Английская Википедия:Chungará Lake

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Шаблон:Short description Шаблон:About Шаблон:Use dmy dates Шаблон:Infobox body of water Chungará is a lake situated in the extreme north of Chile at an elevation of Шаблон:Convert, in the Altiplano of Arica y Parinacota Region in the Lauca National Park. It has a surface area of about Шаблон:Convert and has a maximum depth of about Шаблон:Convert. It receives inflow through the Río Chungara with some minor additional inflows, and loses most of its water to evaporation; seepage into the Laguna Quta Qutani plays a minor role.

The lake formed between 8,000 and 17,000 years ago when the volcano Parinacota collapsed and the debris from the collapse dammed the Lauca River. Since then the lake has progressively grown owing to decreasing seepage. The lake is part of the Lauca National Park; a planned diversion of the lake's waters into the Azapa Valley being abandoned after a decision by the Chilean Supreme Court.

Name

The name Chungará or Chungara is derived from the Aymara language and has several different meanings: Шаблон:Lang, a type of bush or moss plus the suffix Шаблон:Lang that signifies "covered by"; but this meaning appears to have fallen into disuse. A second meaning is Шаблон:Lang "beard" which together with the suffix means "bearded" and refers to a myth of a bearded man that came to the area and destroyed a communityШаблон:Sfn with fire.Шаблон:Sfn

Geography

Chungará Lake is located in the northernmost part of Chile and close to the border with Bolivia.Шаблон:Sfn It lies at an elevation of Шаблон:Convert in the Chilean Altiplano; it is one of the highest lakes in the world[1] and the second highest-largest after Lake Titicaca in the Altiplano.[2] The lake is part of the Lauca National Park,Шаблон:Sfn a nationally and internationally designated protected area,Шаблон:Sfn and a CONAF refuge lies close to the western shores of the lake. There is also a marinaШаблон:Sfn and a pumping plant in the northwestern area of Chungará Lake.[3] Chile Route 11 passes by the southern and western shores of Chungará Lake.Шаблон:Sfn

The lake is about Шаблон:Convert wideШаблон:Sfn and covers an irregular surface of about Шаблон:ConvertШаблон:Sfn-Шаблон:Convert,Шаблон:Sfn with two large embayments in the northeastern and the southern sectors of the lake and a narrower one in its northwestern corner. Its deepest point is Шаблон:ConvertШаблон:Sfn-Шаблон:Convert deepШаблон:Sfn and lies in the northwestern sector of the lake.Шаблон:Sfn The northern and western side of the lake have steep shores, while the southern and eastern ones are much more gentle;Шаблон:Sfn the eastern shore is covered by a large alluvial fanШаблон:Sfn and the southern one by sediments deposited by the Río Chungara tributary.Шаблон:Sfn The lake floor features platforms, flat areas and sloping areas.Шаблон:Sfn Шаблон:Convert northwest from Chungará Lake lies the Lagunas Cotacotani.Шаблон:Sfn

The volcanoes Parinacota (Шаблон:ConvertШаблон:Sfn) of Pliocene to Holocene age and Ajoya (Шаблон:ConvertШаблон:Sfn) of Miocene age lie north and west of the lake, respectively;Шаблон:Sfn the northern shore of the lake is formed by lava flows from Parinacota volcano. While Parinacota is well preserved, Ajoya and Quisiquisini (Шаблон:ConvertШаблон:Sfn) on the eastern shore of the lake are moderately eroded.Шаблон:Sfn Farther south from Chungará Lake lies the Шаблон:Convert high Guallatiri.Шаблон:Sfn Шаблон:Wide image

Hydrology

Файл:ISS069-E-023100 lrg twin volcanoes in the Andes Mountains.jpg
Chungara Lake and Parinacota and Pomerape volcanoes as seen from the ISS. June 2023.

The water temperature reaches its maximum during March with Шаблон:Convert and a minimum in January with Шаблон:Convert according to one study,Шаблон:Sfn while temperatures on the lake floor range between Шаблон:Convert.Шаблон:Sfn Water levels vary by Шаблон:Convert between seasonsШаблон:Sfn and fluctuations of Шаблон:Convert have been recorded.Шаблон:Sfn

The present-day water levels are the highest in the history of the lake and there is no evidence of former lake highstands, Шаблон:Sfn and the depth of the lake has generally increased during the course of its history. There are some long-term fluctuations in water levels, including a deepening episode during the latest Pleistocene and three or four episodes of water level lowstand during the middle and late HoloceneШаблон:Sfn at about 10,500, 9,800, 7,800 and 6,700 calibrated radiocarbon years ago. Since about 5,000 calibrated radiocarbon years ago lake levels have been high.Шаблон:Sfn

