Английская Википедия:Gemination

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Шаблон:Short description Шаблон:For Шаблон:For Шаблон:Distinguish

In phonetics and phonology, gemination (Шаблон:IPAc-en; from Latin Шаблон:Lang 'doubling', itself from gemini 'twins'[1]), or consonant lengthening, is an articulation of a consonant for a longer period of time than that of a singleton consonant.[2] It is distinct from stress. Gemination is represented in many writing systems by a doubled letter and is often perceived as a doubling of the consonant.[3] Some phonological theories use 'doubling' as a synonym for gemination, while others describe two distinct phenomena.[3]

Consonant length is a distinctive feature in certain languages, such as Arabic, Berber, Danish,Шаблон:Citation needed Estonian, Finnish, Hindi, Hungarian, Italian, Japanese, Kannada, Malayalam, Punjabi, Polish and Turkish. Other languages, such as English, do not have word-internal phonemic consonant geminates.

Consonant gemination and vowel length are independent in languages like Arabic, Japanese, Finnish and Estonian; however, in languages like Italian, Norwegian and Swedish, vowel length and consonant length are interdependent. For example, in Norwegian and Swedish, a geminated consonant is always preceded by a short vowel, while an ungeminated consonant is preceded by a long vowel. A clear example are the Norwegian words Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA-no ('ceiling or roof' of a building), and Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA-no ('thanks').Шаблон:Citation needed

Phonetics

Lengthened fricatives, nasals, laterals, approximants and trills are simply prolonged. In lengthened stops, the obstruction of the airway is prolonged, which delays release, and the "hold" is lengthened.

In terms of consonant duration, Berber and Finnish are reported to have a 3-to-1 ratio,[4] compared with around 2-to-1 (or lower) in Japanese,[5] Italian, and Turkish.[4]

Phonology

Gemination of consonants is distinctive in some languages and then is subject to various phonological constraints that depend on the language.

In some languages, like Italian, Swedish, Faroese, Icelandic, and Luganda, consonant length and vowel length depend on each other. A short vowel within a stressed syllable almost always precedes a long consonant or a consonant cluster, and a long vowel must be followed by a short consonant. In Classical Arabic, a long vowel was lengthened even more before permanently-geminate consonants.

In other languages, such as Finnish, consonant length and vowel length are independent of each other. In Finnish, both are phonemic; Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA 'back', Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA 'fireplace' and Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA 'burden' are different, unrelated words. Finnish consonant length is also affected by consonant gradation. Another important phenomenon is sandhi, which produces long consonants at word boundaries when there is an archiphonemic glottal stop Шаблон:IPA > Шаблон:Lang 'take it (imperative)!'.

In addition, in some Finnish compound words, if the initial word ends in an Шаблон:Lang, the initial consonant of the following word is geminated: Шаблон:Lang 'trash bag' Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:Lang 'welcome' Шаблон:IPA. In certain cases, a Шаблон:Lang after a Шаблон:Lang is geminated by most people: Шаблон:Lang 'screw' Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:Lang 'baby' Шаблон:IPA. In the Tampere dialect, if a word receives gemination of Шаблон:Lang after Шаблон:Lang, the Шаблон:Lang is often deleted (Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA), and Шаблон:Lang 'Saturday', for example, receives a medial Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA, which can in turn lead to deletion of Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:IPA).

Distinctive consonant length is usually restricted to certain consonants and environments. There are very few languages that have initial consonant length; among those that do are Pattani Malay, Chuukese, Moroccan Arabic, a few Romance languages such as Sicilian and Neapolitan, as well as many High Alemannic German dialects, such as that of Thurgovia. Some African languages, such as Setswana and Luganda, also have initial consonant length: it is very common in Luganda and indicates certain grammatical features. In colloquial Finnish and Italian, long consonants occur in specific instances as sandhi phenomena.

