lang "Way of the Return to the Root")Шаблон:Sfnb
- Jiushi (Шаблон:Lang "Life Healing") sect, also known by its corporate name Wushanshe (Шаблон:Lang "Community of the Awakening to the Goodness")—1919[32]
- Universal Church of the Way and its Virtue (Шаблон:Lang Wànguó Dàodéhuì)—1921[32]
- Jiugongdao (Шаблон:Lang, "Way of the Nine Palaces")—1926[34]
- Holy Church of the Heavenly Virtue (Шаблон:Lang Tiāndé shèngjiào)—early form of Tiandiism, recognised in 1930[34]
- Church of Virtue (Шаблон:Lang Déjiàohuì)—started in 1945[8]
- Zhenkongdao (Шаблон:Lang "Way of the True Emptiness")—1948[34]
- Confucian Church (Шаблон:Lang Kǒngjiàohuì)—founded by Kang Youwei[22]
- Xixinshe (Шаблон:Lang "Community of the Pure Heart")—another organisation of Kang Youwei's idea of a Confucian church[22]
- Yellow Sand Society—rural secret society and millenarian sectШаблон:Sfnb
Late 20th century
- Xuanyuandao (Шаблон:Lang "Way of the Mysterious Origin")—founded in 1952[26]
- Confucian Way of the Gods (Шаблон:Lang Rúzōng Shénjiào)—started in 1853, formally established in 1979[26]
- Lord of Universe Church (Шаблон:Lang Tiāndìjiào)—branch of Tiandiism established in 1979[13]
- Qigong (Шаблон:Lang "Cultivation of the Spirit")[26]
- Falungong (Шаблон:Lang "Cultivation of the Wheel of Law")[26]
- Zishen Nation (Шаблон:Lang) — led by the self-proclaimed emperor Li Guangchang, the sect ruled a small area in Zhejiang from 1981 to 1986Шаблон:Sfnp
21st century
- Confucian religious groups in China mainland (Confucian churches)[35]
- Weixinism (Шаблон:Lang Wéixīnjiào, "Only Heart") or "Holy Church of the Heart-Only" (Шаблон:Lang Wéixīn Shèngjiào)
Other sects
- ChangshandaoШаблон:Sfnb
- Church of Maitreya the King of the Universe (Шаблон:Lang Yǔzhòu mílè huáng jiào)
- Dadao Hui (Шаблон:Lang "Church of the Big Sword")Шаблон:Sfnb
- Datong Hui (Шаблон:Lang "Church of the Great Harmony")Шаблон:Sfnb
- Dayiism (Шаблон:Lang Dàyì jiào, "Great Simplicity")
- Dongyue HuiШаблон:Sfnb
- Gengshen HuiШаблон:Sfnb
- Guixiangdao (Шаблон:Lang "Way of the Kneeling to Incense")Шаблон:Sfnb
- Holy Church of the Middle Flower (Шаблон:Lang Zhōnghuá shèngjiào)
- Hongsanism (Шаблон:Lang Hóngsān jiào, "Red Three")Шаблон:Sfnb
- Huangjidao (Шаблон:Lang "Way of the Imperial Pole")Шаблон:Sfnb
- Huangxiandao (Шаблон:Lang "Way of the Yellow Immortal")
- Huazhaidao (Шаблон:Lang "Way of Flowers and Fasting")Шаблон:Sfnb
- Jiugendao (Шаблон:Lang "Way of the Old Source")Шаблон:Sfnb
- Laojundao (Шаблон:Lang "Way of the Venerable Master")Шаблон:Sfnb
- Laorendao (Шаблон:Lang "Way of the Venerable Men")Шаблон:Sfnb
- Mount Li Maternism (Шаблон:Lang Líshān Lǎomǔ jiào)Шаблон:Sfnb
- Puhuamen (Шаблон:Lang "Gate of the Universal Change")Шаблон:Sfnb
- Pujidao (Шаблон:Lang "Way of the Universal Help")Шаблон:Sfnb
- Puduism (Шаблон:Lang Pǔdù jiào, "Universal Judgement"), Pududao (Шаблон:Lang "Way of the Universal Judgment")Шаблон:Sfnb
- QixingismШаблон:Sfnb
- QiugongdaoШаблон:Sfnb
- Renxuehaodao (Шаблон:Lang "Way of Men Learning the Goodness")Шаблон:Sfnb
- Sanfengdao (Шаблон:Lang "Way of the Three Peaks")Шаблон:Sfnb
- Shengxiandao (Шаблон:Lang "Way of the Sages and the Immortals")Шаблон:Sfnb
- Shenmendao (Шаблон:Lang "Way of the Godly Gate")Шаблон:Sfnb
- Sifangdao (Шаблон:Lang "Way of the Four Manifestations")Шаблон:Sfnb
- SuibiandaoШаблон:Sfnb
- Tianguangdao (Шаблон:Lang "Way of the Heavenly Light")Шаблон:Sfnb
- Tianhuadao (Шаблон:Lang "Way of the Heavenly Flower")Шаблон:Sfnb
- Tianmingdao (Шаблон:Lang "Way of the Heavenly Bright")Шаблон:Sfnb
- Tianxianmiaodao (Шаблон:Lang "Way of the Temple of the Heavenly Immortals")
- Wanquandao (Шаблон:Lang "Way of the Endless Whole" or "Surefire Way")Шаблон:Sfnb
- Wugong HuiШаблон:Sfnb
- Xiaodao Hui (Шаблон:Lang "Church of the Small Sword")Шаблон:Sfnb
