Английская Википедия:English phonology
Шаблон:Short description Шаблон:Redirect Шаблон:Self-reference Шаблон:English phonology topics Шаблон:IPA notice English phonology is the system of speech sounds used in spoken English. Like many other languages, English has wide variation in pronunciation, both historically and from dialect to dialect. In general, however, the regional dialects of English share a largely similar (but not identical) phonological system. Among other things, most dialects have vowel reduction in unstressed syllables and a complex set of phonological features that distinguish fortis and lenis consonants (stops, affricates, and fricatives).
Phonological analysis of English often concentrates on or uses, as a reference point, one or more of the prestige or standard accents, such as Received Pronunciation for England, General American for the United States, and General Australian for Australia. Nevertheless, many other dialects of English are spoken, which have developed independently from these standardized accents, particularly regional dialects. Information about these standardized accents functions only as a limited guide to all of English phonology, which one can later expand upon once one becomes more familiar with some of the many other dialects of English that are spoken.
Phonemes
A phoneme of a language or dialect is an abstraction of a speech sound or of a group of different sounds that are all perceived to have the same function by speakers of that particular language or dialect. For example, the English word through consists of three phonemes: the initial "th" sound, the "r" sound, and a vowel sound. The phonemes in that and many other English words do not always correspond directly to the letters used to spell them (English orthography is not as strongly phonemic as that of many other languages).
The number and distribution of phonemes in English vary from dialect to dialect, and also depend on the interpretation of the individual researcher. The number of consonant phonemes is generally put at 24 (or slightly more depending on the dialect). The number of vowels is subject to greater variation; in the system presented on this page there are 20–25 vowel phonemes in Received Pronunciation, 14–16 in General American and 19–21 in Australian English. The pronunciation keys used in dictionaries generally contain a slightly greater number of symbols than this, to take account of certain sounds used in foreign words and certain noticeable distinctions that may not be—strictly speaking—phonemic.
Consonants
The following table shows the 24 consonant phonemes found in most dialects of English, plus Шаблон:IPA, whose distribution is more limited. Fortis consonants are always voiceless, aspirated in syllable onset (except in clusters beginning with Шаблон:IPA or Шаблон:IPA), and sometimes also glottalized to an extent in syllable coda (most likely to occur with Шаблон:IPA, see T-glottalization), while lenis consonants are always unaspirated and un-glottalized, and generally partially or fully voiced. The alveolars are usually apical, i.e. pronounced with the tip of the tongue touching or approaching the roof of the mouth, though some speakers produce them laminally, i.e. with the blade of the tongue.Шаблон:Sfnp
Consonant examples
The following table shows typical examples of the occurrence of the above consonant phonemes in words, using minimal pairs where possible.
Fortis | Lenis | ||
---|---|---|---|
Шаблон:IPAslink | pit | Шаблон:IPAslink | bit |
Шаблон:IPAslink | tin | Шаблон:IPAslink | din |
Шаблон:IPAslink | cut | Шаблон:IPAslink | gut |
Шаблон:IPAslink | cheap | Шаблон:IPAslink | jeep |
Шаблон:IPAslink | fat | Шаблон:IPAslink | vat |
Шаблон:IPAslink | thigh | Шаблон:IPAslink | thy |
Шаблон:IPAslink | sap | Шаблон:IPAslink | zap |
Шаблон:IPAslink | Aleutian | Шаблон:IPAslink | allusion |
Шаблон:IPAslink | loch | ||
Шаблон:IPAslink | ham | ||
Шаблон:IPAslink | hum | ||
Шаблон:IPAslink | Hun | ||
Шаблон:IPAslink | hung | ||
Шаблон:IPAslink | your | ||
Шаблон:IPAslink | wore | ||
Шаблон:IPAslink | rump | ||
Шаблон:IPAslink | lump |
Sonorants
- The pronunciation of Шаблон:IPA varies by dialect:
- Received Pronunciation has two main allophones of Шаблон:IPA: the clear or plain Шаблон:IPA (the "light L"), and the dark or velarized Шаблон:IPA (the "dark L"). The clear variant is used before vowels when they are in the same syllable, and the dark variant when the Шаблон:IPA precedes a consonant or is in syllable-final position before silence.
- In South Wales, Ireland, and the Caribbean, Шаблон:IPA is usually clear, and in North Wales, Scotland, Australia, and New Zealand it is usually dark.
- In General American and Canada, Шаблон:IPA is generally dark, but to varying degrees: before stressed vowels it is neutral or only slightly velarized.Шаблон:Sfnp In southern U.S. accents it is noticeably clear between vowels, and in some other positions.Шаблон:Sfnp
- In urban accents of Southern England, as well as New Zealand and some parts of the United States, Шаблон:IPA can be pronounced as an approximant or semivowel (Шаблон:IPA) at the end of a syllable (l-vocalization).
- Depending on dialect, Шаблон:IPA has at least the following allophones in varieties of English around the world (see Pronunciation of English /r/):
- postalveolar approximant Шаблон:IPA (the most common realization of the Шаблон:IPA phoneme, occurring in most dialects, RP and General American included)
- retroflex approximant Шаблон:IPA (occurs in most Irish dialects and some American dialects)
- labiodental approximant Шаблон:IPA (occurs in south-east England and some London accents; known as r-labialization)
- alveolar flap Шаблон:IPA (occurs in most Scottish, Welsh,Шаблон:Sfnp IndianШаблон:Sfnp and some South African dialects, some conservative dialects in England and Ireland; not to be confused with flapping of Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA)
- alveolar trill Шаблон:IPA (occurs in some very conservative Scottish dialects and some Indian, South African and Welsh accents)Шаблон:SfnpШаблон:SfnpШаблон:Sfnp
- voiced uvular fricative Шаблон:IPA (occurs in northern Northumbria, largely disappeared; known as the Northumbrian burr)
- In most dialects Шаблон:IPA is labialized Шаблон:IPA in many positions, as in reed Шаблон:IPA and tree Шаблон:IPA; in the latter case, the Шаблон:IPA may be slightly labialized as well.Шаблон:Sfnp
- In some rhotic accents, such as General American, Шаблон:IPA when not followed by a vowel is realized as an r-coloring of the preceding vowel or its coda: nurse Шаблон:IPA, butter Шаблон:IPA.
- The distinctions between the nasals are neutralized in some environments. For example, before a final Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA or Шаблон:IPA there is nearly always only one nasal sound that can appear in each case: Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA or Шаблон:IPA respectively (as in the words limp, lint, link – note that the n of link is pronounced Шаблон:IPA). This effect can even occur across syllable or word boundaries, particularly in stressed syllables: synchrony is pronounced Шаблон:IPA whereas synchronic may be pronounced with either Шаблон:IPA or Шаблон:IPA. For other possible syllable-final combinations, see Шаблон:Slink in the Phonotactics section below.