The difference between singleton and geminate consonants varies within and across languages. Sonorants show more distinct geminate-to-singleton ratios while sibilants have less distinct ratios. The bilabial and alveolar geminates are generally longer than velar ones.[4]

The reverse of gemination reduces a long consonant to a short one, which is called degemination. It is a pattern in Baltic-Finnic consonant gradation that the strong grade (often the nominative) form of the word is degeminated into a weak grade (often all the other cases) form of the word: Шаблон:Lang > Шаблон:Lang (burden, of the burden). As a historical restructuring at the phonemic level, word-internal long consonants degeminated in Western Romance languages: e.g. Spanish /ˈboka/ 'mouth' vs. Italian /ˈbokka/, both of which evolved from Latin /ˈbukka/.[6]

Examples

Afroasiatic languages

Arabic

Written Arabic indicates gemination with a diacritic ([[Arabic diacritics|Шаблон:Transliteration]]) shaped like a lowercase Greek omega or a rounded Latin w, called the Шаблон:Lang [[shadda|Шаблон:Transliteration]]: Шаблон:Lang. Written above the consonant that is to be doubled, the Шаблон:Transliteration is often used to disambiguate words that differ only in the doubling of a consonant where the word intended is not clear from the context. For example, in Arabic, Form I verbs and Form II verbs differ only in the doubling of the middle consonant of the triliteral root in the latter form, e. g., Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Transliteration (with full diacritics: Шаблон:Lang) is a Form I verb meaning to study, whereas Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Transliteration (with full diacritics: Шаблон:Lang) is the corresponding Form II verb, with the middle Шаблон:Transliteration consonant doubled, meaning to teach.

Berber

In Berber, each consonant has a geminate counterpart, and gemination is lexically contrastive. The distinction between single and geminate consonants is attested in medial position as well as in absolute initial and final positions.

In addition to lexical geminates, Berber also has phonologically-derived and morphologically-derived geminates. Phonological alternations can surface by concatenation (e.g., Шаблон:IPA 'give him two!') or by complete assimilation (e.g. Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA 'he will touch you'). Morphological alternations include imperfective gemination, with some Berber verbs forming their imperfective stem by geminating one consonant in their perfective stem (e.g., Шаблон:IPA 'go! PF', Шаблон:IPA 'go! IMPF'), as well as quantity alternations between singular and plural forms (e.g., Шаблон:IPA 'hand', Шаблон:IPA 'hands').

Austronesian languages

Austronesian languages in the Philippines, Micronesia, and Sulawesi are known to have geminate consonants.[7]

Kavalan

The Formosan language Kavalan makes use of gemination to mark intensity, as in Шаблон:Lang 'bad' vs. Шаблон:Lang 'very bad'.[7]

Malay dialects

Word-initial gemination occurs in various Malay dialects, particularly those found on the east coast of the Malay Peninsula such as Kelantan-Pattani Malay and Terengganu Malay.[8][9] Gemination in these dialects of Malay occurs for various purposes such as:

Tuvaluan

The Polynesian language Tuvaluan allows for word-initial geminates, such as Шаблон:Lang 'overcooked'.[10]

Indo-European languages

English

In English phonology, consonant length is not distinctive within root words. For instance, baggage is pronounced Шаблон:IPAc-en, not Шаблон:IPA. However, phonetic gemination does occur marginally.

Gemination is found across words and across morphemes when the last consonant in a given word and the first consonant in the following word are the same fricative, nasal, or stop.[11]

For instance:

With affricates, however, this does not occur. For instance:

In most instances, the absence of this doubling does not affect the meaning, though it may confuse the listener momentarily. The following minimal pairs represent examples where the doubling does affect the meaning in most accents:

In some dialects gemination is also found for some words when the suffix -ly follows a root ending in -l or -ll, as in:

but not

In some varieties of Welsh English, the process takes place indiscriminately between vowels, e.g. in money Шаблон:IPA but it also applies with graphemic duplication (thus, orthographically dictated), e.g. butter Шаблон:IPA[12]

French

In French, gemination is usually not phonologically relevant and therefore does not allow words to be distinguished: it mostly corresponds to an accent of insistence (Шаблон:Lang realised Шаблон:IPA), or meets hyper-correction criteria: one "corrects" one's pronunciation, despite the usual phonology, to be closer to a realization that one imagines to be more correct: thus, the word illusion is sometimes pronounced Шаблон:IPA by influence of the spelling.

