Английская Википедия:Gneiss
Шаблон:Short description Шаблон:Other uses Шаблон:Infobox rock Gneiss (Шаблон:IPAc-en Шаблон:Respell) is a common and widely distributed type of metamorphic rock. It is formed by high-temperature and high-pressure metamorphic processes acting on formations composed of igneous or sedimentary rocks. Gneiss forms at higher temperatures and pressures than schist. Gneiss nearly always shows a banded texture characterized by alternating darker and lighter colored bands and without a distinct cleavage.
Gneisses are common in the ancient crust of continental shields. Some of the oldest rocks on Earth are gneisses, such as the Acasta Gneiss.
Description
In traditional English and North American usage, a gneiss is a coarse-grained metamorphic rock showing compositional banding (gneissic banding) but poorly developed schistosity and indistinct cleavage. In other words, it is a metamorphic rock composed of mineral grains easily seen with the unaided eye, which form obvious compositional layers, but which has only a weak tendency to fracture along these layers. In Europe, the term has been more widely applied to any coarse, mica-poor, high-grade metamorphic rock.[1]
The British Geological Survey (BGS) and the International Union of Geological Sciences (IUGS) both use gneiss as a broad textural category for medium- to coarse-grained metamorphic rock that shows poorly developed schistosity, with compositional layering over Шаблон:Convert thick[2] and tending to split into plates over Шаблон:Convert thick.[3] Neither definition depends on composition or origin, though rocks poor in platy minerals are more likely to produce gneissose texture. Gneissose rocks thus are largely recrystallized but do not carry large quantities of micas, chlorite or other platy minerals.[4] Metamorphic rock showing stronger schistosity is classified as schist, while metamorphic rock devoid of schistosity is called a granofels.[2][3]
Gneisses that are metamorphosed igneous rocks or their equivalent are termed granite gneisses, diorite gneisses, and so forth. Gneiss rocks may also be named after a characteristic component such as garnet gneiss, biotite gneiss, albite gneiss, and so forth. Orthogneiss designates a gneiss derived from an igneous rock, and paragneiss is one from a sedimentary rock.[2][3] Both the BGS and the IUGS use gneissose to describe rocks with the texture of gneiss,[2][3] though gneissic also remains in common use.[5] For example, a gneissose metagranite or a gneissic metagranite both mean a granite that has been metamorphosed and thereby acquired gneissose texture.
Gneissic banding
The minerals in gneiss are arranged into layers that appear as bands in cross section. This is called gneissic banding.[6] The darker bands have relatively more mafic minerals (those containing more magnesium and iron). The lighter bands contain relatively more felsic minerals (minerals such as feldspar or quartz, which contain more of the lighter elements, such as aluminium, sodium, and potassium).Шаблон:Sfn
The banding is developed at high temperature when the rock is more strongly compressed in one direction than in other directions (nonhydrostatic stress). The bands develop perpendicular to the direction of greatest compression, also called the shortening direction, as platy minerals are rotated or recrystallized into parallel layers.Шаблон:Sfn
A common cause of nonhydrodynamic stress is the subjection of the protolith (the original rock material that undergoes metamorphism) to extreme shearing force, a sliding force similar to the pushing of the top of a deck of cards in one direction, and the bottom of the deck in the other direction.[6] These forces stretch out the rock like a plastic, and the original material is spread out into sheets. Per the polar decomposition theorem, the deformation produced by such shearing force is equivalent to rotation of the rock combined with shortening in one direction and extension in another.[7]
Some banding is formed from original rock material (protolith) that is subjected to extreme temperature and pressure and is composed of alternating layers of sandstone (lighter) and shale (darker), which is metamorphosed into bands of quartzite and mica.[6]
Another cause of banding is "metamorphic differentiation", which separates different materials into different layers through chemical reactions, a process not fully understood.[6]
Augen gneiss
Augen gneiss, from the Шаблон:Lang-de Шаблон:IPA-de, meaning "eyes", is a gneiss resulting from metamorphism of granite, which contains characteristic elliptic or lenticular shear-bound grains (porphyroclasts), normally feldspar, surrounded by finer grained material. The finer grained material deforms around the more resistant feldspar grains to produce this texture.Шаблон:Sfn
Migmatite