Obstruents
In most dialects, the fortis stops and affricate Шаблон:IPA have various different allophones, and are distinguished from the lenis stops and affricate Шаблон:IPA by several phonetic features.Шаблон:Sfnp
- The allophones of the fortes Шаблон:IPA include:
- aspirated Шаблон:IPA when they occur in the onset of a stressed syllable, as in potato. In clusters involving a following liquid, the aspiration typically manifests as the devoicing of this liquid. These sounds are unaspirated Шаблон:IPA after Шаблон:IPA within the same syllable, as in stan, span, scan, and at the ends of syllables, as in mat, map, mac.Шаблон:Sfnp The voiceless fricatives are nearly always unaspirated, but a notable exception is English-speaking areas of Wales, where they are often aspirated.Шаблон:Sfnp
- In many accents of English, fortis stops Шаблон:IPA are glottalized in some positions. That may be heard either as a glottal stop preceding the oral closure ("pre-glottalization" or "glottal reinforcement") or as a substitution of the glottal stop Шаблон:IPA for the oral stop (glottal replacement). Шаблон:IPA can be only pre-glottalized. Pre-glottalization normally occurs in British and American English when the fortis consonant phoneme is followed by another consonant or when the consonant is in final position. Thus football and catching are often pronounced Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA, respectively. Glottal replacement often happens in cases such as those just given, so that football is frequently pronounced Шаблон:IPA. In addition, however, glottal replacement is increasingly common in British English when Шаблон:IPA occurs between vowels if the preceding vowel is stressed; thus better is often pronounced by younger speakers as Шаблон:IPA.Шаблон:Sfnp Such t-glottalization also occurs in many British regional accents, including Cockney, where it can also occur at the end of words, and where Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA are sometimes treated the same way.Шаблон:Sfnp
- For some RP-speakers, final voiceless stops, especially Шаблон:IPA, may become ejectives.[1]
- Among stops, both fortes and lenes:
- May have no audible release Шаблон:IPA in the word-final position.Шаблон:SfnpШаблон:Sfnp These allophones are more common in North America than Great Britain.Шаблон:Sfnp
- Almost always have a masked release before another plosive or affricate (as in rubbed Шаблон:IPA), i.e. the release of the first stop is made after the closure of the second stop. This also applies when the following stop is homorganic (articulated in the same place), as in top player.Шаблон:Sfnp A notable exception is Welsh English in which stops are usually released in that environment.Шаблон:Sfnp
- The affricates Шаблон:IPA have a mandatory fricative release in all environments.Шаблон:Sfnp
- Very often in the United States and Canada and less frequently in Australia[2] and New Zealand,[3] both Шаблон:IPA can be pronounced as a voiced flap Шаблон:IPA in certain positions: when they come between a preceding stressed vowel (possibly with intervening Шаблон:IPA) and precede an unstressed vowel or syllabic Шаблон:IPA. Examples include water, bottle, petal, peddle (the last two words sound alike when flapped). The flap may even appear at word boundaries, as in put it on. When the combination Шаблон:IPA appears in such positions, some American speakers pronounce it as a nasalized flap that may become indistinguishable from Шаблон:IPA, so winter Шаблон:IPA may be pronounced similarly or identically to winner Шаблон:IPA.Шаблон:Sfnp
- Yod-coalescence is a process that palatalizes the clusters Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA into Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA respectively, frequently occurring with clusters that would be considered to span a syllable boundary.[4]
- Yod-coalescence in stressed syllables, such as in tune and dune, occurs in Australian, Cockney, Estuary English, Hiberno-English (some speakers), Newfoundland English, South African English, and to a certain extent in New Zealand English and Scottish English (many speakers). This can lead to additional homophony; for instance, dew and due come to be pronounced the same as Jew.Шаблон:Sfnp
- In certain varieties such as Australian English, South African English, and New Zealand English, Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA in stressed syllables can coalesce into Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA, respectively. In Australian English for example, assume is pronounced Шаблон:IPA by some speakers.Шаблон:Sfnp Furthermore, some British, Canadian, American, New Zealand and Australian speakers may change the Шаблон:IPA sound to Шаблон:IPA before Шаблон:IPA,Шаблон:Sfnp so that a word having a cluster of Шаблон:Angbr like in strewn would be pronounced Шаблон:IPA.Шаблон:Sfnp
- The postalveolar consonants Шаблон:IPA are strongly labialized: Шаблон:IPA.Шаблон:Sfnp
- In addition to Шаблон:IPA, clusters Шаблон:IPA also have affricate-like realizations in certain positions (as in cats, roads, tram, dram, eighth, behind them, cupful, obvious; see also Шаблон:Section link), but usually only Шаблон:IPA are considered to constitute the monophonemic affricates of English because (among other reasons) only they are found in all of morpheme-initial, -Шаблон:Zwjinternal, and -Шаблон:Zwjfinal positions, and native speakers typically perceive them as single units.Шаблон:SfnpШаблон:SfnpШаблон:Sfnp
Vowels
English, much like other Germanic languages, has a particularly large number of vowel phonemes, and in addition the vowels of English differ considerably between dialects. Consequently, corresponding vowels may be transcribed with various symbols depending on the dialect under consideration. When considering English as a whole, lexical sets are often used, each named by a word containing the vowel or vowels in question. For example, the Шаблон:Sc2 set consists of words which, like lot, have Шаблон:IPA in Received Pronunciation and Шаблон:IPA in General American. The "Шаблон:Sc2 vowel" then refers to the vowel that appears in those words in whichever dialect is being considered, or (at a greater level of abstraction) to a diaphoneme, which represents this interdialectal correspondence. A commonly-used system of lexical sets, devised by John C. Wells, is presented below; for each set, the corresponding phonemes are given for RP and General American, using the notation that will be used on this page.
Шаблон:Abbr | Шаблон:Abbr | Шаблон:Abbr |
---|---|---|
Шаблон:Sc2 | Шаблон:IPA | |
Шаблон:Sc2 | Шаблон:IPA | |
Шаблон:Sc2 | Шаблон:IPA |
Шаблон:Abbr | Шаблон:Abbr | Шаблон:Abbr |
---|---|---|
Шаблон:Sc2 | Шаблон:IPA link | Шаблон:IPA link |
Шаблон:Sc2 | Шаблон:IPA | |
Шаблон:Sc2 | Шаблон:IPA link |
For a table that shows the pronunciations of these vowels in a wider range of English dialects, see IPA chart for English dialects.
The following tables show the vowel phonemes of three standard varieties of English. The notation system used here for Received Pronunciation (RP) is fairly standard; the others less so. The feature descriptions given here (front, close, etc.) are abstracted somewhat; the actual pronunciations of these vowels are somewhat more accurately conveyed by the IPA symbols used (see Vowel for a chart indicating the meanings of these symbols; though note also the points listed below the following tables). The symbols given in the table are traditional but redirect to their modern implementation.
The differences between these tables can be explained as follows:
- General American lacks a phoneme corresponding to RP Шаблон:IPA (Шаблон:Sc2, Шаблон:Sc2), instead using Шаблон:IPA in the Шаблон:Sc2 words and generally Шаблон:IPA in the Шаблон:Sc2 words. In a few North American accents, namely in Eastern New England (Boston) Шаблон:Sc2 words do not have the vowel of Шаблон:Sc2 (the father–bother merger has not occurred) but instead merge with Шаблон:Sc2.Шаблон:SfnpШаблон:SfnpШаблон:SfnpШаблон:Sfnp
- Although the notation Шаблон:IPA is used for the vowel of Шаблон:Sc2 in RP and General American, the actual pronunciation in RP may be closer to a near-open central vowel Шаблон:IPAblink, especially among older speakers. In modern RP, this vowel is increasingly realized as Шаблон:IPAblink to avoid the clash with the lowered variety of Шаблон:IPA in the Шаблон:IPAblink region (the trap–strut merger). In General American, Шаблон:IPA is invariably realized as Шаблон:IPAblink, whereas Шаблон:IPAblink does not appear in this context.Шаблон:SfnpШаблон:SfnpШаблон:SfnpШаблон:Sfnp
- RP transcriptions use Шаблон:Angbr IPA rather than Шаблон:Angbr IPA largely for convenience and historical tradition; it does not necessarily represent a different sound from the General American phoneme, as the Шаблон:Sc2 vowel is generally realized as Шаблон:IPA in modern RP.[5]
- The different notations used for the vowel of Шаблон:Sc2 in RP and General American (Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA) reflect a difference in the most common phonetic realizations of that vowel.
