Английская Википедия:Ethnic groups in Chinese history

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Файл:Han foreign relations CE 2.jpg

Map of the Chinese Han dynasty in 2 CE. Names of non-Chinese peoples and states have been purposely left with their Chinese names (e.g. Dayuan instead of Fergana; Gaogouli instead of Goguryeo) to reflect the fact that our knowledge of participants in the Han world order comes almost exclusively from Chinese sources.

Файл:Tang dynasty1.PNG

Map of Tang dynasty China, showing some of the surrounding ethnic (and other) groups or the geographical areas these groups were located.

Ethnic groups in Chinese history refer to various or presumed ethnicities of significance to the history of China, gathered through the study of Classical Chinese literature, Chinese and non-Chinese literary sources and inscriptions, historical linguistics, and archaeological research.

Among the difficulties in the study of ethnic groups in China are the relatively long periods of time involved, together with the large volume of literary and historical records which have accompanied the history of China. Classical Chinese ethnography (like much premodern ethnography) was often sketchy, leaving it unclear as to whether Chinese-depicted names referred to a true ethnic group or a possibly multiethnic political entity. Even then, ethnonyms were sometimes assigned by geographic location or surrounding features, rather than by any features of the people themselves, and often carried little distinction of who the Han Chinese authors considered Chinese and non-Chinese for differences such as lifestyle, language, or governance. Many of the ethnonyms were historically used in such a way as to invite comparison with the word barbarian.

English names

The Chinese exonyms of various ethnic groups encountered in Chinese history can be rendered into English either by transliteration or translation; for instance, Dí 狄 is transliterated as Di (or Ti) or translated as "Northern Barbarians". In some cases authors prefer to transliterate specific exonyms as proper nouns, and in other cases to translate generic ones as English "barbarian" (for instance, "Four Barbarians"). The American sinologist Marc S. Abramson explains why "barbarian" is the appropriate translation for general terms like fan 番 and hu 胡, but not specific ones like fancai 番菜 "foreign-style food".

Translations such as "foreigner" and "alien," though possessing an air of scholarly neutrality, are inappropriate as a general translation because they primarily connote geographic and political outsiderness, implying that individuals and groups so designated were external to the Tang Empire and ineligible to become subjects of the empire. This was frequently not the case with many uses of fan and related terms — most common among them were hu (often used in the Tang to denote Central Asians) and four ethnonyms of great antiquity that, by the Tang, were mostly used generically with implicit geographic connotations: yi (east), man (south), rong (west), and di (north) — that largely connoted cultural and ethnic otherness but did not exclude the designated persons or groups from membership in the empire. Although the term barbarian has undergone many transformations from its Greek origins to its current English usage, not all of which are relevant to the Tang (such as its use in medieval Europe to denote religious difference, marking non-Christians of various ethnic, geographic, and political affiliations), its consistent association with inferiority, lack of civilization, and externality in the broadest sense often make it the most appropriate choice, including some cases when it is placed in the mouths of non-Han referring to themselves or others. However, its pejorative connotations make it inappropriate as a general translation. Thus, I have chosen not to translate these terms when they designate particular groups, individuals, or phenomena and do not refer to a specific ethnic group, language, geographic place, or cultural complex.

List of ethnic groups

Шаблон:Incomplete list Шаблон:Further The following table summarizes the various ethnic groups and/or other social groups of known historical significance to the history of China (any non clear-cut connection is denoted by a question mark):

