Английская Википедия:Gwoyeu Romatzyh
Шаблон:Short description Шаблон:Featured article Шаблон:Use Oxford spelling Шаблон:Infobox romanization Шаблон:Infobox Chinese
Gwoyeu Romatzyh,Шаблон:Efn abbreviated GR, is a system for writing Standard Chinese in the Latin alphabet. It was conceived by Yuen Ren Chao, who led a group of linguists to develop the system from 1925 to 1926. From 1942 to 2000, a small number of reference works published in Hong Kong and overseas made use of the system, and Chao would use it throughout his later linguistics work, including in his most influential publications. However, Gwoyeu Romatzyh never achieved widespread use among the Chinese public. In places where it had been used, it was eventually replaced—largely by Hanyu Pinyin (or simply 'pinyin'), which became the international standard romanization during the second half of the 20th century. Pinyin itself made use of principles originally introduced by Gwoyeu Romatzyh, whose influence is often reflected in the design of later systems.
GR indicates the four tones of Standard Chinese by varying the spelling of syllables, rather than by using either diacritics as in pinyin, or numerals as in the earlier Wade–Giles system. The distinct spellings for each tone also vary by syllable according to particular rules. Tonal spelling was originally proposed by Lin Yutang, one of the members of the development team. Chao said that this could possibly aid students of Chinese learning to articulate tones.[1] However, clinical study comparing the tonal accuracy of students reading aloud from either Gwoyeu Romatzyh or pinyin has not substantiated Chao's hypothesis.[2]
In September 1928, the Republic of China adopted Gwoyeu Romatzyh as the national romanization system for Standard Chinese.Шаблон:Sfn It began to see use in Chinese dictionaries, with some proponents hoping that it would eventually replace Chinese characters entirely. However, despite support from linguists both in China and overseas, the public largely lacked interest in the system, or even viewed it with hostility due to its complexity.Шаблон:Efn In addition, its widespread adoption was hindered by its narrow calibration to the Beijing dialect during a period when the country lacked a strong centralizing government to impose its use. While tonal spelling also features in romanization schemes used for other Asian languages like Hmong and Zhuang, their rules are considerably simpler than those in Gwoyeu Romatzyh.
History
Tonal spelling, Gwoyeu Romatzyh's most distinctive feature, was first suggested to Yuen Ren Chao by Lin Yutang.[3]Шаблон:Efn By 1922, Chao had already established the main principles of the system.Шаблон:Sfn During 1925 and 1926, the details of the system were developed by a group of five linguists under the auspices of the National Languages Committee.Шаблон:Sfn On 26 September 1928, GR was officially adopted by the Nationalist government led by the Kuomintang.Шаблон:Sfn[4] Gwoyeu Romatzyh was intended to be used alongside the existing bopomofo phonetic symbols, hence its alternative designation as the "Second Pattern of the National Alphabet".[5] Both systems were used to indicate the revised standard of pronunciation in the new official Vocabulary of National Pronunciation for Everyday Use of 1932.[6] In general, the designers of Gwoyeu Romatzyh were interested in large-scale reform of the Chinese writing system; these potential reforms often involved adopting Gwoyeu Romatzyh as a primary, practical script for the language.[7]
During the 1930s, two short-lived attempts were made to teach Gwoyeu Romatzyh to railway workers and peasants in Henan and Shandong.Шаблон:Sfn Support for GR was confined to a small number of trained linguists and sinologists. The supporters included Qian Xuantong and Luo Changpei in China and Walter Simon in England.Шаблон:Sfn During this period GR faced increasing hostility because of the complexity of its tonal spelling. Conversely, sinologist Bernhard Karlgren criticized GR for its lack of phonetic rigour.[8] Ultimately, like Latinxua Sinwenz, GR failed to gain widespread support, principally because the "National" language was too narrowly based on the Beijing dialect:Шаблон:Sfn "a sufficiently precise and strong language norm had not yet become a reality in China".Шаблон:Sfn
The previous use of Gwoyeu Romatzyh is reflected in the official spelling of the name for Shaanxi Province, which distinguishes it from that of neighbouring Shanxi Province; as these names differ only by tone, their systematic pinyin romanizations would be identical without the use of diacritics.[9] The Warring States period state of Wey is often spelled as such to distinguish it from the more prominent state of Wei, which are homophonous in Mandarin, but were likely distinct in Old Chinese. Some prominent Chinese have used GR to transliterate their names: for example the mathematician Shiing-Shen Chern. Neither Chao nor Lin followed this practice. In 1958, the Chinese government replaced Gwoyeu Romatzyh with Hanyu Pinyin, which had been developed by a team led by Zhou Youguang over the previous two years. Pinyin is now the predominant system and an international standard used by the United Nations, the Library of Congress, and the International Organization for Standardization, as well as by most students learning Standard Chinese. Its use as a pronunciation aid survived in Taiwan until the 1970s, as in the monolingual Guoyu Cídian and Cihui dictionaries. It was officially replaced in 1986 by the modified Mandarin Phonetic Symbols II system.[10]
Description
Basic first tone forms
Шаблон:IPA notice An important feature of Gwoyeu Romatzyh, adopted from other precursors and later also adopted by pinyin, is the use of consonant pairs with a voicing distinction from Latin to instead represent the aspiration distinction present in Chinese.[11] For example, Шаблон:Angbr and Шаблон:Angbr represent Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA (Шаблон:Angbr and Шаблон:Angbr' in Wade). Another distinctive feature is Gwoyeu Romatzyh's use of Шаблон:Angbr, Шаблон:Angbr, and Шаблон:Angbr to represent two different series of sounds. When followed by Шаблон:Angbr, these letters correspond to the alveolo-palatal series (pinyin Шаблон:Angbr, Шаблон:Angbr, and Шаблон:Angbr); otherwise, they correspond to the retroflex series (pinyin Шаблон:Angbr, Шаблон:Angbr, and Шаблон:Angbr).