- The triphthongs given in the RP table are usually regarded as sequences of two phonemes (a diphthong plus Шаблон:IPA); however, in RP, these sequences frequently undergo smoothing into single diphthongs or even monophthongs.
- The different notations used here for some of the Australian vowels reflect the phonetic realization of those vowels in Australian: a central Шаблон:IPAblink rather than Шаблон:IPAblink in Шаблон:Sc2, a more closed Шаблон:IPAblink rather than Шаблон:IPAblink in Шаблон:Sc2, a close-mid Шаблон:IPAblink rather than traditional RP's Шаблон:IPAblink in Шаблон:Sc2, an open-mid Шаблон:IPAblink rather than traditional RP's Шаблон:IPAblink in Шаблон:Sc2, an opener Шаблон:IPAblink rather than somewhat closer Шаблон:IPAblink in Шаблон:Sc2, a central Шаблон:IPAblink rather a back Шаблон:IPAblink in Шаблон:Sc2 and Шаблон:Sc2, and somewhat different pronunciations of most of the diphthongs. Note that central Шаблон:IPAblink in Шаблон:Sc2, close-mid Шаблон:IPAblink in Шаблон:Sc2 and open-mid Шаблон:IPAblink in Шаблон:Sc2 are standard realizations in modern RP and the difference between modern RP and Australian English in these vowels lies almost only in transcription, rather than pronunciation.Шаблон:SfnpШаблон:SfnpШаблон:Sfnp
- Both Australian Шаблон:IPA and RP Шаблон:IPA are long monophthongs, the difference between them being in tongue height: Australian Шаблон:IPA is close-mid Шаблон:IPAblink, whereas the corresponding RP vowel is open-mid Шаблон:IPAblink.Шаблон:SfnpШаблон:Sfnp
Other points to be noted are these:
- The vowel Шаблон:IPA is coming to be pronounced more open (approaching Шаблон:IPA) by many modern RP speakers. In American speech, however, there is a tendency for it to become more closed, tenser and even diphthongized (to something like Шаблон:IPA), particularly in certain environments, such as before a nasal consonant,Шаблон:Sfnp though younger speakers of some varieties are lowering Шаблон:IPA like RP speakers (see Canadian shift). Some American accents, for example those of New York City, Philadelphia and Baltimore, make a marginal phonemic distinction between Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA, although the two occur largely in mutually exclusive environments. See /æ/ raising.
- A significant number of words (the Шаблон:Sc2 group) have Шаблон:IPA in General American, but Шаблон:IPA in RP. The pronunciation varies between Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA in Australia, with speakers from South Australia using Шаблон:IPA more extensively than speakers from other regions.
- In General American and Canadian (which are rhotic accents, where Шаблон:IPA is pronounced in positions where it does not precede a vowel), many of the vowels can be r-colored by way of realization of a following Шаблон:IPA. This is often transcribed phonetically using a vowel symbol with an added retroflexion diacritic Шаблон:IPA; thus the symbol Шаблон:IPA has been created for an r-colored schwa (sometimes called schwar) as in Шаблон:Sc2, and the vowel of Шаблон:Sc2 can be modified to make Шаблон:IPA so that the word start may be transcribed Шаблон:IPA. Alternatively, the Шаблон:Sc2 sequence might be written Шаблон:IPA to indicate an r-colored offglide. The vowel of Шаблон:Sc2 is generally always r-colored in these dialects, and this can be written Шаблон:IPA (or as a syllabic Шаблон:IPA).
- In modern RP and other dialects, many words from the Шаблон:Sc2 group are coming to be pronounced by an increasing number of speakers with the Шаблон:Sc2 vowel (so sure is often pronounced like shore).Шаблон:Sfnp
- The vowels of Шаблон:Sc2 and Шаблон:Sc2 are commonly pronounced as narrow diphthongs, approaching Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA, in RP. Near-RP speakers may have particularly marked diphthongization of the type Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA, respectively. In General American, the pronunciation varies between a monophthong and a diphthong.Шаблон:Sfnp
Allophones of vowels
Listed here are some of the significant cases of allophony of vowels found within standard English dialects.
- Vowels are shortened when followed in a syllable by a voiceless (fortis) consonant.Шаблон:Sfnp This is known as pre-fortis clipping. Thus in the following word pairs the first item has a shortened vowel while the second has a normal length vowel: 'right' Шаблон:IPA – 'ride' Шаблон:IPA; 'face' Шаблон:IPA – 'phase' Шаблон:IPA; 'advice' Шаблон:IPA – 'advise' Шаблон:IPA.
- In many accents of English, tense vowels undergo breaking before Шаблон:IPA, resulting in pronunciations like Шаблон:IPA for peel, Шаблон:IPA for pool, Шаблон:IPA for pail, and Шаблон:IPA for pole.Шаблон:Citation needed
- In RP, the vowel Шаблон:IPA may be pronounced more back, as Шаблон:IPA, before syllable-final Шаблон:IPA, as in goal. In standard Australian English the vowel Шаблон:IPA is similarly backed to Шаблон:IPA before Шаблон:IPA. A similar phenomenon may occur in Southern American English.Шаблон:Citation needed
- The vowel Шаблон:IPA is often pronounced Шаблон:IPA in open syllables.Шаблон:Sfnp
- The Шаблон:Sc2 and Шаблон:Sc2 diphthongs may be pronounced with a less open starting point when followed by a voiceless consonant;Шаблон:Sfnp this is chiefly a feature of Canadian speech (Canadian raising), but is also found in parts of the United States.Шаблон:Sfnp Thus writer may be distinguished from rider even when flapping causes the Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA to be pronounced identically.
Unstressed syllables
Unstressed syllables in English may contain almost any vowel, but in practice vowels in stressed and unstressed syllables tend to use different inventories of phonemes. In particular, long vowels are used less often in unstressed syllables than stressed syllables. Additionally there are certain sounds—characterized by central position and weakness—that are particularly often found as the nuclei of unstressed syllables. These include:
- schwa, Шаблон:IPA, as in Шаблон:Sc2 and (in non-rhotic dialects) Шаблон:Sc2 ([[Rhoticity in English#Comma–letter merger|Шаблон:Sc2–Шаблон:Sc2 merger]]); also in many other positions such as about, photograph, paddock, etc. This sound is essentially restricted to unstressed syllables exclusively. In the approach presented here it is identified as a phoneme Шаблон:IPA, although other analyses do not have a separate phoneme for schwa and regard it as a reduction or neutralization of other vowels in syllables with the lowest degree of stress.
