Английская Википедия:Consonant

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Шаблон:Short description Шаблон:About Шаблон:More footnotes needed Шаблон:IPA notice

In articulatory phonetics, a consonant is a speech sound that is articulated with complete or partial closure of the vocal tract, except for the h, which is pronounced without any stricture in the vocal tract. Examples are Шаблон:IPA and [b], pronounced with the lips; Шаблон:IPA and [d], pronounced with the front of the tongue; Шаблон:IPA and [g], pronounced with the back of the tongue; Шаблон:IPA, pronounced throughout the vocal tract; Шаблон:IPA, [v], and Шаблон:IPA, pronounced by forcing air through a narrow channel (fricatives); and Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA, which have air flowing through the nose (nasals). Contrasting with consonants are vowels.

Since the number of speech sounds in the world's languages is much greater than the number of letters in any one alphabet, linguists have devised systems such as the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) to assign a unique and unambiguous symbol to each attested consonant. The English alphabet has fewer consonant letters than the English language has consonant sounds, so digraphs like Шаблон:Angbr, Шаблон:Angle bracket, Шаблон:Angle bracket, and Шаблон:Angle bracket are used to extend the alphabet, though some letters and digraphs represent more than one consonant. For example, the sound spelled Шаблон:Angle bracket in "this" is a different consonant from the Шаблон:Angle bracket sound in "thin". (In the IPA, these are Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA, respectively.)

Etymology

The word consonant comes from Latin oblique stem Шаблон:Lang, from Шаблон:Lang 'sounding-together', a calque of Greek Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang (plural Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang).[1][2]

Dionysius Thrax calls consonants Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Lang 'sounded with') because in Greek they can only be pronounced with a vowel.Шаблон:Efn He divides them into two subcategories: Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Lang 'half-sounded'),[3] which are the continuants,Шаблон:Efn and Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Lang 'unsounded'),[4] which correspond to plosives.Шаблон:Efn

This description does not apply to some languages, such as the Salishan languages, in which plosives may occur without vowels (see Nuxalk), and the modern concept of "consonant" does not require co-occurrence with a vowel.

Consonant sounds and consonant letters

Шаблон:Unreferenced section The word consonant may be used ambiguously for both speech sounds and the letters of the alphabet used to write them. In English, these letters are B, C, D, F, G, J, K, L, M, N, P, Q, S, T, V, X, Z and often H, R, W, Y.

In English orthography, the letters H, R, W, Y and the digraph GH are used for both consonants and vowels. For instance, the letter Y stands for the consonant/semi-vowel Шаблон:IPA in yoke, the vowel Шаблон:IPA in myth, the vowel Шаблон:IPA in funny, the diphthong Шаблон:IPA in sky, and forms several digraphs for other diphthongs, such as say, boy, key. Similarly, R commonly indicates or modifies a vowel in non-rhotic accents.

This article is concerned with consonant sounds, however they are written.

Consonants versus vowels

Шаблон:More citations needed section Consonants and vowels correspond to distinct parts of a syllable: The most sonorous part of the syllable (that is, the part that is easiest to sing), called the syllabic peak or nucleus, is typically a vowel, while the less sonorous margins (called the onset and coda) are typically consonants. Such syllables may be abbreviated CV, V, and CVC, where C stands for consonant and V stands for vowel. This can be argued to be the only pattern found in most of the world's languages, and perhaps the primary pattern in all of them. However, the distinction between consonant and vowel is not always clear cut: there are syllabic consonants and non-syllabic vowels in many of the world's languages.

One blurry area is in segments variously called semivowels, semiconsonants, or glides. On one side, there are vowel-like segments that are not in themselves syllabic, but form diphthongs as part of the syllable nucleus, as the i in English boil Шаблон:IPA. On the other, there are approximants that behave like consonants in forming onsets, but are articulated very much like vowels, as the y in English yes Шаблон:IPA. Some phonologists model these as both being the underlying vowel Шаблон:IPA, so that the English word bit would phonemically be Шаблон:IPA, beet would be Шаблон:IPA, and yield would be phonemically Шаблон:IPA. Likewise, foot would be Шаблон:IPA, food would be Шаблон:IPA, wood would be Шаблон:IPA, and wooed would be Шаблон:IPA. However, there is a (perhaps allophonic) difference in articulation between these segments, with the Шаблон:IPA in Шаблон:IPA yes and Шаблон:IPA yield and the Шаблон:IPA of Шаблон:IPA wooed having more constriction and a more definite place of articulation than the Шаблон:IPA in Шаблон:IPA boil or Шаблон:IPA bit or the Шаблон:IPA of Шаблон:IPA foot.

