Английская Википедия:Ingrian grammar
Шаблон:Short description The Ingrian language is a highly endangered language spoken in Ingria, Russia. Ingrian is a Uralic language of the Finnic branch, along with, among others, Finnish and Estonian. Ingrian is an agglutinative language and exhibits both vowel harmony and consonant gradation.
In the late 1930s, a written standard of the Ingrian language (referred to as kirjakeeli, "book language") was developed by the Ingrian linguist Шаблон:Ill. Following the Soviet Union's 1937 politics regarding minority languages, the Ingrian written language has been forbidden and Ingrian remains unstandardised ever since. This article describes the grammar of kirjakeeli with references to (modern) dialectal nuances.
Morphological processes
Consonant gradation
Many words in Ingrian display consonant gradation, a grammatical process where the final consonant of a root may change in some inflected forms. Gradated words have two forms, called the strong grade and the weak grade. Follows a list of consonant gradations present in Ingrian, with examples:
Strong Weak Example (Шаблон:Abbr) Example (Шаблон:Abbr) Translation k ∅ jalka jalan "foot, leg" nk ng kenkä kengän "shoe" t ∅ vahti vahin "guard" lt ll ilta illan "evening" rt rr merta merran "basket" nt nn ranta rannan "shore" st ss riista riissan "thing" p v apu avun "help" mp mm kumpa kumman "which" pp p leppä lepän "alder" uut, yyt
oot, öötuuvv, yyvv
oovv, öövvsuuto suuvvon "court" Vut Vvv rauta ravvan "iron" Vuk Vvv leuka levvan "jaw, chin" Vit Vij maito maijon "milk" Vik Vj poika pojan "boy, son" eik, iik eij, iij reikä reijän "hole"
Consonant gemination
Шаблон:See also In nominals and verbs alike, consonant gemination is an active process where a consonant following a light, uneven syllable, if followed by an (underlyingly) open syllable with a long vowel or a diphthong, is geminated. This process can be seen in the following examples:
- sana ("word") → kaks sannaa ("two words")
- käkö ("cuckoo") → kaks käkköä ("two cuckoos")
This gemination should not be confused with consonant gradation: Both can occur in one word. For instance, pittää ("to keep") has both consonant gradation and gemination:
- pittää ("to keep"); miä piän ("I keep"); höö pitävät ("they keep")
Consonant gemination does not affect consonants that start an uneven syllable:
- literatura ("literature"); literaturaa ("into the literature")
Some (recent) loanwords aren't affected by gemination either:
- inženera ("engineer"); kaks inženeraa ("two engineers")
In the Soikkola dialect, there is a phonological distinction between primary geminates (those that were originally present in Proto-Finnic) and secondary geminates (those formed as a result of gemination). Primary geminates are realised as long, while secondary geminates are short. In the other dialects of Ingrian, both types of geminates are equally long.[1]
Vowel elongation
In contrast with consonant gemination, nouns that do not have an even number of syllables and do not have a penultimate light syllable, experience vowel elongation in the inessive and adessive endings, where the final vowel becomes long:
- paikka ("area") → paikaas ("in the area"), koira ("dog") → koiraal ("on the dog")
- orava ("squirrel") → oravaal ("on the squirrel"), Soikkola ("Soikinsky Peninsula") → Soikkolaas ("on the Soikinsky Peninsula")
If the noun has consonant gradation, the weak grade determines the vowel length of the inflectional ending:
- poika ("boy") → pojal ("on the boy")
In the Soikkola dialect, this rule also holds true for the elative, ablative and translative cases:
- paikka ("area") → paigaast ("from the area")
- orraava ("squirrel") → oravaalt ("off the squirrel")
- soomi ("Finnish") → soomeeks ("in Finnish")
Nouns
The Ingrian language does not distinguish gender in nouns, nor is there a definiteness distinction. Nouns can be declined for both case and number.
Cases
Ingrian nouns have thirteen noun cases. Unlike some plural pronouns, nouns don't have the accusative case and its function is taken over by either the genitive in the singular or the nominative in the plural.