- r-colored schwa, Шаблон:IPA, as in Шаблон:Sc2 in General American and some other rhotic dialects, which can be identified with the underlying sequence Шаблон:IPA.
- syllabic consonants: Шаблон:IPA as in bottle, Шаблон:IPA as in button, Шаблон:IPA as in rhythm. These may be phonemized either as a plain consonant or as a schwa followed by a consonant; for example button may be represented as Шаблон:IPA or Шаблон:IPA (see above under Consonants).
- Шаблон:IPA, as in roses and making. This can be identified with the phoneme Шаблон:IPA, although in unstressed syllables it may be pronounced more centrally, and for some speakers (particularly in Australian and New Zealand and some American English) it is merged with Шаблон:IPA in these syllables (weak vowel merger). Among speakers who retain the distinction there are many cases where free variation between Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA is found, as in the second syllable of typical. (The OED has recently adopted the symbol Шаблон:Angbr to indicate such cases.)
- Шаблон:IPA, as in argument, today, for which similar considerations apply as in the case of Шаблон:IPA. (The symbol Шаблон:Angbr is sometimes used in these cases, similarly to Шаблон:Angbr.) Some speakers may also have a rounded schwa, Шаблон:IPA, used in words like omission Шаблон:IPA.Шаблон:Sfnp
- Шаблон:IPA, as in happy, coffee, in many dialects (others have Шаблон:IPA in this position).Шаблон:Sfnp The phonemic status of this Шаблон:IPA is not easy to establish. Some authors consider it to correspond phonemically with a close front vowel that is neither the vowel of Шаблон:Sc2 nor that of Шаблон:Sc2; it occurs chiefly in contexts where the contrast between these vowels is neutralized,Шаблон:SfnpШаблон:SfnpШаблон:Sfnp implying that it represents an archiphoneme, which may be written Шаблон:IPA. Many speakers, however, do have a contrast in pairs of words like studied and studded or taxis and taxes; the contrast may be Шаблон:IPA vs. Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA vs. Шаблон:IPA or Шаблон:IPA vs. Шаблон:IPA, hence some authors consider that the happY-vowel should be identified phonemically either with the vowel of Шаблон:Sc2 or that of Шаблон:Sc2, depending on speaker.Шаблон:Sfnp See also happy-tensing.
- Шаблон:IPA, as in influence, to each. This is the back rounded counterpart to Шаблон:IPA described above; its phonemic status is treated in the same works as cited there.
Vowel reduction in unstressed syllables is a significant feature of English. Syllables of the types listed above often correspond to a syllable containing a different vowel ("full vowel") used in other forms of the same morpheme where that syllable is stressed. For example, the first o in photograph, being stressed, is pronounced with the Шаблон:Sc2 vowel, but in photography, where it is unstressed, it is reduced to schwa. Also, certain common words (a, an, of, for, etc.) are pronounced with a schwa when they are unstressed, although they have different vowels when they are in a stressed position (see Weak and strong forms in English).
Some unstressed syllables, however, retain full (unreduced) vowels, i.e. vowels other than those listed above. Examples are the Шаблон:IPA in ambition and the Шаблон:IPA in finite. Some phonologists regard such syllables as not being fully unstressed (they may describe them as having tertiary stress); some dictionaries have marked such syllables as having secondary stress. However linguists such as LadefogedШаблон:Sfnp and Шаблон:Harvcoltxt regard this as a difference purely of vowel quality and not of stress,Шаблон:Sfnp and thus argue that vowel reduction itself is phonemic in English. Examples of words where vowel reduction seems to be distinctive for some speakersШаблон:Sfnp include chickaree vs. chicory (the latter has the reduced vowel of Шаблон:Sc2, whereas the former has the Шаблон:Sc2 vowel without reduction), and Pharaoh vs. farrow (both have the Шаблон:Sc2 vowel, but in the latter word it may reduce to Шаблон:IPA).
Lexical stress
Шаблон:Main Lexical stress is phonemic in English. For example, the noun increase and the verb increase are distinguished by the positioning of the stress on the first syllable in the former, and on the second syllable in the latter. (See initial-stress-derived noun.) Stressed syllables in English are louder than non-stressed syllables, as well as being longer and having a higher pitch.
In traditional approaches, in any English word consisting of more than one syllable, each syllable is ascribed one of three degrees of stress: primary, secondary or unstressed. Ordinarily, in each such word there will be exactly one syllable with primary stress, possibly one syllable having secondary stress, and the remainder are unstressed (unusually-long words may have multiple syllables with secondary stress). For example, the word amazing has primary stress on the second syllable, while the first and third syllables are unstressed, whereas the word organization has primary stress on the fourth syllable, secondary stress on the first, and the second, third, and fifth unstressed. This is often shown in pronunciation keys using the IPA symbols for primary and secondary stress (which are ˈ and ˌ respectively), placed before the syllables to which they apply. The two words just given may therefore be represented (in RP) as Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA.
Some analysts identify an additional level of stress (tertiary stress). This is generally ascribed to syllables that are pronounced with less force than those with secondary stress, but nonetheless contain a "full" or "unreduced" vowel (vowels that are considered to be reduced are listed under Шаблон:Slink above). Hence the third syllable of organization, if pronounced with Шаблон:IPA as shown above (rather than being reduced to Шаблон:IPA or Шаблон:IPA), might be said to have tertiary stress. (The precise identification of secondary and tertiary stress differs between analyses; dictionaries do not generally show tertiary stress, although some have taken the approach of marking all syllables with unreduced vowels as having at least secondary stress.)
In some analyses, then, the concept of lexical stress may become conflated with that of vowel reduction. An approach that attempts to separate both is provided by Peter Ladefoged, who states that it is possible to describe English with only one degree of stress, as long as unstressed syllables are phonemically distinguished for vowel reduction.Шаблон:SfnpШаблон:Sfnp In this approach, the distinction between primary and secondary stress is regarded as a phonetic or prosodic detail rather than a phonemic feature – primary stress is seen as an example of the predictable "tonic" stress that falls on the final stressed syllable of a prosodic unit. For more details of this analysis, see Stress and vowel reduction in English.
For stress as a prosodic feature (emphasis of particular words within utterances), see Шаблон:Slink below.
Phonotactics
Phonotactics is the study of the sequences of phonemes that occur in languages and the sound structures that they form. In this study it is usual to represent consonants in general with the letter C and vowels with the letter V, so that a syllable such as 'be' is described as having CV structure. The IPA symbol used to show a division between syllables is the full stop Шаблон:Angbr IPA. Syllabification is the process of dividing continuous speech into discrete syllables, a process in which the position of a syllable division is not always easy to decide upon.
Most languages of the world syllabify Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA sequences as Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA or Шаблон:IPA, with consonants preferentially acting as the onset of a syllable containing the following vowel. According to one view, English is unusual in this regard, in that stressed syllables attract following consonants, so that Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA syllabify as Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA, as long as the consonant cluster Шаблон:IPA is a possible syllable coda; in addition, Шаблон:IPA preferentially syllabifies with the preceding vowel even when both syllables are unstressed, so that Шаблон:IPA occurs as Шаблон:IPA. This is the analysis used in the Longman Pronunciation Dictionary.Шаблон:Sfnp However, this view is not widely accepted, as explained in the following section.