However, gemination is distinctive in a few cases. Statements such as Шаблон:Lang ('she said') ~ Шаблон:Lang ('she said it') Шаблон:IPA ~ Шаблон:IPA can commonly be distinguished by gemination. In a more sustained pronunciation, gemination distinguishes the conditional (and possibly the future tense) from the imperfect: Шаблон:Lang 'will run' Шаблон:IPA vs. Шаблон:Lang 'ran' Шаблон:IPA, or the indicative from the subjunctive, as in Шаблон:Lang 'we believe' Шаблон:IPA vs. Шаблон:Lang 'we believed' Шаблон:IPA.

Greek

Шаблон:See also In Ancient Greek, consonant length was distinctive, e.g., Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA 'I am of interest' vs. Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA 'I am going to'. The distinction has been lost in the standard and most other varieties, with the exception of Cypriot (where it might carry over from Ancient Greek or arise from a number of synchronic and diachronic assimilatory processes, or even spontaneously), some varieties of the southeastern Aegean, and Italy.

Hindustani

Gemination is common in both Hindi and Urdu. It does not occur after long vowels and is found in words of both Indic and Arabic origin, but not in those of Persian origin. In Urdu, gemination is represented by the Shadda diacritic, which is usually omitted from writings, and mainly written to clear ambiguity. In Hindi, gemination is represented by doubling the geminated consonant, enjoined with the Virama diacritic.

Transliteration Hindi Urdu Meaning Etymology
Шаблон:Transliteration Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang 'leaf' Sanskrit
Шаблон:Transliteration Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang 'father' Arabic
Шаблон:Transliteration Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang 'anti-christ'
Шаблон:Transliteration Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang 'box' Sanskrit
Шаблон:Transliteration Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang 'heaven' Arabic
Шаблон:Transliteration Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang 'mattress' Sanskrit
Aspirated consonants

Gemination of aspirated consonants in Hindi are formed by combining the corresponding non-aspirated consonant followed by its aspirated counterpart. In vocalised Urdu, the shadda is placed on the unaspirated consonant followed by the short vowel diacritic, followed by the do-cashmī hē, which aspirates the preceding consonant. There are few examples where an aspirated consonant is truly doubled.

Examples of aspirated gemination
Transliteration Hindi Urdu Meaning
Шаблон:Transliteration Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang 'stone'
Шаблон:Transliteration Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang brown spread on Шаблон:Transliteration
Шаблон:Transliteration Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Hindi slang/short for 'half' – Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Transliteration)
Шаблон:Transliteration Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang 'fly'

Italian

Шаблон:See also Italian is notable among the Romance languages for its extensive geminated consonants. In Standard Italian, word-internal geminates are usually written with two consonants, and geminates are distinctive.[13] For example, Шаблон:Lang, meaning 'he/she drank', is phonemically Шаблон:IPA and pronounced Шаблон:IPA-it, while Шаблон:Lang ('he/she drinks/is drinking') is Шаблон:IPA, pronounced Шаблон:IPA-it. Tonic syllables are bimoraic and are therefore composed of either a long vowel in an open syllable (as in Шаблон:Lang) or a short vowel in a closed syllable (as in Шаблон:Lang). In varieties with post-vocalic weakening of some consonants (e.g. Шаблон:IPA → Шаблон:IPA 'reason'), geminates are not affected (Шаблон:IPA → Шаблон:IPA 'May').

Double or long consonants occur not only within words but also at word boundaries, and they are then pronounced but not necessarily written: Шаблон:Lang + Шаблон:Lang = Шаблон:Lang ('who knows') Шаблон:IPA-it and Шаблон:Lang ('I am going home') Шаблон:IPA-it. All consonants except Шаблон:IPAslink can be geminated. This word-initial gemination is triggered either lexically by the item preceding the lengthening consonant (e.g. by preposition Шаблон:Lang 'to, at' in Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:Lang 'homeward' but not by definite article Шаблон:Lang in Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:Lang 'the house'), or by any word-final stressed vowel ([[[:Шаблон:IPA]]] Шаблон:Lang 's/he spoke French' but [[[:Шаблон:IPA]]] Шаблон:Lang 'I speak French').