Case Suffix English Шаблон:Abbr Example Translation nominative (nominativa) -∅ — talo a house genitive (genitiva) -n of/'s talon a house's partitive (partitiva) -(t)a / -(t)ä a bit of talloa a bit of a house illative (illativa) -V into talloo into a house inessive (inessiva) -s inside talos inside a house elative (elativa) -st out of talost out of a house allative (allativa) -lle onto talolle onto a house adessive (adessiva) -l on top of talol on top of a house ablative (ablativa) -lt out of talolt out of a house translative (translativa) -ks into (being) talos into (being) a house essive (essiiva) -nna / -nnä as talonna as a house exessive (eksessiva) -nt out of (being) talont out of (being) a house comitative (komitativa) -nka / -nkä with talonka with a house
In the modern (spoken) language, the exessive case has grown to be obsolete. Furthermore, the comitative is only present in the Ala-Laukaa dialect of the Ingrian language, although it was adopted into the written language as well.[2]
Some of the endings differ among dialects. In the Soikkola dialect, for instance, the essive ending is -Vn rather than -nna, yielding talloon. On the other hand, the locative cases in the Ala-Laukaa dialect contain a final -a: talossa, talosta, talolla, talolta.
Nominative
The nominative case is used primarily to mark the subject of a verb:
- Kana kaakattaa ("The chicken cackles")
- Kana muni munan ("The chicken laid an egg")
Furthermore, it can be used as a form of address:
- Mama, miä tahon söövvä ("Mum, I want to eat")
Accusative
As mentioned above, the accusative isn't morphologically distinct from the genitive in the singular and the nominative in the plural. The accusative case is used to mark a direct object of a telic verb:
- Poika sööp lihan ("The boy will eat the meat")
- Tyttö näki koirat ("The girl saw the dogs")
The accusative is identical to the nominative when a direct object of an impersonal verb or a verb in the imperative mood:
- Söö liha! ("Eat the meat!")
- Söövvää liha ("The meat is eaten")
Partitive
The partitive is used in a number of functions. First of all, it is used to mark a direct object of an atelic verb:
- Poika sööp lihhaa ("The boy is eating the meat")
- Tyttö näki koiria ("The girl was seeing the dogs")
Secondly, the partitive case is used with numerals (other than yks, "one") and determiners to designate amounts of an object:
- Miul on kaks silmää ("I have two eyes")
- Miä näin paljo koiraa ("I saw a lot of dogs")
The partitive can be used to designate indefinite amounts:
- Miul on rahhaa ("I have money")
The partitive is used in comparative constructions to mark the object of comparison:
- Miä oon paremp häntä ("I am better than him")
Finally, the partitive is used as an indirect object of some postpositions:
- Tämä ono podarka miun lapsia vart. ("This is a present for my children")
Genitive
The genitive is used primarily to mark a possession by the inflected noun:
- Miä näin pojan koiran. ("I saw the boy's dog.")
- Lapsiin pere on suur. ("The children's family is big.")
Furthermore, it is used as an indirect object of many prepositions and postpositions:
- Talon al ei oo mittä. ("Under the house there isn't anything.")
- Möö elämmä talon sises. ("We live inside the house.")
Illative
The illative is primarily used to describe a direction into something:
- Miä mänin talloo. ("I went into the house.")
- Miä tokuin merree. ("I fell into the sea.")
It is also used to mark the designation of an object:
- Tämä poika tööhö ei kelpaa. ("This boy isn't fit for work.")
Furthermore, the illative is used to indicate a cause:
- Miun emä kooli lässyy. ("My mother died of a sickness.")
Finally, the illative is used to denote a timespan during which something didn't happen:
- En miä joont kahtee päivää. ("I haven't had a drink in two days.")
Inessive
The inessive is primarily used to describe a location inside something:
- Miä oon talos. ("I am inside the house.")
- Miä ujun meres. ("I am swimming in the sea.")
It is also used to describe a duration during which something has happened:
- Ei stroitettu Rim yhes päivääs. ("Rome wasn't built in one day.")
Elative
The elative is primarily used to describe a movement out of something:
- Miä tulin talost. ("I came out of the house.")
- Miä hyppäisin merest. ("I jumped out of the sea.")
It is furthermore used to describe the subject of some kind of information:
- Miä luen lehmilöist. ("I am reading about cows.")
- Miä kirjutan meijen maast. ("I am writing about our country.")
The elative is used to denote a domain to which an object belongs:
- Miä oon paremp kaikist lapsist. ("I am the best of all the children.")
- Kaikest miun perreest, miä suvvaan vaa miun emmää. ("Out of all my family, I only love my mother")
Finally, the elative is used to denote a material from which something is made:
- Miä tein pöksyt täst kankaast. ("I made trousers from this fabric.")
- Laps teki samoljotan paperist. ("The child made an airplane from paper.")
Allative
The allative is primarily used to describe motion onto something:
- Miä hyppäisin kannelle. ("I jumped onto the table.")
- Kolja pani koiran stoolille. ("Kolja put the dog on the chair.")
It is furthermore used in a dative function to mark an indirect object:
- Miä annoin hänelle omenan. ("I gave him an apple.")
- Mitä hää siulle saoi? ("What did he say to you?")