Syllable structure
English allows clusters of up to three consonants in the syllable onset and up to four consonants in the syllable coda,Шаблон:SfnpШаблон:Sfnp giving a general syllable structure of (C)3V(C)4, a potential example being strengths Шаблон:IPA (although this word has variant pronunciations with only 3 coda consonants, such as Шаблон:IPA). A five-consonant coda may occur in the word angsts, but this is a highly exceptional case, as the word is both infrequent and not always pronounced with five final segmentsШаблон:Sfnp (it can be analyzed as a VC4 syllableШаблон:Sfnp Шаблон:IPA rather than as VC5 Шаблон:IPA). From the phonetic point of view, the analysis of syllable structures is a complex task: because of widespread occurrences of articulatory overlap, English speakers rarely produce an audible release of individual consonants in consonant clusters.Шаблон:Sfnp This coarticulation can lead to articulatory gestures that seem very much like deletions or complete assimilations. For example, hundred pounds may sound like Шаблон:IPA and jumped back (in slow speech, Шаблон:IPA) may sound like Шаблон:IPA, but X-rayШаблон:Sfnp and electropalatographicШаблон:SfnpШаблон:SfnpШаблон:Sfnp studies demonstrate that inaudible and possibly weakened contacts or lingual gestures may still be made. Thus the second Шаблон:IPA in hundred pounds does not entirely assimilate to a labial place of articulation, rather the labial gesture co-occurs with the alveolar one; the "missing" Шаблон:IPA in jumped back may still be articulated, though not heard.
Division into syllables is a difficult area, and different theories have been proposed. A widely accepted approach is the maximal onset principle:Шаблон:Sfnp this states that, subject to certain constraints, any consonants in between vowels should be assigned to the following syllable. Thus the word leaving should be divided Шаблон:IPA rather than *Шаблон:IPA, and hasty is Шаблон:IPA rather than *Шаблон:IPA or *Шаблон:IPA. However, when such a division results in an onset cluster that is not allowed in English, the division must respect this. Thus if the word extra were divided *Шаблон:IPA the resulting onset of the second syllable would be Шаблон:IPA, a cluster that does not occur initially in English. The division Шаблон:IPA is therefore preferred. If assigning a consonant or consonants to the following syllable would result in the preceding syllable ending in an unreduced short vowel, this is avoided. Thus the word lemma should be divided Шаблон:IPA and not *Шаблон:IPA, even though the latter division gives the maximal onset to the following syllable.
In some cases, no solution is completely satisfactory: for example, in British English (RP) the word hurry could be divided Шаблон:IPA or Шаблон:IPA, but the former would result in an analysis with a syllable-final Шаблон:IPA (which is held to be non-occurring) while the latter would result in a syllable final Шаблон:IPA (which is said not to occur in this accent). Some phonologists have suggested a compromise analysis where the consonant in the middle belongs to both syllables, and is described as ambisyllabic.Шаблон:SfnpШаблон:Sfnp In this way, it is possible to suggest an analysis of hurry that comprises the syllables Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA, the medial Шаблон:IPA being ambisyllabic. Where the division coincides with a word boundary, or the boundary between elements of a compound word, it is not usual in the case of dictionaries to insist on the maximal onset principle in a way that divides words in a counter-intuitive way; thus the word hardware would be divided Шаблон:IPA by the maximal onset principle, but dictionaries prefer the division Шаблон:IPA.Шаблон:SfnpШаблон:SfnpШаблон:Sfnp
In the approach used by the Longman Pronunciation Dictionary, WellsШаблон:Sfnp claims that consonants syllabify with the preceding rather than following vowel when the preceding vowel is the nucleus of a more salient syllable, with stressed syllables being the most salient, reduced syllables the least, and full unstressed vowels ("secondary stress") intermediate. But there are lexical differences as well, frequently but not exclusively with compound words. For example, in dolphin and selfish, Wells argues that the stressed syllable ends in Шаблон:IPA, but in shellfish, the Шаблон:IPA belongs with the following syllable: Шаблон:IPA → Шаблон:IPA, but Шаблон:IPA → Шаблон:IPA, where the Шаблон:IPA is a little longer and the Шаблон:IPA is not reduced. Similarly, in toe-strap Wells argues that the second Шаблон:IPA is a full plosive, as usual in syllable onset, whereas in toast-rack the second Шаблон:IPA is in many dialects reduced to the unreleased allophone it takes in syllable codas, or even elided: Шаблон:IPA → Шаблон:IPA; likewise nitrate Шаблон:IPA → Шаблон:IPA with a voiceless Шаблон:IPA (and for some people an affricated tr as in tree), vs night-rate Шаблон:IPA → Шаблон:IPA with a voiced Шаблон:IPA. Cues of syllable boundaries include aspiration of syllable onsets and (in the US) flapping of coda Шаблон:IPA (a tease Шаблон:IPA → Шаблон:IPA vs. at ease Шаблон:IPA → Шаблон:IPA), epenthetic stops like Шаблон:IPA in syllable codas (fence Шаблон:IPA → Шаблон:IPA but inside Шаблон:IPA → Шаблон:IPA), and r-colored vowels when the Шаблон:IPA is in the coda vs. labialization when it is in the onset (key-ring Шаблон:IPA → Шаблон:IPA but fearing Шаблон:IPA → Шаблон:IPA).
Onset
The following can occur as the onset:
Notes:
Other onsets
Certain English onsets appear only in contractions: e.g. Шаблон:IPA ('sblood), and Шаблон:IPA or Шаблон:IPA ('swounds or 'dswounds). Some, such as Шаблон:IPA (pshaw), Шаблон:IPA (fwoosh), or Шаблон:IPA (vroom), can occur in interjections. An archaic voiceless fricative plus nasal exists, Шаблон:IPA (fnese), as does an archaic Шаблон:IPA (snew).
Several additional onsets occur in loan words (with varying degrees of anglicization) such as Шаблон:IPA (bwana), Шаблон:IPA (moiré), Шаблон:IPA (noire), Шаблон:IPA (zwitterion), Шаблон:IPA (zwieback), Шаблон:IPA (Dvorak), Шаблон:IPA (kvetch), Шаблон:IPA (schvartze), Шаблон:IPA (Tver), Шаблон:IPA (Zwickau), Шаблон:IPA (Kjell)Шаблон:Dubious, Шаблон:IPA (Kshatriya), Шаблон:IPA (Tlaloc), Шаблон:IPA (Vladimir), Шаблон:IPA (zloty), Шаблон:IPA (Tskhinvali), Шаблон:IPA (Hmong), Шаблон:IPA (Khmer), and Шаблон:IPA (Nganasan).
Some clusters of this type can be converted to regular English phonotactics by simplifying the cluster: e.g. Шаблон:IPA (dziggetai), Шаблон:IPA (Hrolf), Шаблон:IPA (croissant), Шаблон:IPA (Nguyen), Шаблон:IPA (pfennig), Шаблон:IPA (phthalic), Шаблон:IPA (tsunami), Шаблон:IPA (!kung), and Шаблон:IPA (Xhosa).
Others can be replaced by native clusters differing only in voice: Шаблон:IPA (sbirro), and Шаблон:IPA (sgraffito).