Pinyin Romanization	Names in Chinese characters and pronunciation	Approximate residence according to Chinese texts	Time of appearance in the history of China	Equivalence(s) of non-Chinese names	Time of appearance outside China	Possible descendant(s)
Miao	苗 (Miáo)	Name applied to peoples in various areas stretching from provinces (Hebei, Shanxi) north of the Yellow River to Yunnan province	As early as 25th century BC to presentШаблон:Citation needed	Hmong, Hmu, Xong, A Hmao	N/A	Modern Miao, Hmong
Yuezhi	月氏 (Yuèzhī)	Tarim basin	c. 6th century BC to 162 BC, then driven out by Xiongnu.	Kushans, Tocharians	Mid-2nd century BC in Central Asia	No known descendants, but possibly absorbed into the Uyghurs, who now show a large plurality of Indo-European DNA. Maybe the descendants of the Kushan Empire are the Pashtuns.
Huaxia	華夏 (Huáxià) 漢人 (Hànrén)	Guanzhong and Yellow River basins in Northern China	From earliest history or prehistorical (name comes from the Han dynasty)	Yanhuang, Zhonghua, Zhongguo, Huaxia, Hua, Xia, Han, Han Chinese, Chinese	Han dynasty	Modern Han Chinese
Baiyue	百越 (Bǎiyuè)	Name applied to various peoples residing in East China, South China	8th century BC to 1st century AD, assimilated into Hans	No known equivalence	Early 6th Century BC to 3rd century AD	Part of Cantonese, along with various ethnic minorities such as the Zhuang, Dai, Tai, Bouyei, Aisui, Kam, Hlai, Mulam, and Maonan.
Wu and Yue	吴越 (Wúyuè)	Present-day Southern Jiangsu province, Northern Zhejiang province, Shanghai	8th century BC to 5th century BC	No known equivalence	N/A	Wu Chinese people
Minyue	閩越 (Mǐnyuè)	Present day Fujian province	4th century BC to 2nd century BC	No known equivalence	N/A	Min Chinese people
Luoyue	雒越 (Luòyuè)	Present day Northern Vietnam,Southern Guangxi province	8th century BC to 1st century AD	No known equivalence	N/A	Zhuang people, Hlai people
Ouyue	甌越 (Ōuyuè)	Present day Northern Vietnam, western Guangdong, and northern Guangxi	4th century BC	No known equivalence	N/A	Cantonese, Zhuang
Yelang	夜郎(Yèláng)	Guizhou	3rd century BC to 1st century BC	Zangke	N/A	Possibly Yi
Wuhuan	烏桓 (Wūhuán)	Western portions of Manchuria (Heilongjiang, Jilin, Liaoning provinces) and Inner Mongolia	4th century BC to late 3rd century BC, assimilated into Hans	No known equivalence	N/A	Possibly Kumo Xi; the rest were presumably assimilated into Hans.
Xianbei	鮮卑 (Xiānbēi)	Manchuria (Heilongjiang, Jilin, Liaoning provinces), Mongolia, and Inner Mongolia. Moved into areas north of the Yellow River and founded a dynasty there.	c. 4th century BC to mid-6th century, some Xianbeis assimilated into Hans	N/A	N/A	Possibly some of the Mongols, Tibetans, Monguor people, Sibe people, Evenks, and Chinese (some Chinese people today have the sinicised presumably Xianbei surnames such as Yuwen, Yuchi, Zhangsun, Tuoba, Murong and Huyan)
Qiang	羌 (Qiāng)	Gansu, Qinghai, western portion of Sichuan, eastern portion of Xinjiang, and northeastern portion of Tibet	Mentioned in oracle bone inscriptions of the Shang dynasty, c. 14th century BC to c. 1050 BC. c. 4th century BC to late 5th century, assimilated into Hans	No known equivalence	N/A	Modern Qiang, Tangut, Old Tibetan, Nakhi, Jingpho, and Lahu
Di	氐 (Dī)	Areas of neighboring borders of Gansu, Qinghai, Sichuan, and Shaanxi	c. 8th century BC to mid-6th century, assimilated into Tibetans, Hans and other Sino-Tibetan - speaking ethnic groups	No known equivalence	N/A	Baima people
Jie	羯 (Jié)	Shanxi province	Late 2nd century to mid-4th century	No known equivalence	N/A	The majority died in the Ran Wei–Later Zhao war, the rest assimilated into Hans. Some Turkic people or Yeniseian people may be related to the Jie.
Dian	滇國 (diānguó)	Dian Lake, Yunnan	4th century BC to 1st century BC, assimilated into Hans	No known equivalence	N/A	No known descendants.