Adessive
The adessive is primarily used to describe a location on top of something:
- Miä issun kanneel. ("I am sitting on the table.")
- Koljan koira ležžii stooliil. ("Kolja's dog is lying on the chair.")
It is also commonly used in a construction with the verb olla ("to be") to denote a possession:
- Miul ono kirja. ("I have a book.")
- Lapseel ovat pöksyt. ("The child has trousers.")
In the Soikkola dialect, the adessive is used instead of the comitative to denote an instrument of an action:
- Miä kirjutan krandoššiil. ("I am writing with a pencil.")
- Miä kuuntelen korviil. ("I am listening with [my] ears.")
Finally, the adessive is used to denote a location in time:
- Ööl suet jahtiijaat. ("At night, the wolves hunt.")
- Kesäl ilma ono lämmää. ("In summer, the weather is warm.")
Ablative
The primary function of the ablative is to describe a motion off of something:
- Miä hyppäisin kanelt. ("I jumped off the table.")
- Kolja nosti koiran stolilt. ("Kolja picked the dog up from the table.")
It is furthermore used to mark a source of an action:
- Miä sain hänelt omenan. ("I got an apple from him.")
- Mitä hää siult kuuli? ("What did he hear from you?")
Translative
The primary function of the translative is to describe one's change of state towards being something:
- Miä tahon noissa siun ystäväks. ("I want to become your friend.")
- I konna muuttui käppiäks tytöks. ("And the frog turned into a beautiful lass.")
It is also used to denote that an action was or will be done by a specific point in time:
- Hää noisen sinnua unohtamaa voovven lopuks. ("He will forget you by the end of the year.")
- Pittää meille ostaa podarkoja hänen nimipäiväks. ("We need to buy birthday presents for her birthday.")
Finally, the translative is used in many fixed impressions:
- Miä läkkään ižoraks. ("I speak Ingrian")
- Tämä poika näyttiijää oikiin käppiäks. ("This boy is (lit. seems) very pretty.")
Essive
The primary function of the essive is to describe one's current state of being:
- Miun isä tekköö töötä kalastajanna. ("My father works as a fisherman.")
- Miun emä ompelianna jaksaa laatia siun pöksylöjä. ("As a tailor, my mother can fix your trousers.")
It is also used to denote the point of time when an action occurs:
- Pyhännä möö määmmä kirkkoo. ("On sunday we will go to church.")
- Nimipäivännä miä sain paljo podarkoja. ("On my birthday I received a lot of presents.")
Exessive
The exessive is a rare case, and is practically not used outside of the literary language. It's used only to describe a change of state out of being something:
- Miä tulin pois ompeliant. ("I stopped being a tailor.")
Stem types
A stem is the part of a word that can be changed by adding inflectional endings, and in most nominals corresponds to the nominative singular.
Vowel stems
Ingrian has several paradigms that involve a vowel that all endings are added onto. When pluralised, however, this vowel might change:
stem
vowelEnglish Шаблон:Abbr
Шаблон:AbbrШаблон:Abbr
Шаблон:AbbrШаблон:Abbr
Шаблон:AbbrШаблон:Abbr
Шаблон:AbbrШаблон:Abbr
Шаблон:AbbrШаблон:Abbr
Шаблон:AbbrШаблон:Abbr
Шаблон:AbbrШаблон:Abbr
Шаблон:AbbrNotes -a chicken kana kanan kannaa kannaa kanat kannoin kanoja kannoi Followed by nominals ending in -a when following a syllable with a, e or i and recent loanwords. -a dog koira koiran koiraa koiraa koirat koiriin koiria koirii Followed by native nominals ending in -a when following a syllable with o or u. -ä summer kesä kesän kessää kessää kesät kessiin kessiä kessii -a/-ä parent vanhemp
(<*vanhempa)vanhemman vanhempaa vanhempaa vanhemmat vanhempiin vanhempia vanhempii Followed by nominals with historically an underlying final -a or -ä that underwent full vowel reduction. -e leaf lehti
(<*lešte)lehen lehtiä lehtee lehet lehtilöin lehtilöjä lehtilöihe Followed by nominals where (pre-)Proto-Finnic *-e regularly changed to -i. -i guard vahti vahin vahtia vahtii vahit vahtiloin vahtiloja vahtiloihe Followed by relatively recent borrowings, from after the Proto-Finnic period, ending in -i. -o/-ö,
-u/-ybirch koivu koivun koivua koivuu koivut koivuin,
koivuloinkoivuja,
koivulojakoivuihe,
koivuloihe-VV earth maa maan maata maaha maat maijen maita maihe Followed by nouns ending in long vowels and diphthongs. The illative takes on the final vowel, unless it's i, in which case the ending is -e.