- Xuanmen Zhenzong (Шаблон:Lang, "True School of the Mysterious Gate")
- Yinjiezhi HuiШаблон:Sfnb
- Yuanshuai HuiШаблон:Sfnb
- Yuxumen (Шаблон:Lang "Gate of the Jade Vacuity")Шаблон:Sfnb
- Zhongfangdao (Шаблон:Lang "Way of the Middle Abode")Шаблон:Sfnb
- Zhongjiao Daoyi HuiШаблон:Sfnb
- Zhongyongdao (Шаблон:Lang "Way of the Golden Mean")Шаблон:Sfnb
- Zhongxiao Tianfu (Шаблон:Lang "Heavenly House of Filial Loyalty")Шаблон:Sfnb
- Zhutian HuiШаблон:Sfnb
- Zishenguo ("Zishen nation")Шаблон:Sfnb
See also
- Ancestor veneration in China
- Chinese Buddhism
- Chinese folk religion
- Chinese folk religion in Southeast Asia
- Chinese Manichaeism
- Chinese religions of fasting
- Confucianism—Confucian church
- Japanese new religions, some of which are related to Chinese sects
- Maitreya teachings
- Northeast China folk religion
- Taoism—Taoist schools
- White Lotus
- In Vietnam
- In Indonesia
- In Philippines
References
Citations
Sources
- Шаблон:Cite journal
- Шаблон:Cite encyclopedia
- Шаблон:Cite book
- List first published in: Шаблон:Cite journal
- Шаблон:Cite journal
- Шаблон:Cite journal
- Ownby, David (2016). “Redemptive Societies in the Twentieth Century.” In Modern Chinese Religion II 1850–2015, edited by Vincent Goossaert, Jan Kiely and John Lagerwey, Leiden: Brill, vol. 2, 685–727.
- Шаблон:Cite journal
- Шаблон:Cite journal
- Шаблон:Cite journal
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite journal
- Шаблон:Cite journal
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite book
Шаблон:- Шаблон:Religion in China Шаблон:Religion topics
- ↑ 1,0 1,1 Шаблон:Harvnb; passim
- ↑ Шаблон:Harvnb
- ↑ Шаблон:Harvnb
- ↑ Шаблон:Harvnb: "Chinese sectarianism, millennialism and heterodoxy, called "popular religious sects" (minjian zongjiao Шаблон:Lang, minjian jiaomen Шаблон:Lang, minjian jiaopai Шаблон:Lang) in the Chinese scholarship, often inextricable from debates on the exact nature of the so-called "White Lotus" tradition."; p. 14: "The local and anthropological focus of these studies, and their undermining of rigid distinctions between "sectarian" groups and other forms of local religiosity, tends to draw them into the category of "popular religion" Шаблон:Lang."
- ↑ Шаблон:Harvnb. Quote: "[...] The problem started when the Taiwanese translator of my paper chose to render "popular religion" literally as minjian zongjiao Шаблон:Lang. The immediate association this term caused in the minds of many Taiwanese and practically all mainland Chinese participants in the conference was of popular sects (minjian jiaopai Шаблон:Lang), rather than the local and communal religious life that was the main focus of my paper."
- ↑ Шаблон:Harvnb
- ↑ Шаблон:Harvnb
- ↑ 8,0 8,1 Шаблон:Harvnb
- ↑ Шаблон:Harvnb
- ↑ 10,0 10,1 Шаблон:Harvnb
- ↑ 11,0 11,1 11,2 11,3 Шаблон:Harvnb
- ↑ Шаблон:Harvnb, passim.
- ↑ 13,0 13,1 Шаблон:Harvnb
- ↑ Шаблон:Harvnb
- ↑ Шаблон:Harvnb
- ↑ Lu, Yunfeng. The Influence of Mo-school on Chinese Popular Sects. Studies in World Religions (Shijie Zongjiao Yanjiu), 27 (2): 123-127.
- ↑ Шаблон:Harvnb
- ↑ Шаблон:Harvnb
- ↑ Шаблон:Harvnb
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite journal pp. 22–23.
- ↑ 21,0 21,1 21,2 Шаблон:Cite journal
- ↑ 22,0 22,1 22,2 Шаблон:Harvnb
- ↑ 23,0 23,1 Шаблон:Harvnb
- ↑ 24,0 24,1 Шаблон:Harvnb
- ↑ China Family Panel Studies 2012. Reported and compared with Chinese General Social Survey (CGSS) 2006, 2008, 2010 and 2011 in Шаблон:Cite journal p. 13.
- ↑ 26,0 26,1 26,2 26,3 26,4 26,5 26,6 26,7 Шаблон:Harvnb
- ↑ Шаблон:Harvnb
- ↑ 28,0 28,1 Шаблон:Harvnb
- ↑ Шаблон:Harvnb
- ↑ Шаблон:Harvnb
- ↑ Шаблон:Harvnb
- ↑ 32,0 32,1 32,2 32,3 32,4 Шаблон:Harvnb
- ↑ Шаблон:Harvnb
- ↑ 34,0 34,1 34,2 34,3 34,4 Шаблон:Harvnb
- ↑ Шаблон:Harvnb
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