Qiuci	龜茲 (Qiūcí)	Tarim Basin, Xinjiang	2nd century BC to 10th century AD, first encountered during the reign of Emperor Wu of Han; assimilated by Uyghurs and others	Tocharians	Date unknown, although they were part of the Bronze Age Indo-European migrations (see Tarim mummies)	During antiquity, Indo-European peoples inhabited the oasis city-state of Kucha (as well as Turfan) in the Tarim Basin region of Xinjiang. They fell under the Imperial Chinese orbit of control during the Han and Tang dynasties (see Protectorate of the Western Regions, Tang campaign against the oasis states, and Protectorate General to Pacify the West), but were eventually conquered by the Uyghur Khaganate and then assimilated by Qocho Uyghurs (856-1335 AD).
Dingling	丁零 (Dīnglíng), 高車 (Gāochē)	Banks of Lake Baikal and on the borders of present-day Mongolia and Russia, migrated to modern-day Shanxi and Xinjiang	1st century BC to late 5th century	Gaoche, Chile	1st century BC	Tiele
Rouran	柔然 (Róurán), 蠕蠕 (Rúrú), 茹茹 (Rúrú)	Present-day Mongolia, Inner Mongolia, northern portions of Shanxi, Shaanxi, Gansu, Ningxia, and eastern portion of Xinjiang	Early 3rd century to early 6th century	Nirun/Mongols (possibly others falling under the label as well)	Late 6th century to early 9th century	Mongols
Tujue	突厥 (Tūjué)	Present-day Mongolia, Inner Mongolia, northern portions of Shanxi, Shaanxi, Gansu, Ningxia, Xinjiang, and eastern portion of Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan	Late 5th century to mid-10th century	Göktürks	Mid-6th century to early 9th century	The eastern Turks assimilated mainly to the Orkhon Uyghurs who conquered them; as for several Western-Turkic-affiliated tribes: Karluks (standard Chinese: Géluólù 葛邏祿) became linguistic ancestors and partial genetic ancestors of modern Karluk Turkic speakers; Oghuz Turks possibly descend from the Western Turkic tribe Gūsū 姑蘇.); the Khazars, whose political association with Göktürks was suggested by their Chinese name 突厥曷薩 Tūjué Hésà; 突厥可薩 Tūjué Kěsà, lit. 'Türk Khazar', were possibly led by the Ashina clan. The Shatuo Turks consisted of three tribes: the formerly Western Turkic-associated Chuyue tribe, the formerly Türgesh-associated Suoge (娑葛), and Anqing (安慶) of Sogdian origins.
Huihu	回紇 (Huíhé)	Present-day Mongolia, Inner Mongolia, northern portions of Shanxi, Shaanxi, Gansu, Ningxia	Early 7th century to mid-10th century	Toquz Oghuz, Uyghurs or Yugurs	Early 9th century to present	Yugur
Tibetans	吐蕃 (Tǔbō, also pronounced as Tǔfān)	Present-day Tibet, Qinghai, western areas of Sichuan and Yunnan, parts of Gansu, Southern border of Xinjiang	Mid-6th century to present	N/A	Early 6th century to present, a 2016 study reveals the date of divergence between Tibetans and Han Chinese was estimated to have taken place around 15,000 to 9,000 years ago.	Modern Tibetans
Khitans	契丹 (Qìdān)	Present-day Mongolia, Inner Mongolia, Manchuria, Liaoning, northern border of Shanxi and Hebei, and later in Xinjiang and eastern border of Kazakhstan	c. 4th century to 12th century	Khitan	4th century to 12th century	Possibly Daur, and some Baarins, Chinese, Mongolians (There exist descendants of war-scattered Khitan soldiers sent to Yunnan and Guangxi provinces during the Yuan dynasty in Baoshan, Yunnan)
Xi or Kumo Xi	庫莫奚 (Kùmòxī)	More or less the same residence of the Khitans, since regarded as two ethnic groups with one unique ancestry	Pre-4th century to mid-12th century	No known equivalence	N/A	No known descendants (possibly Mongols)
Shiwei	室韋 (Shìwéi)	Present-day Mongolia, Inner Mongolia, western Manchuria and southern Siberia	Late 6th century to late 10th century	No known equivalence	N/A	Conquered by Khitans, splinter groups and remnants re-emerged as Mongols and Tungusic peoples
Menggu	蒙古 (Ménggǔ)	Present-day Mongolia, Inner Mongolia, western Manchuria, southern Siberia, and eastern and central Xinjiang before Genghis Khan	Since late c. 8th century	Mongols	Late 12th century to present	Mongols There remain descendants of Mongol soldiers sent to Sichuan, Yunnan, and Guangxi provinces during the Yuan dynasty.