Latin

In Latin, consonant length was distinctive, as in Шаблон:Lang 'old woman' vs. Шаблон:Lang 'year'. Vowel length was also distinctive in Latin until about the fourth century, and was reflected in the orthography with an apex. Geminates inherited from Latin still exist in Italian, in which Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:Lang and Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:Lang contrast with regard to Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA as in Latin. It has been almost completely lost in French and completely in Romanian. In West Iberian languages, former Latin geminate consonants often evolved to new phonemes, including some instances of nasal vowels in Portuguese and Old Galician as well as most cases of Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA in Spanish, but phonetic length of both consonants and vowels is no longer distinctive.

Nepali

In Nepali, all consonants have geminate counterparts except for Шаблон:IPA. Geminates occur only medially.[14] Examples:

Norwegian

In Norwegian, gemination is indicated in writing by double consonants. Gemination often differentiates between unrelated words. As in Italian, Norwegian uses short vowels before doubled consonants and long vowels before single consonants. There are qualitative differences between short and long vowels:

Polish

In Polish, consonant length is indicated with two identical letters. Examples:

Consonant length is distinctive and sometimes is necessary to distinguish words:

Double consonants are common on morpheme borders where the initial or final sound of the suffix is the same as the final or initial sound of the stem (depending on the position of the suffix). Examples:

Punjabi

Punjabi is written in two scripts, namely, Gurmukhi and Shahmukhi. Both scripts indicate gemination through the uses of diacritics. In Gurmukhi the diacritic is called the Шаблон:Transliteration which is written before the geminated consonant and is mandatory. In contrast, the shadda, which is used to represent gemination in the Shahmukhi script, is not necessarily written, retaining the tradition of the original Arabic script and Persian language, where diacritics are usually omitted from writing, except to clear ambiguity, and is written above the geminated consonant. In the cases of aspirated consonants in the Shahmukhi script, the shadda remains on the consonant, not on the do-cashmī he.

Gemination is specially characteristic of Punjabi compared to other Indo-Aryan languages like Hindi-Urdu, where instead of the presence of consonant lengthening, the preceding vowel tends to be lengthened. Consonant length is distinctive in Punjabi, for example:

Singleton Geminated
IPA Gurmukhi Shahmukhi Transliteration Meaning IPA Gurmukhi Shahmukhi Transliteration Meaning
Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Nq Шаблон:Transliteration 'ten' Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Nq Шаблон:Transliteration 'tell' (imperative)
Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Nq Шаблон:Transliteration[15] 'aware of something' Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Nq Шаблон:Transliteration[15] 'leaf'
Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Nq Шаблон:Transliteration 'truth' (liturgical) Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Nq Шаблон:Transliteration 'seven'
Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Nq Шаблон:Transliteration 'art' Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Nq Шаблон:Transliteration 'alone'

Russian

In Russian, consonant length (indicated with two letters, as in Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA 'bathtub') may occur in several situations.

Minimal pairs (or chronemes) exist, such as Шаблон:Wikt-lang Шаблон:IPA 'to hold' vs Шаблон:Wikt-lang Шаблон:IPA 'to support', and their conjugations, or Шаблон:Wikt-lang Шаблон:IPA 'length' vs Шаблон:Wikt-lang Шаблон:IPA 'long' adj. f.