Consonant stems
Other nouns have their endings attached on a consonant base.
The largest group of these are nouns ending (underlyingly) in a -i, which resemble e-stems like lehti. The only difference between this paradigm and that of e-stems is the partitive singular, where the ending is added onto the consonant and is -ta (-tä), rather than -a (-ä).
The final consonant of these nouns must be either h, l, m, n, r, s or t:
English Шаблон:Abbr
Шаблон:AbbrШаблон:Abbr
Шаблон:AbbrШаблон:Abbr
Шаблон:AbbrШаблон:Abbr
Шаблон:AbbrШаблон:Abbr
Шаблон:AbbrШаблон:Abbr
Шаблон:AbbrШаблон:Abbr
Шаблон:AbbrШаблон:Abbr
Шаблон:Abbrtongue keeli keelen keeltä keelee keelet keeliin keeliä keelii big suur
(<*suuri)suuren suurta suuree suuret suuriin suuria suurii
Due to historical reasons, some nouns in this class have an irregular change of the stem:
English Шаблон:Abbr
Шаблон:AbbrШаблон:Abbr
Шаблон:AbbrШаблон:Abbr
Шаблон:AbbrNotes knife veitsi veitsen veistä In a cluster -Cs, the partitive singular stem is -s. child laps lapsen lasta water vesi veen vettä Word-final *-ti regularly became -si. five viis viijen viittä snow lumi lumen lunta m assimilates to the following t. one yks yhen yhtä In the nominative singular and in the plural, *-kt became -ks,
while in the singular and nominative plural it became -ht (~ -h)
Some nouns historically ended on a consonant. In these nouns, the consonant before the final vowel is gradated:
English Шаблон:Abbr
Шаблон:AbbrШаблон:Abbr
Шаблон:AbbrШаблон:Abbr
Шаблон:Abbrdaughter tytär
(<*tüt'är)tyttären tytärtä
A final subclass of such nouns are those ending in -ut (-yt). These exhibit an irregular illative ending and form the plural differently from e-stem nouns:
English Шаблон:Abbr
Шаблон:AbbrШаблон:Abbr
Шаблон:AbbrШаблон:Abbr
Шаблон:AbbrШаблон:Abbr
Шаблон:AbbrШаблон:Abbr
Шаблон:AbbrШаблон:Abbr
Шаблон:AbbrШаблон:Abbr
Шаблон:AbbrШаблон:Abbr
Шаблон:AbbrSun päivyt päivyen päivyttä päivyesse päivyet päivyein päivyeitä päivyeisse beer olut olluen olutta olluesse olluet olluein ollueita ollueisse
Another large group of nouns in Ingrian end in the consonant -s. These, again, come in various inflection types:
stem
consonant(s)English Шаблон:Abbr
Шаблон:AbbrШаблон:Abbr
Шаблон:AbbrШаблон:Abbr
Шаблон:AbbrШаблон:Abbr
Шаблон:AbbrШаблон:Abbr
Шаблон:AbbrШаблон:Abbr
Шаблон:AbbrШаблон:Abbr
Шаблон:AbbrШаблон:Abbr
Шаблон:AbbrNotes -nt- third kolmas kolmannen kolmatta kolmantee kolmannet kolmansiin kolmansia kolmansii Before -i, the stem consonants change to -ns-. In the partitive singular, the stem extends to -tt-. -h- man mees meehen meestä meehee meehet meehiin meehiä meehii -∅- column patsas patsaan patsasta patsaasse patsaat patsain patsaita patsaisse In the Soikkola dialect, the stem consonant -h- is retained (for instance, the genitive singular is patsahan) -ks- treason petos petoksen petosta petoksee petokset petoksiin petoksia petoksii -ks- law oikehus oikehuen oikehutta oikehuee oikehuet oikehuksiin oikehuksia oikehuksii The stem consonants only appears in the plural; In the singular, the stem-final -s is elided, while in the partitive, the stem extends to -tt-.
A third group includes nouns ending in the consonant -n:
stem
consonant(s)English Шаблон:Abbr
Шаблон:AbbrШаблон:Abbr
Шаблон:AbbrШаблон:Abbr
Шаблон:AbbrШаблон:Abbr
Шаблон:AbbrШаблон:Abbr
Шаблон:AbbrШаблон:Abbr
Шаблон:AbbrШаблон:Abbr
Шаблон:AbbrШаблон:Abbr
Шаблон:AbbrNotes -s- fly kärpäin kärpäisen kärpäistä kärpäisee kärpäiset kärpäisiin kärpäisiä kärpäisii In some words, like ihmiin ("human"), the vowel preceding -n is shortened in inflected forms.