Other notable features of Gwoyeu Romatzyh orthography include:
- Шаблон:Angbr represents the close front rounded vowel Шаблон:IPA, spelled contextually as Шаблон:Angbr or Шаблон:Angbr in pinyin.
- Final Шаблон:Angbr represents the Шаблон:IPA-cmn allophone of i: GR Шаблон:Angbr and Шаблон:Angbr correspond to pinyin Шаблон:Angbr and Шаблон:Angbr respectively.
- Шаблон:Angbr corresponds to pinyin Шаблон:Angbr, with Шаблон:Angbr being reserved to indicate the second tone. The most important use of -(e)l is as a rhotacization suffix, as in ideal = i dean + -(e)l, "a little" (yìdiǎnr).
- A number of frequently occurring morphemes have abbreviated spellings in GR. The commonest of these are: -g (-ge), -j (-zhe), -m (-me), sh (shi) and -tz (-zi).[12]
Tonal spelling
By default, the basic Gwoyeu Romatzyh spelling described above is used for syllables with the first tone. The basic form is then modified to indicate tones 2, 3 and 4.[13] This is accomplished in one of three ways:
- either a vowel is changed to another vowel resembling it in sound (i to y, for example, or u to w)
- or a letter is doubled
- or a silent letter (r or h) is added after the vowel.
Wherever possible, the concise first method is used.
Word segmentation
An important principle of Gwoyeu Romatzyh is that text should use Spaces as dividers between words. While this has been common practice in European languages since; but in Chinese the concept of "word" is not easy to pin down. The basic unit of speech is popularly thought to be the monosyllable represented by a character, which in most cases represents a meaningful syllable or morpheme, a smaller unit than the "linguistic word".Шаблон:Sfnm Characters are written and printed with no spaces between words; yet in practice most Chinese words consist of two-syllable compounds, and it was Chao's bold innovation in 1922 to reflect this in GR orthography by grouping the appropriate syllables together into words.Шаблон:Sfn This represented a radical departure from hyphenation used in Wade–Giles forms, e.g. Шаблон:Lang.
Publication history
Chao made use of Gwoyeu Romatzyh in four influential works:
- Concise Dictionary of Spoken Chinese (1947; in collaboration with Yang Lien-sheng)
- Mandarin Primer[14] (1948)
- A Grammar of Spoken Chinese (1968)Шаблон:Sfn
- Шаблон:Visible anchor[15]Шаблон:Fcn (1968) In this context, "sayable" means "colloquial", as opposed to the written vernacular Chinese often read by students.Шаблон:Sfn
Mandarin Primer was originally used in the Army Specialized Training Program at the Harvard School for Overseas Administration from 1943 to 1944, and subsequently in civilian courses.Шаблон:Sfn
Readings in Sayable Chinese was written "to supply the advanced student of spoken Chinese with reading matter which he can actually use in his speech."Шаблон:Sfn It consists of three volumes of Chinese text with facing GR romanization.[16] They contain some lively recorded dialogues, "Fragments of an autobiography", two plays and a translation of Lewis Carroll's Through the Looking-Glass (Tzoou daw Jinqtz lii).[17] Two extracts from Tzoou daw Jinqtz lii with facing translations can be read online.[18]
In 1942, Walter Simon introduced Gwoyeu Romatzyh to English-speaking sinologists in a special pamphlet, The New Official Chinese Latin Script. Over the remainder of the 1940s he published a series of textbooks and readers, as well as a Chinese-English Dictionary, all using GR. His son Harry Simon later went on to use GR in papers he published on Chinese linguistics.Шаблон:Sfn
In 1960, Y. C. Liu, who was a colleague of Walter Simon's at SOAS, published Fifty Chinese Stories, comprising selections from the Chinese classics. It was a parallel text featuring the original Literary Chinese as well as vernacular translation,[19] in addition to GR and romanized Japanese transliterations prepared by Simon.