Nucleus
The following can occur as the nucleus:
- All vowel sounds
- Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA in certain situations (see below under word-level patterns)
- Шаблон:IPA in rhotic varieties of English (e.g. General American) in certain situations (see below under word-level patterns)
Coda
Most (in theory, all) of the following except those that end with Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA or Шаблон:IPA can be extended with Шаблон:IPA or Шаблон:IPA representing the morpheme -s/-z. Similarly, most (in theory, all) of the following except those that end with Шаблон:IPA or Шаблон:IPA can be extended with Шаблон:IPA or Шаблон:IPA representing the morpheme -t/-d.
Шаблон:Harvcoltxt argues that a variety of syllable codas are possible in English, even Шаблон:IPA in words like entry Шаблон:IPA and sundry Шаблон:IPA, with Шаблон:IPA being treated as affricates along the lines of Шаблон:IPA. He argues that the traditional assumption that pre-vocalic consonants form a syllable with the following vowel is due to the influence of languages like French and Latin, where syllable structure is CVC.CVC regardless of stress placement. Disregarding such contentious cases, which do not occur at the ends of words, the following sequences can occur as the coda:
The single consonant phonemes except Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA and, in non-rhotic varieties, Шаблон:IPA | |
Lateral approximant plus stop or affricate: Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA | help, bulb, belt, hold, belch, indulge, milk |
In rhotic varieties, Шаблон:IPA plus stop or affricate: Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA | harp, orb, fort, beard, arch, large, mark, morgue |
Lateral approximant + fricative: Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, (Шаблон:IPA) | golf, solve, wealth, else, bells, Welsh, (stealth (v.)) |
In rhotic varieties, Шаблон:IPA + fricative: Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA | dwarf, carve, north, birth (v.), force, Mars, marsh |
Lateral approximant + nasal: Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA | film, kiln |
In rhotic varieties, Шаблон:IPA + nasal or lateral: Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA | arm, born, snarl |
Nasal + homorganic stop or affricate: Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA; some varieties also allow Шаблон:IPA | jump, tent, end, lunch, lounge, pink, sing |
Nasal + fricative: Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, (Шаблон:IPA), Шаблон:IPA, (Шаблон:IPA), Шаблон:IPA; some varieties also allow Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA | triumph, Thames, warmth, (saunf), month, (prince), bronze, length, strength |
Voiceless fricative plus voiceless stop: Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA | left, crisp, lost, ask, smashed, smithed |
Voiced fricative plus voiced stop: Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA | blazed, writhed |
Two or three voiceless fricatives: Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA | fifth, fifths |
Two voiceless stops: Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA | opt, act |
Two voiceless stops + fricative: Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA | opts, acts |
Stop plus fricative: Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA | depth, lapse, eighth, klutz, width, adze, box |
Lateral approximant + two or three consonants: Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA | filmed, sculpt, alps, twelfth,Шаблон:Efn waltz, whilst, mulct, calx |
In rhotic varieties, Шаблон:IPA + two consonants: Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA | farmed, warmth, excerpt, corpse, mourned, quartz, horst, world, infarct |
Nasal + homorganic stop + stop or fricative: Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA in some varieties | prompt, glimpse, chintz, thousandth,Шаблон:Efn distinct, jinx, length |
Nasal + homorganic stop + two fricatives: Шаблон:IPA | thousandths |
Nasal + non-homorganic stop: Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA | dreamt, hemmed, hanged |
Three obstruents: Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA | sixth, next |
Four obstruents: Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA | sixths, sixthed, texts |
- Notes:
For some speakers, a fricative before Шаблон:IPA is elided so that these never appear phonetically: Шаблон:IPA becomes Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA becomes Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA becomes Шаблон:IPA.
Syllable-level patterns
- Syllables may consist of a single vowel, meaning that onset and coda are not mandatory.
- The consonant Шаблон:IPA does not occur in syllable-initial position (most speakers do not maintain it even in loans like Ngorongoro and Nguyen).
- The consonant Шаблон:IPA does not occur in syllable-final position.
- Onset clusters ending in Шаблон:IPA are followed by Шаблон:IPA or its variants (see Шаблон:Section link note e above).
- Long vowels and diphthongs are not found before Шаблон:IPA, except for the mimetic words boing and oink, unassimilated foreign words such as Burmese aung and proper names such as Taung, and American-type pronunciations of words like strong (which have Шаблон:IPA or Шаблон:IPA). The short vowels Шаблон:IPA occur before Шаблон:IPA only in assimilated non-native words such as ginseng and Song (name of a Chinese dynasty) or non-finally in some dialects in words like strength and length as well as in varieties without the foot-strut split.
- Шаблон:IPA is rare in syllable-initial position (although in the northern half of England, Шаблон:IPA is used for Шаблон:IPA and is common at the start of syllables).
- Stop + Шаблон:IPA before Шаблон:IPA (all presently or historically Шаблон:IPA) are excluded.Шаблон:Sfnp
- Sequences of Шаблон:IPA + C1 + V̆ + C1, where C1 is a consonant other than Шаблон:IPA and V̆ is a short vowel, are virtually nonexistent.Шаблон:Sfnp
Word-level patterns
- Шаблон:IPA does not occur in stressed syllables, unless it is merged with another vowel as in some varieties.
- Шаблон:IPA does not occur in word-initial position in native English words, although it can occur syllable-initially as in luxurious Шаблон:IPA in American English, and at the start of borrowed words such as genre.
- Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA and, in rhotic varieties, Шаблон:IPA can be the syllable nucleus (i.e. a syllabic consonant) in an unstressed syllable following another consonant, especially Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA or Шаблон:IPA. Such syllables are often analyzed phonemically as having an underlying Шаблон:IPA as the nucleus. See above under Consonants.
- The short vowels are checked vowels, in that they cannot occur without a coda in a word-final stressed syllable. (This does not apply to Шаблон:IPA, which does not occur in stressed syllables as mentioned above.)
Prosody
The prosodic features of English – stress, rhythm, and intonation – can be described as follows.
Prosodic stress
Prosodic stress is extra stress given to words or syllables when they appear in certain positions in an utterance, or when they receive special emphasis.
According to Ladefoged's analysis (as referred to under Шаблон:Slink above), English normally has prosodic stress on the final stressed syllable in an intonation unit. This is said to be the origin of the distinction traditionally made at the lexical level between primary and secondary stress: when a word like admiration (traditionally transcribed as something like Шаблон:IPA) is spoken in isolation, or at the end of a sentence, the syllable ra (the final stressed syllable) is pronounced with greater force than the syllable ad, although when the word is not pronounced with this final intonation there may be no difference between the levels of stress of these two syllables.
Prosodic stress can shift for various pragmatic functions, such as focus or contrast. For instance, in the dialogue Is it brunch tomorrow? No, it's dinner tomorrow, the extra stress shifts from the last stressed syllable of the sentence, tomorrow, to the last stressed syllable of the emphasized word, dinner.
Grammatical function words are usually prosodically unstressed, although they can acquire stress when emphasized (as in Did you find the cat? Well, I found a cat). Many English function words have distinct strong and weak pronunciations; for example, the word a in the last example is pronounced Шаблон:IPA, while the more common unstressed a is pronounced Шаблон:IPA. See Weak and strong forms in English.