Шаблон:Main Migmatite is a gneiss consisting of two or more distinct rock types, one of which has the appearance of an ordinary gneiss (the mesosome), and another of which has the appearance of an intrusive rock such pegmatite, aplite, or granite the (leucosome). The rock may also contain a melanosome of mafic rock complementary to the leucosome.Шаблон:Sfn Migmatites are often interpreted as rock that has been partially melted, with the leucosome representing the silica-rich melt, the melanosome the residual solid rock left after partial melting, and the mesosome the original rock that has not yet experienced partial melting.[8]
Occurrences
Gneisses are characteristic of areas of regional metamorphism that reaches the middle amphibolite to granulite metamorphic facies. In other words, the rock was metamorphosed at a temperature in excess of Шаблон:Convert at pressures between about 2 to 24 kbar. Many different varieties of rock can be metamorphosed to gneiss, so geologists are careful to add descriptions of the color and mineral composition to the name of any gneiss, such as garnet-biotite paragneiss or grayish-pink orthogneiss.Шаблон:Sfn
Granite-greenstone belts
Continental shields are regions of exposed ancient rock that make up the stable cores of continents. The rock exposed in the oldest regions of shields, which is of Archean age (over 2500 million years old), mostly belong to granite-greenstone belts. The greenstone belts contain metavolcanic and metasedimentary rock that has undergone a relatively mild grade of metamorphism, at temperatures of Шаблон:Cvt and pressures of Шаблон:Cvt. The greenstone belts are surrounded by high-grade gneiss terrains showing highly deformed low-pressure, high-temperature (over Шаблон:Cvt) metamorphism to the amphibolite or granulite facies. These form most of the exposed rock in Archean cratons.[10]
Gneiss domes
Gneiss domes are common in orogenic belts (regions of mountain formation).[11] They consist of a dome of gneiss intruded by younger granite and migmatite and mantled with sedimentary rock.[12] These have been interpreted as a geologic record of two distinct mountain-forming events, with the first producing the granite basement and the second deforming and melting this basement to produce the domes. However, some gneiss domes may actually be the cores of metamorphic core complexes, regions of the deep crust brought to the surface and exposed during extension of the Earth's crust.[13]
Examples
- The Acasta Gneiss is found in the Northwest Territories, Canada, on an island about Шаблон:Convert north of Yellowknife. This is one of the most ancient intact crustal fragments on Earth, metamorphosed 3.58 to 4.031 billion years ago.[14]
- The Lewisian gneiss is found throughout the Outer Hebrides of Scotland, on the Scottish mainland west of the Moine Thrust, and on the islands of Coll and Tiree.[15] These rocks are largely igneous in origin, mixed with metamorphosed marble, quartzite and mica schist with later intrusions of basaltic dikes and granite magma.[16]
- The Morton Gneiss is an Archean-age gneiss exposed in the Minnesota River Valley of southwestern Minnesota, United States. It is thought to be the oldest intact block of continental crust in the United States.[17]
- The Peninsular Gneiss is a sequence of Archean gneisses found throughout the Indian Shield and ranging in age from 3400 to 2500 million years old.[18][19]
Etymology
The word gneiss has been used in English since at least 1757.[20] It is borrowed from the German word Шаблон:Lang, formerly also spelled Шаблон:Lang, which is probably derived from the Middle High German noun Шаблон:Lang "spark" (so called because the rock glitters).[21]
Uses
Gneiss has been used as a building material, such as the Facoidal gneiss, used extensively in Rio de Janeiro.[22] Gneiss has also been used as construction aggregate for asphalt pavement.[23]
See also
References
Citations
Further reading
External links
Шаблон:Rock type Шаблон:Authority control
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ 2,0 2,1 2,2 2,3 Шаблон:Cite journal
- ↑ 3,0 3,1 3,2 3,3 Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ 6,0 6,1 6,2 6,3 Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Bjørn Hageskov (1985): Constrictional deformation of the Koster dyke swarm in a ductile sinistral shear zone, Koster islands, SW Sweden. Bulletin of the Geological Society of Denmark 34 (3–4): 151–97
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite journal
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Bowring, S.A., and Williams, I.S., 1999. Priscoan (4.00–4.03 Ga) orthogneisses from northwestern Canada. Contributions to Mineralogy and Petrology, v. 134, 3–16
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite journal
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book From p. 308: " … to which we may add this conjecture, that the black vein-stone, or rock, usually called kneiss, at Friberg, … "
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite journal
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite journal