Lin Yutang's Chinese-English Dictionary of Modern Usage (1972) incorporated a number of novelties, which included simplified romanization scheme derived from GR.[20]Шаблон:Sfn Lin eliminated most of the spelling rules.
The first 3 issues of Шаблон:Transliteration magazine (1982–1989; Шаблон:Zhi) also used a simplified version of Gwoyeu Romatzyh. The fourth issue, now rendered as Шаблон:Transliteration, used a system that adapted pinyin to use tonal spelling akin to GR.[21]
Pedagogy
Chao believed that the benefit of tonal spelling was to make the use of tones in Chinese more salient to learners: Шаблон:Cquote For example, it may be easier to memorize the difference between GR Шаблон:Transliteration 'Beijing' and Шаблон:Transliteration 'background' than the pinyin Шаблон:Zhi and Шаблон:Zhi. One study conducted at the University of Oregon in 1991–1993, compared the results of using Pinyin and GR in teaching elementary level Chinese to two matched groups of students, and concluded that "GR did not lead to significantly greater accuracy in tonal production".Шаблон:Sfn
Notes
References
Citations
Bibliography
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite book
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- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite journal
- Шаблон:Cite journal
- Шаблон:Cite book Chapter 4 is available online.
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite journal
- Шаблон:Cite journal
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite book
External links
- Шаблон:Cite web
- Шаблон:Cite web
- Шаблон:Cite web
- Шаблон:Cite web
- Шаблон:Cite web
- Шаблон:Cite web
- Chinese Phonetic Conversion Tool - Converts between Gwoyeu Romatzyh and other formats
Шаблон:S-start Шаблон:Succession box Шаблон:Succession box Шаблон:S-end
Шаблон:Dictionaries of Chinese Шаблон:Chinese language Шаблон:Authority control
- ↑ "The common [foreign] attitude of treating the tone as an epiphenomenon on top of the solid sounds—consonants and vowels—is to the Chinese mind quite unintelligible..."Шаблон:Harvnb
- ↑ "The results clearly indicated that GR did not lead to significantly greater accuracy in tonal production. Indeed, the use of GR reflected slightly lower rates of tonal production accuracy for native speakers of both American English and Japanese." Шаблон:Harvnb
- ↑ "Without disclaiming responsibility, as a very active member of the Committee on Unification, for the merits and defects of the system, I must give credit to my colleague Lin Yutang for the idea of varying the spelling to indicate difference in tone." Шаблон:Harvnb
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite journal
- ↑ Шаблон:Lang; Шаблон:Transliteration; Шаблон:Transliteration: see Шаблон:Harvnb
- ↑ Шаблон:Lang; Шаблон:Transliteration; Шаблон:Transliteration: see Шаблон:Harvnb
- ↑ "While the official position was that it was to be used whenever Chinese was to be spelled in Latin letters, such as in dealing with foreigners, those who devised the system, of whom I was one, had in our minds the design of a practical system of writing." Шаблон:Harvnb
- ↑ "[GR] is based on a series of very fatal phonetic lies, and for this reason it will be very difficult to learn, and consequently impractical." Шаблон:Harvnb
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web This is an online version of Шаблон:Harvnb.
- ↑ See Шаблон:Harvnb and Шаблон:Harvnb for tables and further discussion.
- ↑ These and other abbreviations are listed in Шаблон:Harvnb
- ↑ See Шаблон:Harvnb and Шаблон:Harvnb, as well as Table IX in Шаблон:Harvnb
- ↑ Recordings, including online excerpts, of this lively, though now rather dated, text are available from Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Cassette recordings of this text are available from various online sources.
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Lang Tzoou daw Jinqtz lii gen Alihsy Kannjiann Liitou Yeou Shie Sherme / Zǒu dào jìngzili gēn Ālìsī kànjian lǐtou yǒu xiē shénme.
- ↑ The extracts comprise Alice's conversations with Tweedledum and Tweedledee (Шаблон:Cite web) and Humpty Dumpty (Шаблон:Cite web).
- ↑ "[The book's] primary aim is to introduce students to the Classical style through the medium of the modern spoken language." Шаблон:Harvnb
- ↑ "In the original edition, 'Guoryuu Romatzyh' (Шаблон:Lang) was used as the scheme for romanization." Another feature was an "Instant Index System": "an invention by Lin Yutang with the intention of providing a simple and unambiguous rule to call up any given Chinese character ... [T]his index system has not been widely used since its inception." Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