Rhythm
English is claimed to be a stress-timed language. That is, stressed syllables tend to appear with a more or less regular rhythm, while non-stressed syllables are shortened to accommodate this. For example, in the sentence One make of car is better than another, the syllables one, make, car, bett- and Шаблон:Notatypo will be stressed and relatively long, while the other syllables will be considerably shorter. The theory of stress-timing predicts that each of the three unstressed syllables in between bett- and Шаблон:Notatypo will be shorter than the syllable of between make and car, because three syllables must fit into the same amount of time as that available for of. However, it should not be assumed that all varieties of English are stress-timed in this way. The English spoken in the West Indies,Шаблон:Sfnp in AfricaШаблон:Sfnp and in IndiaШаблон:Sfnp are probably better characterized as syllable-timed, though the lack of an agreed scientific test for categorizing an accent or language as stress-timed or syllable-timed may lead one to doubt the value of such a characterization.Шаблон:Sfnp
Intonation
Phonological contrasts in intonation can be said to be found in three different and independent domains. In the work of HallidayШаблон:Sfnp the following names are proposed:
- Tonality for the distribution of continuous speech into tone groups.
- Tonicity for the placing of the principal accent on a particular syllable of a word, making it the tonic syllable. This is the domain also referred to as prosodic stress or sentence stress.
- Tone for the choice of pitch movement on the tonic syllable. (The use of the term tone in this sense should not be confused with the tone of tone languages, such as Chinese.)
These terms ("the Three Ts") have been used in more recent work,Шаблон:SfnpШаблон:Sfnp though they have been criticized for being difficult to remember.Шаблон:Sfnp American systems such as ToBI also identify contrasts involving boundaries between intonation phrases (Halliday's tonality), placement of pitch accent (tonicity), and choice of tone or tones associated with the pitch accent (tone).
Example of phonological contrast involving placement of intonation unit boundaries (boundary marked by comma): Шаблон:Ordered list
Example of phonological contrast involving placement of tonic syllable (marked by capital letters): Шаблон:Ordered list
Example of phonological contrast (British English) involving choice of tone (\ = falling tone, \/ = fall-rise tone) Шаблон:Ordered list
There is typically a contrast involving tone between wh-questions and yes/no questions, the former having a falling tone (e.g. "Where did you \PUT it?") and the latter a rising tone (e.g. "Are you going /OUT?"), though studies of spontaneous speech have shown frequent exceptions to this rule.Шаблон:Sfnp Tag questions asking for information are said to carry rising tones (e.g. "They are coming on Tuesday, /AREN'T they?") while those asking for confirmation have falling tone (e.g. "Your name's John, \ISN'T it.").
History of English pronunciation
The pronunciation system of English has undergone many changes throughout the history of the language, from the phonological system of Old English, to that of Middle English, through to that of the present day. Variation between dialects has always been significant. Former pronunciations of many words are reflected in their spellings, as English orthography has generally not kept pace with phonological changes since the Middle English period.
The English consonant system has been relatively stable over time, although a number of significant changes have occurred. Examples include the loss (in most dialects) of the Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA sounds still reflected by the Шаблон:Angbr in words like night and taught, and the splitting of voiced and voiceless allophones of fricatives into separate phonemes (such as the two different [[Pronunciation of English ⟨th⟩|phonemes represented by Шаблон:Angbr]]). There have also been many changes in consonant clusters, mostly reductions, for instance those that produced the usual modern pronunciations of such letter combinations as Шаблон:Angbr, Шаблон:Angbr and [[English wh|Шаблон:Angbr]].
The development of vowels has been much more complex. One of the most notable series of changes is that known as the Great Vowel Shift, which began around the late 14th century. Here the Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA in words like price and mouth became diphthongized, and other long vowels became higher: Шаблон:IPA became Шаблон:IPA (as in meet), Шаблон:IPA became Шаблон:IPA and later Шаблон:IPA (as in name), Шаблон:IPA became Шаблон:IPA (as in goose), and Шаблон:IPA became Шаблон:IPA and later Шаблон:IPA (in RP now Шаблон:IPA; as in bone). These shifts are responsible for the modern pronunciations of many written vowel combinations, including those involving a [[silent e|silent final Шаблон:Angbr]].
Many other changes in vowels have taken place over the centuries (see the separate articles on the low back, high back and high front vowels, short A, and diphthongs). These various changes mean that many words that formerly rhymed (and may be expected to rhyme based on their spelling) no longer do.Шаблон:Sfnp For example, in Shakespeare's time, following the Great Vowel Shift, food, good and blood all had the vowel Шаблон:IPA, but in modern pronunciation good has been shortened to Шаблон:IPA, while blood has been shortened and lowered to Шаблон:IPA in most accents. In other cases, words that were formerly distinct have come to be pronounced the same – examples of such mergers include meet–meat, pane–pain and toe–tow.
Controversial issues
Velar nasal
The phonemic status of the velar nasal consonant Шаблон:IPA is disputed; one analysis claims that the only nasal phonemes in English are Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA, while Шаблон:IPA is an allophone of Шаблон:IPA found before velar consonants. Evidence in support of this analysis is found in accents of the north-west Midlands of England where Шаблон:IPA is found only before Шаблон:IPA or Шаблон:IPA, with sung being pronounced as Шаблон:IPA. However, in most other accents of English sung is pronounced Шаблон:IPA, producing a three-way phonemic contrast sum – sun – sung Шаблон:IPA and supporting the analysis of the phonemic status of Шаблон:IPA. In support of treating the velar nasal as an allophone of Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:Harvcoltxt claims on psychological grounds that Шаблон:IPA did not form part of a series of three nasal consonants: "no naïve English-speaking person can be made to feel in his bones that it belongs to a single series with m and n. ... It still feels like ƞg."Шаблон:Sfnp More recent writers have indicated that analyses of Шаблон:IPA as an allophone of Шаблон:IPA may still have merit, even though Шаблон:IPA may appear both with and without a following velar consonant; in such analyses, an underlying Шаблон:IPA that is deleted by a phonological rule would account for occurrences of Шаблон:IPA not followed by a velar consonant.Шаблон:SfnpШаблон:SfnpШаблон:Sfn Thus the phonemic representation of sing would be Шаблон:IPA and that of singer is Шаблон:IPA; in order to reach the phonetic form Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA, it is necessary to apply a rule that changes Шаблон:IPA to Шаблон:IPA before Шаблон:IPA or Шаблон:IPA, then a second rule that deletes Шаблон:IPA when it follows Шаблон:IPA.
- 1. Шаблон:IPA → Шаблон:IPA / ____ velar consonant
- 2. Шаблон:IPA → ∅ / Шаблон:IPA _____
These produce the following results:
Word | Underlying phonological form | Phonetic form |
---|---|---|
sing | Шаблон:IPA | Шаблон:IPA |
singer | Шаблон:IPA | Шаблон:IPA |
singing | Шаблон:IPA | Шаблон:IPA |
However, these rules do not predict the following phonetic forms:
Word | Underlying phonological form | Phonetic form |
---|---|---|
anger | Шаблон:IPA | Шаблон:IPA |
finger | Шаблон:IPA | Шаблон:IPA |
hunger | Шаблон:IPA | Шаблон:IPA |
In the above cases, the Шаблон:IPA is not deleted. The words are all single morphemes, unlike singer and singing which are composed of two morphemes, sing plus -er or -ing. Rule 2 can be amended to include a symbol # for a morpheme boundary (including word boundary):
2. Шаблон:IPA
This rule then applies to sing, singer and singing but not to anger, finger, or hunger.