The Lake Chungará is part of a Шаблон:Convert[2] large high-elevation watershed in the Altiplano,Шаблон:Sfn bordered on the west by the Lauca River watershed and on the east by the Bolivian frontier;Шаблон:Sfn the watershed is surrounded by snow-covered volcanoes.Шаблон:Sfn The largest tributary of the lake is the Río Chungara with a discharge of about Шаблон:Convert which originates on Guallatiri volcanoШаблон:Sfn and drains the area of the Nevados de Quimsachata (Acotango, Capurata and Umurata);Шаблон:Sfn this river contributes about 4/5 of the water to the lake and enters Chungará Lake on its southeastern cornerШаблон:Sfn through a river delta.Шаблон:Sfn Other tributaries are the Chachapay,Шаблон:Sfn Mal Paso (Шаблон:Convert[4]),Шаблон:Sfn Ajata (Шаблон:Convert[4]) and Sopocalane (Шаблон:Convert only during wet periods[4]) creeks which originate on ChoquelimpieШаблон:Sfn/Ajoya volcano,Шаблон:Sfn which have formed river deltas where they enter the lake; some of the deltas are submerged.Шаблон:Sfn In addition, springs supply water into the lake from its westernШаблон:Sfn and northern shores where volcanoes border the lake.Шаблон:Sfn There are no inflows on the eastern side of Chungará Lake.Шаблон:Sfn

Chungará Lake has no outlet; its waters evaporate at a rate of about Шаблон:Convert and also seep into the groundwater tableШаблон:Sfn at a rate of Шаблон:Convert.Шаблон:Sfn The water chemistry of the Cotacotani Lakes imply that they receive water from Chungará LakeШаблон:Sfn at a rate of about Шаблон:Convert; this constitutes over half of the inflow to the Cotacotani Lakes.Шаблон:Sfn The role of this underground outflow has progressively decreased through the history of the lake as silt has accumulated in the breccia through which the groundwater seeps out.Шаблон:Sfn The Cotacotani Lakes eventually drain into the Lauca River.[4]

The total volume of the lake is about Шаблон:Convert. Chungará Lake is polymictic/well mixedШаблон:Sfn and its waters transparent enough that sunlight can reach most of the lake floor.Шаблон:Sfn The waters of the lake are slightly alkaline and salineШаблон:Sfn and show influence of dolomite rocks.Шаблон:Sfn This lake chemistry is homogeneous throughout the lakeШаблон:Sfn and the lake waters are subject to strong currents at the surface.Шаблон:Sfn

Geology

The lake was formed by volcanic-tectonic phenomena;Шаблон:Sfn specifically, a major collapse of the Parinacota volcano dammed a former Rio Lauca, forming Chungará Lake, at some time between 8,000 and 15,000 - 17,000 years ago.Шаблон:Sfn This collapse involved about Шаблон:Convert and covered about Шаблон:Convert with debris;Шаблон:Sfn before the collapse took place the lake floor of Chungará Lake consisted of alluvial and river sediments left by the Rio LaucaШаблон:Sfn which drained the area. Upon damming, water from the river accumulated and formed Chungará Lake.Шаблон:Sfn The exact time of the collapse is controversial. Faulting also played a minor role in the formation of the lake basin,Шаблон:Sfn with a southwest-northeast trending fault disrupting sediments in the northwestern sector of the lake.Шаблон:Sfn Since the birth of Chungará Lake, about Шаблон:Convert of sediment have accumulated on its floor.Шаблон:Sfn

Volcanism in the area has been ongoing since the PaleozoicШаблон:Sfn and has continued until recent times, which has influenced Chungará Lake.Шаблон:Sfn A number of volcanoes such as Parinacota, Ajoya and Quisiquisini grew on a Miocene ignimbrite basement that crops out east of the lake;Шаблон:Sfn of these only Parinacota has been active in the Holocene, depositing tephra within the lake.Шаблон:Sfn

Climate

Temperatures at the lake average Шаблон:Convert,Шаблон:Sfn fluctuating between Шаблон:Convert at day and Шаблон:Convert at night.[2] The climate of Chungará Lake is aridШаблон:Sfn and annual precipitation on Chungará Lake amounts to about Шаблон:Convert, considerably smaller than the evaporation rate.Шаблон:Sfn This precipitation occurs during summer when moisture is transported into the region from the AmazonШаблон:Sfn and the Atlantic Ocean; this is known as the "Bolivian Winter".Шаблон:Sfn Annual precipitation varies under the influence of the "ENSO" phenomenon. In addition, the area is characterized by a high solar insolation.[5]