The other problematic area is that of syllabic consonants, segments articulated as consonants but occupying the nucleus of a syllable. This may be the case for words such as church in rhotic dialects of English, although phoneticians differ in whether they consider this to be a syllabic consonant, Шаблон:IPA, or a rhotic vowel, Шаблон:IPA: Some distinguish an approximant Шаблон:IPA that corresponds to a vowel Шаблон:IPA, for rural as Шаблон:IPA or Шаблон:IPA; others see these as a single phoneme, Шаблон:IPA.

Other languages use fricative and often trilled segments as syllabic nuclei, as in Czech and several languages in Democratic Republic of the Congo, and China, including Mandarin Chinese. In Mandarin, they are historically allophones of Шаблон:IPA, and spelled that way in Pinyin. Ladefoged and Maddieson[5]Шаблон:Page needed call these "fricative vowels" and say that "they can usually be thought of as syllabic fricatives that are allophones of vowels". That is, phonetically they are consonants, but phonemically they behave as vowels.

Many Slavic languages allow the trill Шаблон:IPA and the lateral Шаблон:IPA as syllabic nuclei (see Words without vowels). In languages like Nuxalk, it is difficult to know what the nucleus of a syllable is, or if all syllables even have nuclei. If the concept of 'syllable' applies in Nuxalk, there are syllabic consonants in words like Шаблон:IPA (Шаблон:IPA?) 'seal fat'. Miyako in Japan is similar, with Шаблон:IPA 'to build' and Шаблон:IPA 'to pull'.

Each spoken consonant can be distinguished by several phonetic features:

  • The manner of articulation is how air escapes from the vocal tract when the consonant or approximant (vowel-like) sound is made. Manners include stops, fricatives, and nasals.
  • The place of articulation is where in the vocal tract the obstruction of the consonant occurs, and which speech organs are involved. Places include bilabial (both lips), alveolar (tongue against the gum ridge), and velar (tongue against soft palate). In addition, there may be a simultaneous narrowing at another place of articulation, such as palatalisation or pharyngealisation. Consonants with two simultaneous places of articulation are said to be coarticulated.
  • The phonation of a consonant is how the vocal cords vibrate during the articulation. When the vocal cords vibrate fully, the consonant is called voiced; when they do not vibrate at all, it is voiceless.
  • The length is how long the obstruction of a consonant lasts. This feature is borderline distinctive in English, as in "wholly" Шаблон:IPA vs. "holy" Шаблон:IPA, but cases are limited to morpheme boundaries. Unrelated roots are differentiated in various languages such as Italian, Japanese, and Finnish, with two length levels, "single" and "geminate". Estonian and some Sami languages have three phonemic lengths: short, geminate, and long geminate, although the distinction between the geminate and overlong geminate includes suprasegmental features.
  • The articulatory force is how much muscular energy is involved. This has been proposed many times, but no distinction relying exclusively on force has ever been demonstrated.

All English consonants can be classified by a combination of these features, such as "voiceless alveolar stop" Шаблон:IPA. In this case, the airstream mechanism is omitted.

Some pairs of consonants like p::b, t::d are sometimes called fortis and lenis, but this is a phonological rather than phonetic distinction.