According to this rule, the words hangar ('shed for aircraft'), which contains no internal morpheme boundary, and hanger ('object for hanging clothes'), which comprises two morphemes, are expected to constitute a minimal pair as hangar Шаблон:IPA versus hanger Шаблон:IPA; in actuality, their pronunciations are not consistently distinguished in this manner, as hangar is frequently pronounced Шаблон:IPA.
Additionally, there are exceptions in the form of comparative and superlative forms of adjectives, where Rule 2 must be prevented from applying. The ending -ish is another possible exception.
Word | Underlying phonological form | Phonetic form |
---|---|---|
long | Шаблон:IPA | Шаблон:IPA |
longer | Шаблон:IPA | Шаблон:IPA |
longest | Шаблон:IPA | Шаблон:IPA |
longish | Шаблон:IPA | Шаблон:IPA |
As a result, there is, in theory, a minimal pair consisting of longer (Шаблон:IPA 'more long') and longer (Шаблон:IPA 'person who longs'), though it is doubtful that native speakers make this distinction regularly.Шаблон:Sfnp Names of persons and places, and loanwords, are less predictable. Singapore may be pronounced with or without Шаблон:IPA; bungalow usually has Шаблон:IPA; and Inge may or may not have Шаблон:IPA.Шаблон:Sfnp
Vowel system
It is often stated that English has a particularly large number of vowel phonemes and that there are 20 vowel phonemes in Received Pronunciation,Шаблон:Sfnp 14–16 in General American, and 20–21 in Australian English. These numbers, however, reflect just one of many possible phonological analyses. A number of "biphonemic" analyses have proposed that English has a basic set of short (sometimes called "simple" or "checked") vowels, each of which can be shown to be a phoneme and can be combined with another phoneme to form long vowels and diphthongs. One of these biphonemic analyses asserts that diphthongs and long vowels may be interpreted as comprising a short vowel linked to a consonant. The fullest exposition of this approach is found in Шаблон:Harvcoltxt, where all long vowels and diphthongs ("complex nuclei") are made up of a short vowel combined with either Шаблон:IPA (for which the authors use the symbol Шаблон:Angbr), Шаблон:IPA or Шаблон:IPA (plus Шаблон:IPA for rhotic accents), each thus comprising two phonemes.Шаблон:Sfnp Using this system, the word bite would be transcribed Шаблон:IPA, bout as Шаблон:IPA, bar as Шаблон:IPA and bra as Шаблон:IPA. One attraction that the authors claim for this analysis is that it regularizes the distribution of the consonants Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, and Шаблон:IPA (as well as Шаблон:IPA in non-rhotic accents), which would otherwise not be found in syllable-final position. Шаблон:Harvcoltxt suggest nine simple vowel phonemes to allow them to represent all the accents of American and British English they surveyed, symbolized Шаблон:IPA (front vowels); Шаблон:IPA (central vowels); and Шаблон:IPA (back vowels).
The analysis from Шаблон:Harvcoltxt came out of a desire to build an "overall system" to accommodate all English dialects, with dialectal distinctions arising from differences in the ordering of phonological rules,Шаблон:SfnpШаблон:Sfnp as well as in the presence or absence of such rules.Шаблон:Sfnp Another category of biphonemic analyses of English treats long vowels and diphthongs as conjunctions of two vowels. Such analyses, as found in Шаблон:Harvcoltxt or Шаблон:Harvcoltxt for example, are less concerned with dialectal variation. In Шаблон:Harvcoltxt, for example, there are seven basic vowels and these may be doubled (geminated) to represent long vowels, as shown in the table below:
Short vowel | Long vowel |
---|---|
i (bit) | ii (beet) |
e (bet) | |
a (cat) | aa (cart) |
o (cot) | oo (caught) |
u (pull) | uu (pool) |
ə (collect) | əə (curl) |
Some of the short vowels may also be combined with Шаблон:IPA (Шаблон:IPA bay, Шаблон:IPA buy, Шаблон:IPA boy), with Шаблон:IPA (Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA beau) or with Шаблон:IPA (Шаблон:IPA peer, Шаблон:IPA pair, Шаблон:IPA poor). The vowel inventory of English RP in MacCarthy's system therefore totals only seven phonemes. Analyses such as these could also posit six vowel phonemes, if the vowel of the final syllable in comma is considered to be an unstressed allophone of that of strut. These seven vowels might be symbolized Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA. Six or seven vowels is a figure that would put English much closer to the average number of vowel phonemes in other languages.Шаблон:Sfn
A radically different approach to the English vowel system was proposed by Chomsky and Halle. Their Sound Pattern of English Шаблон:Harvcol proposed that English has lax and tense vowel phonemes, which are operated on by a complex set of phonological rules to transform underlying phonological forms into surface phonetic representations. This generative analysis is not easily comparable with conventional analyses, but the total number of vowel phonemes proposed falls well short of the figure of 20 often claimed as the number of English vowel phonemes.
See also
- Australian English phonology
- English orthography
- English pronunciation of Greek letters
- General American
- Non-native pronunciations of English
- Old English phonology
- Perception of English /r/ and /l/ by Japanese speakers
- Phonological development
- Phonological history of English vowels
- Phonological history of English consonants
- Pronunciation of English ⟨th⟩
- Received Pronunciation
- Regional accents of English
- Rhoticity in English
- T-glottalization
- R-colored vowel
- International Phonetic Alphabet chart for English dialects
- Category:Splits and mergers in English phonology
Notes
References
Citations
Sources
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Further reading
- Шаблон:Cite journal
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- Campbell, F., Gick, B., Wilson, I., Vatikiotis-Bateson, E. (2010), "Spatial and Temporal Properties of Gestures in North American English /r/". Child's Language and Speech, 53 (1): 49–69
- Шаблон:Citation
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- Dalcher Villafaña, C., Knight, R.A., Jones, M.J., (2008), "Cue Switching in the Perception of Approximants: Evidence from Two English Dialects". University of Pennsylvania Working Papers in Linguistics, 14 (2): 63–64
- Espy-Wilson, C. (2004), "Articulatory Strategies, speech Acoustics and Variability". From Sound to Sense June 11 – June 13 at MIT: 62–63
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- Hagiwara, R., Fosnot, S. M., & Alessi, D. M. (2002). "Acoustic phonetics in a clinical setting: A case study of /r/-distortion therapy with surgical intervention". Clinical linguistics & phonetics, 16 (6): 425–441.
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- Hoff, Erika, (2009), Language Development. Scarborough, Ontario. Cengage Learning, 2005.
- Howard, S. (2007), "The interplay between articulation and prosody in children with impaired speech: Observations from electropalatographic and perceptual analysis". International Journal of Speech-Language Pathology, 9 (1): 20–35.
- Шаблон:Citation
- Locke, John L., (1983), Phonological Acquisition and Change. New York, United States. Academic Press, 1983. Print.
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- Sharf, D.J., Benson, P.J. (1982), "Identification of synthesized/r-w/continua for adult and child speakers". Donald J. Acoustical Society of America, 71 (4):1008–1015.
- Wise, Claude Merton (1957), Applied Phonetics, Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
External links
Шаблон:Description of English Шаблон:Language phonologies Шаблон:Authority control