Human use

The area of the lake is inhabited by Aymara people who engage in animal husbandry, using alpacas, cattle, llamas and sheep and live on farms and pastoral refuges.Шаблон:Sfn

Environmental issues

In the 1970s water was pumped from Chungará Lake to the Azapa Valley to allow for irrigation, but quickly ceased when water levels dropped and the flora and fauna of the lake were damaged.Шаблон:Sfn For this purpose, the Canal Chungará was built by the Chilean Ministry of Public Works to transfer water into the Laguna Cotacotani which is the headwater of the Lauca-Azapa system.Шаблон:Sfn

This project was opposed by environmentalists.Шаблон:Sfn On 19 December 1985 the lake was the subject of a major legal case when the Chilean Supreme Court ruled that international obligations such as the CITES need to be considered by the Chilean government[6] and prohibited the use of the waters of Chungará Lake;Шаблон:Sfn the ruling by disallowing the use of the waters of Chungará Lake forced the Arica y Parinacota Region to seek other sources of water for the growing economy.Шаблон:Sfn

Accumulation of rubbish in the area of Chungará Lake has become a major issue, as a lot of waste is discarded by for example drivers on the Chungara–Tambo Quemado road between Chile and Bolivia. The Chilean government has thus organized cleanup operations to remove some of the waste.[7]

Biology

The lake hosts a diverse plant and animal community.Шаблон:Sfn The landscape around the lake includes wetlands known as bofedales; otherwise the vegetation in the region of the lake consists mainly of Polylepis dwarf trees, shrubs and tussock grasses.Шаблон:Sfn

The shoreline vegetation draws birds in such as Andean gull, Chilean flamingo, crested duck, giant coot and Puna plover.[7]Шаблон:Sfn

Aided by the highly transparent waters,Шаблон:Sfn large amounts of aquatic plants live in Chungará LakeШаблон:Sfn and are particularly noticeable on the southern shores, where Myriophyllum elatinoides and Potamogeton filifolius occur. The shores are inhabited by amphibians such as Rhinella, Pleurodema and Telmatobius, and by molluscs and turbellaria such as Ancylus, Pisidium and Taphius.Шаблон:Sfn

The phytoplankton of the lake is dominated by diatoms in winter and by chlorophyceae in summer.Шаблон:Sfn Algae include both the large Cladophora and Nostoc genera and the small Botryococcus braunii, Cocconeis placentula, Cyclotella andina and Nephroclamys subsolitaria; the second and the third are diatoms. Copepods such as calanoids and cladocera make up the zooplankton.Шаблон:Sfn Microbial colonies occur on the shores of Chungará Lake.Шаблон:Sfn

Fish

The most important and only native fish in Chungará Lake are two endemics; the pupfish Orestias chungarensis and catfish Trichomycterus chungaraensis.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn

Orestias chungarensis of Chungará Lake is most closely related to other Orestias species in the Lauca National Park but also those found in Salar de Ascotan and Salar de Carcote. This reflects that these waterbodies and the Lauca River were once joined by the former Lake Tauca.Шаблон:Sfn In Chungará Lake these fish occur at elevations of over Шаблон:Convert; Orestias is among the fish with the highest occurrences in the world.[8] They are further considered to be threatened species by the International Union for Conservation of Nature and the Chilean National Museum of Natural History.[9]

The rainbow trout also lives in the lake and is considered an invasive species there as it feeds on the threatened Orestias fish; the Chilean government has thus envisaged to take measures to eradicate the fish from the lake.[9]

See also

References

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Sources

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External links

Шаблон:Arica y Parinacota Region rivers and lakes

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  1. ↑ Ошибка цитирования Неверный тег <ref>; для сносок SdEA2018 не указан текст
  2. ↑ 2,0 2,1 2,2 Ошибка цитирования Неверный тег <ref>; для сносок UrrutiaYevenes2002 не указан текст
  3. ↑ Ошибка цитирования Неверный тег <ref>; для сносок Dorador2003 не указан текст
  4. ↑ 4,0 4,1 4,2 4,3 Ошибка цитирования Неверный тег <ref>; для сносок Niemeyer2018 не указан текст
  5. ↑ Ошибка цитирования Неверный тег <ref>; для сносок Pozo2014 не указан текст
  6. ↑ Ошибка цитирования Неверный тег <ref>; для сносок UrrutiaSilva2013 не указан текст
  7. ↑ 7,0 7,1 Ошибка цитирования Неверный тег <ref>; для сносок DGI2016 не указан текст
  8. ↑ Ошибка цитирования Неверный тег <ref>; для сносок MNHN2017 не указан текст
  9. ↑ 9,0 9,1 Ошибка цитирования Неверный тег <ref>; для сносок Subpesca2015 не указан текст
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