Dangxiang	党項 (Dǎngxiàng)	Ningxia, Gansu, northern portions of Shanxi, southwestern portion of Mongolia, Southeastern portion of Xinjiang	c. Mid-8th century to early 13th century, some Dangxiang assimilated into Hans	Tanguts	N/A	Part of the Hui community (Dungan), Ersu, part of Amdo Tibetans, part of Han Chinese in Mizhi, Shaanxi.)
Sai	塞 (Sāi)	Widespread throughout Central Asia	2nd century BC to 1st century BC	Saka	5th century BC	Maybe ancestral to the Pashtuns and the Wakhi.
Sute	粟特 (Sùtè)	Widespread throughout Central Asia; also lived in China proper	1st century BC to 11th century AD	Sogdians	6th century BC	Modern Yagnobi people.
Manchus	女真 (Nǚzhēn), 滿族 (Mǎnzú)	Manchuria and northern portion of Inner Mongolia	Early 10th century to present, established the Jin and Qing dynasties, many Manchus have lost their native Manchu language and only speak Mandarin Chinese	Mohe, Jurchens, Mancho, Manchurian, Manchurian Chinese	Since mid-17th century, first encountered by the Russians	Modern Manchus. Largest minority ethnic group in the Dongbei region. Modern Manchus have mostly lost their language and by and large have assimilated into Han Chinese culture, though there are some distinctive aspects that still remain.
Jews	猶太 (Yóutài)	Kaifeng	7th century to present, many Jews have very much assimilated into Hui people after converting to Islam. The Nanjing and Beijing Jews became Muslims At the start of the 20th century the Zhang Kaifeng Jewish family became Muslims. Muslim men married Jewish women. Some Jews adopted non-Jewish sons. After the 1642 Yellow River flood some Muslim women were taken as wives by a Kaifeng Jew "the handsome" Zhang Mei (Chang Mei). Kaifeng Jews became Muslims. Islam was taken up after Kaifeng Jews married Muslims. The converts to Islam retained Jewish characteristics after conversion.	Jewish, Jewish Chinese, Hebrews, Israelites, Youtai	N/A	Modern Jews. Kaifeng is known for having the oldest extent Jewish community in China. Many Chinese Jews have very much assimilated into Hui Muslims, though a number of international Jewish groups have helped Chinese Jews rediscover their Jewish roots. Kaifeng Jewish ancestry has been found among their descendants living among the Hui Muslims, such as during a hajj pilgrimage the Hui Muslim woman Jin Xiaojing (金效靜) found out about her Jewish ancestry and wrote about it in an article, "China's Jews" (中国的犹太人) published in "Points East" in 1981. Scholars have pointed out that Hui Muslims may have absorbed Kaifeng Jews instead of Han Confucians and Buddhists. Jewish converts to Islam who became Hui Muslims in 16th century China were called the blue hat Hui (藍帽回回) since they converted to Islam due to similarities in their traditions. One of the 7 prominent Hui Muslim clans of Kaifeng, the Zhang Jewish clan, became Muslim. The Zhang family, among several Hui Muslims with Kaifeng Jewish ancestry call themselves "fake Muslims" since hey are openly proud of their ancestry Instead of being absorbed into Han, a portion of the Jews of China of Kaifeng became Hui Muslims. In 1948 Samuel Stupa Shih (Shi Hong Mo) (施洪模) said he saw a Hebrew language "Religion of Israel" Jewish inscription on a tombstone in a Qing dynasty Muslim cemetery to a place west of Hangzhou.
Joseonjok	朝鮮族 (Cháoxiǎnzú)	Heilongjiang, Jilin, Liaoning, primarily Southeastern Manchuria	mid 7th century to present, some Koreans assimilated into Hui people.	Hanminjok, Joseonminjok, Goryeo, Hanguo, Chaoxian, Korean, Korean-Chinese	N/A	Modern Koreans

See also

• Barbarian
• Ethnic minorities in China
• Graphic pejoratives in written Chinese
• History of China
• List of ethnic groups in China
• Secession in China
• Wu Hu

References

Sources

Books

• Abramson, Marc S. (2008). Ethnic Identity in Tang China. University of Pennsylvania Press.
• Beckwith, Christopher I. (2009): Empires of the Silk Road: A History of Central Eurasia from the Bronze Age to the Present. Princeton: Princeton University Press. Шаблон:ISBN.
• Wu, K. C. (1982). The Chinese Heritage. New York: Crown Publishers. Шаблон:ISBN.