Spanish

There are phonetic geminate consonants in Caribbean Spanish due to the assimilation of /l/ and /ɾ/ in syllabic coda to the following consonant.[17] Examples of Cuban Spanish:

/l/ or /r/ + /f/ → [ff] a[ff]iler, hue[ff]ano (Sp. Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang)
/l/ or /r/ + /h/ → [ɦh] ana[ɦh]ésico, vi[ɦh]en (Sp. Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang)
/l/ or /r/ + /b/ → [bb] si[bb]a, cu[bb]a (Sp. Шаблон:Lang or Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang)
/l/ or /r/ + /d/ → [dd] ce[dd]a, acue[dd]o (Sp. Шаблон:Lang or Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang)
/l/ or /r/ + /g/ → [gg] pu[gg]a, la[gg]a (Sp. Шаблон:Lang or Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang)
/l/ or /r/ + /m/ → [mm] ca[mm]a, a[mm]a (Sp. Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang or Шаблон:Lang)
/l/ or /r/ + /n/ → [nn] pie[nn]a, ba[nn]eario (Sp. Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang)
/l/ or /r/ + /l/ → [ll] bu[ll]a, cha[ll]a (Sp. Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang)

Luganda

Luganda is unusual in that gemination can occur word-initially, as well as word-medially. For example, Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA 'cat', Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:Lang 'grandfather' and Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:Lang 'madam' all begin with geminate consonants.

There are three consonants that cannot be geminated: Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA. Whenever morphological rules would geminate these consonants, Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA are prefixed with Шаблон:IPA, and Шаблон:IPA changes to Шаблон:IPA. For example:

Japanese

Шаблон:See also In Japanese, consonant length is distinctive (as is vowel length). Gemination in the syllabary is represented with the sokuon, a small Шаблон:Lang:[18] Шаблон:Lang for hiragana in native words and Шаблон:Lang for katakana in foreign words. For example, Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang) means 'came; arrived', while Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang) means 'cut; sliced'. With the influx of gairaigo ('foreign words') into Modern Japanese, voiced consonants have become able to geminate as well:[19] Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Lang) means '(computer) bug', and Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Lang) means 'bag'. Distinction between voiceless gemination and voiced gemination is visible in pairs of words such as Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Lang, meaning 'kit') and Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Lang, meaning 'kid'). In addition, in some variants of colloquial Modern Japanese, gemination may be applied to some adjectives and adverbs (regardless of voicing) in order to add emphasis: Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Lang, 'amazing') contrasts with Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Lang, 'really amazing'); Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang, 'with all one's strength') contrasts with Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang, 'really with all one's strength').

Turkish

In Turkish gemination is indicated by two identical letters as in most languages that have phonemic gemination.

Loanwords originally ending with a phonemic geminated consonant are always written and pronounced without the ending gemination as in Arabic.

Although gemination is resurrected when the word takes a suffix.

Gemination also occurs when a suffix starting with a consonant comes after a word that ends with the same consonant.

Dravidian languages

Malayalam

In Malayalam, compounding is phonologically conditioned[20] called as sandhi and gemination occurs at word boundaries. Gemination sandhi is called dvitva sandhi or 'doubling sandhi'.

Consider following example:

Gemination also occurs in a single morpheme like Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Transliteration) which has a different meaning from Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Transliteration).

Uralic languages

Estonian

Estonian has three phonemic lengths; however, the third length is a suprasegmental feature, which is as much tonal patterning as a length distinction. It is traceable to allophony caused by now-deleted suffixes, for example half-long Шаблон:Lang < *Шаблон:Lang 'of the city' vs. overlong Шаблон:Lang < *Шаблон:Lang < *Шаблон:Lang 'to the city'.

Finnish

Шаблон:See also

Consonant length is phonemic in Finnish, for example Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA-fi ('fireplace', transcribed with the length sign Шаблон:IPA or with a doubled letter Шаблон:IPA) and Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ('back'). Consonant gemination occurs with simple consonants (Шаблон:Lang : Шаблон:Lang) and between syllables in the pattern (consonant)-vowel-sonorant-stop-stop-vowel (Шаблон:Lang) but not generally in codas or with longer syllables. (This occurs in Sami languages and in the Finnish name Шаблон:Lang, which is of Sami origin.) Sandhi often produces geminates.

Both consonant and vowel gemination are phonemic, and both occur independently, e.g. Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang (Karelian surname, 'paint', 'model', and 'secular').