Consonants are scheduled by their features in a number of IPA charts: Шаблон:IPA pulmonic consonants Шаблон:IPA non-pulmonic consonants Шаблон:IPA co-articulated consonants

Examples

The recently extinct Ubykh language had only 2 or 3 vowels but 84 consonants;[6] the Taa language has 87 consonants under one analysis, 164 under another, plus some 30 vowels and tone.[7] The types of consonants used in various languages are by no means universal. For instance, nearly all Australian languages lack fricatives; a large percentage of the world's languages lack voiced stops such as Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA as phonemes, though they may appear phonetically. Most languages, however, do include one or more fricatives, with Шаблон:IPA being the most common, and a liquid consonant or two, with Шаблон:IPA the most common. The approximant Шаблон:IPA is also widespread, and virtually all languages have one or more nasals, though a very few, such as the Central dialect of Rotokas, lack even these. This last language has the smallest number of consonants in the world, with just six.

Most common

In rhotic American English, the consonants spoken most frequently are Шаблон:IPA. (Шаблон:IPA is less common in non-rhotic accents.)[8] The most frequent consonant in many other languages is Шаблон:IPA.[9]

The most universal consonants around the world (that is, the ones appearing in nearly all languages) are the three voiceless stops Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, and the two nasals Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA. However, even these common five are not completely universal. Several languages in the vicinity of the Sahara Desert, including Arabic, lack Шаблон:IPA. Several languages of North America, such as Mohawk, lack both of the labials Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA. The Wichita language of Oklahoma and some West African languages, such as Ijo, lack the consonant Шаблон:IPA on a phonemic level, but do use it phonetically, as an allophone of another consonant (of Шаблон:IPA in the case of Ijo, and of Шаблон:IPA in Wichita). A few languages on Bougainville Island and around Puget Sound, such as Makah, lack both of the nasals Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA altogether, except in special speech registers such as baby-talk. The 'click language' Nǁng lacks Шаблон:IPA,Шаблон:Efn and colloquial Samoan lacks both alveolars, Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA.Шаблон:Efn Despite the 80-odd consonants of Ubykh, it lacks the plain velar Шаблон:IPA in native words, as do the related Adyghe and Kabardian languages. But with a few striking exceptions, such as Xavante and Tahitian—which have no dorsal consonants whatsoever—nearly all other languages have at least one velar consonant: most of the few languages that do not have a simple Шаблон:IPA (that is, a sound that is generally pronounced Шаблон:IPA) have a consonant that is very similar.Шаблон:Efn For instance, an areal feature of the Pacific Northwest coast is that historical *k has become palatalized in many languages, so that Saanich for example has Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA but no plain Шаблон:IPA;[10][11] similarly, historical *k in the Northwest Caucasian languages became palatalized to Шаблон:IPA in extinct Ubykh and to Шаблон:IPA in most Circassian dialects.[12]

See also

Notes

Шаблон:Notelist

References

Шаблон:Reflist

Sources
  • Ian Maddieson, Patterns of Sounds, Cambridge University Press, 1984. Шаблон:ISBN

External links

Шаблон:Spoken Wikipedia

Шаблон:Articulation navbox Шаблон:IPA navigation Шаблон:Authority control

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  1. ↑ Шаблон:LSJ
  2. ↑ Robert K. Barnhart, ed., Chambers Dictionary of Etymology, Previously published as The Barnhart Dictionary of Etymology, originally ©1988 The H.W. Wilson Company; Edinburgh, reprinted 2001: Chambers Harrap Publishers Ltd., p. 210.
  3. ↑ Шаблон:LSJ
  4. ↑ Шаблон:LSJ
  5. ↑ Шаблон:SOWL
  6. ↑ Georges Dumézil and Tevfik Esenç, 1975, Le verbe oubykh: études descriptives et comparatives. Adrien Maisonneuve: Paris.
  7. ↑ Naumann, Christfied (2008). "The Consonantal System of West !Xoon". 3rd International Symposium on Khoisan Languages and Linguistics. Riezlern.
  8. ↑ The most common sounds in spoken English The Language Nerds.
  9. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  10. ↑ Ian Maddieson and Sandra Ferrari Disner, 1984, Patterns of Sounds. Cambridge University Press
  11. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  12. ↑ Viacheslav A. Chirikba, 1996, Common West Caucasian: the reconstruction of its phonological system and parts of its lexicon and morphology, p. 192. Research School CNWS: Leiden.
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