In Standard Finnish, consonant gemination of Шаблон:IPA exists only in interjections, new loan words and in the playful word hihhuli, with its origins in the 19th century, and derivatives of that word.

In many Finnish dialects there are also the following types of special gemination in connection with long vowels: the southwestern special gemination (Шаблон:Lang), with lengthening of stops + shortening of long vowel, of the type Шаблон:Lang < Шаблон:Lang; the common gemination (Шаблон:Lang), with lengthening of all consonants in short, stressed syllables, of the type Шаблон:Lang > Шаблон:Lang and its extension (which is strongest in the northwestern Savonian dialects); the eastern dialectal special gemination (Шаблон:Lang), which is the same as the common gemination but also applies to unstressed syllables and certain clusters, of the types Шаблон:Lang > Шаблон:Lang and Шаблон:Lang > Шаблон:Lang.

Wagiman

In Wagiman, an indigenous Australian language, consonant length in stops is the primary phonetic feature that differentiates fortis and lenis stops. Wagiman does not have phonetic voice. Word-initial and word-final stops never contrast for length.

Writing

In written language, consonant length is often indicated by writing a consonant twice (ss, kk, pp, and so forth), but can also be indicated with a special symbol, such as the shadda in Arabic, the dagesh in Classical Hebrew, or the sokuon in Japanese.

In the International Phonetic Alphabet, long consonants are normally written using the triangular colon Шаблон:IPA, e.g. Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ('feathers', 'pens', also a kind of pasta), though doubled letters are also used (especially for underlying phonemic forms, or in tone languages to facilitate diacritic marking).

Double letters that are not long consonants

Doubled orthographic consonants do not always indicate a long phonetic consonant.

  • In English, for example, the Шаблон:IPA sound of running is not lengthened. Consonant digraphs are used in English to indicate the preceding vowel is a short (lax) vowel, while a single letter often allows a long (tense) vowel to occur. For example, tapping Шаблон:IPA (from tap) has a short a Шаблон:IPA, which is distinct from the diphthongal long a Шаблон:IPA in taping Шаблон:IPA (from tape).
  • In Standard Modern Greek, doubled orthographic consonants have no phonetic significance at all.
  • Hangul (the Korean alphabet) and its romanizations also use double consonants, but to indicate fortis articulation, not gemination.
  • In Klallam, a sequence of two Шаблон:IPA sounds such as in a word like Шаблон:IPA 'sleep' is not pronounced like a geminated stop with a long closure duration – rather the sequence is pronounced as a sequence of two individual sounds such that the first Шаблон:IPA is released before the articulation of the second Шаблон:IPA.

See also

References

Шаблон:Reflist Шаблон:Spoken Wikipedia

Шаблон:Suprasegmentals

Партнерские ресурсы
Криптовалюты
Магазины
Хостинг
Разное

  1. ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
  2. ↑ Шаблон:Cite journal
  3. ↑ 3,0 3,1 William Ham, Phonetic and Phonological Aspects of Geminate Timing, p. 1–18
  4. ↑ 4,0 4,1 4,2 Шаблон:Cite journal
  5. ↑ Шаблон:Cite journal (URL is author's "near final version" draft)
  6. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  7. ↑ 7,0 7,1 Blust, Robert. (2013). The Austronesian Languages (Rev. ed.). Australian National University.
  8. ↑ Шаблон:Cite journal
  9. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  10. ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
  11. ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
  12. ↑ Crystal, David (2003). The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language Second Edition, Cambridge University Press, p. 335
  13. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  14. ↑ Шаблон:Cite journal
  15. ↑ 15,0 15,1 In Gurmukhi, the final schwa is represented with a ਾ (ā), whereas in Shahmukhi, the final form of Шаблон:Big (Gol he) can represent a schwa.
  16. ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
  17. ↑ Шаблон:Cite journal 25, 465-497
  18. ↑ Шаблон:Cite journal
  19. ↑ Шаблон:Citation, p. 538
  20. ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
  21. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
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