In the Soikkola dialect, the partitive singular retains a weak grade of the stem: kärpäin - kärväist.
Finally, some nouns ending in -e have an underlying stem consonant -∅-:
stem
consonant(s)English Шаблон:Abbr
Шаблон:AbbrШаблон:Abbr
Шаблон:AbbrШаблон:Abbr
Шаблон:AbbrШаблон:Abbr
Шаблон:AbbrШаблон:Abbr
Шаблон:AbbrШаблон:Abbr
Шаблон:AbbrШаблон:Abbr
Шаблон:AbbrШаблон:Abbr
Шаблон:AbbrNotes -∅- boat vene venneen venettä venneesse venneet vennein venneitä veneissee Compare this noun class to nouns like patsas ("column"). In this class, too, the Soikkola dialect retains the stem consonant -h- (for instance, the genitive singular is venneehen).
Adjectives
Ingrian adjectives are inflected identically to nouns, and agree in number to the modified noun. In all cases but the comitative, the case of the adjectives also agree with the case of the noun. A noun in the comitative is modified by an adjective in the genitive:
Ingrian English suur poika "a big boy" suuren pojan "of the big boy" kaks suurta poikaa "two big boys" suuren pojanka "with the big boy" suuret pojat "big boys"
Comparative
The comparative degree of Ingrian adjectives is generally formed by adding the suffix -mp to the adjective:
Positive degree English Comparative degree English korkia "high" korkiamp "higher" noori (noore-) "young" nooremp "younger"
In some cases, a stem-final -a, -ä is transformed into an -e- in the comparative:
Positive degree English Comparative degree English vanha "old" vanhemp "older" pitkä (pitä-) "long" pitemp "longer"
The comparative degree of the adjective inflects just like any other nominal:
Ingrian English suuremp poika "the bigger boy" suuremman pojan "of the bigger boy"
Note that comparative endings have an underlying final vowel -a (or -ä in front-vocalic words).
Superlative
Unlike Finnish and Estonian, Ingrian doesn't have a superlative degree morphologically distinct from the comparative. Instead, a form of the indefinite pronoun kaik ("all") is used together with the comparative:
Ingrian English kaikkia suuremp poika "the biggest boy" (literally: "the boy bigger than all") kaikkiin suuremp poika "the biggest boy" (literally: "the boy biggest of all") kaikkiis suuremp poika "the biggest boy" (literally: "the boy biggest among all")
Furthermore, the adverb samoi (borrowed from the Russian самый) can be used together with either the positive or comparative form of the adjective to express a superlative:
Ingrian English samoi suur poika "the biggest boy" (literally: "the most big boy") samoi suuremp poika "the biggest boy" (literally: "the most biggest boy")
Pronouns
Ingrian pronouns are inflected similarly to their referent nouns. A major difference is the existence of the accusative (plural) in personal and some demonstrative pronouns, which is absent in all nouns and adjectives.
Personal pronouns
Unlike in Finnish, personal pronouns can be used to refer to both animate and inanimate nouns alike. Follows a table of personal pronouns:
1st person 2nd person 3rd person singular plural singular plural singular plural Nominative miä
("I")möö
("we")siä
("you")töö
("you")hää
("he, she, it")höö
("they")Accusative miun meijet siun teijet hänen heijet Genitive miun meijen siun teijen hänen heijen Partitive minnua meitä sinnua teitä häntä heitä Illative miuhu meihe siuhu teihe hännee heihe Inessive mius meis sius seis hänes heis Essive miunna meinnä siunna teinnä hänennä heinnä Comitative miunka meijenkä siunka teijenkä hänenkä heijenkä
Other locative cases are formed using the appropriate nominal case endings to the inessive stem.
As seen above, Ingrian does not have grammatical gender, so the pronoun hää can be used for both male, female and inanimate referents alike. However, inanimate nouns are often referred to using the demonstrative pronoun se ("this") instead.
Some variation occurs among different dialects of Ingrian in regards to the personal pronouns. First of all, dialects with mid vowel raising exhibit the plural pronouns myy, tyy and hyy for möö, töö and höö respectively.[1][3] Furthermore, in the Ala-Laukaa dialect, the third person singular pronoun hän is found instead of hää. Similar forms have been found also in the now-extinct Hevaha and Ylä-Laukaa dialects.[3]
Since verbs in Ingrian conjugate according to grammatical person and number, subject personal pronouns may be omitted in Ingrian.
Demonstrative pronouns
Ingrian demonstratives can be used both as pronouns and as determiners in a determiner phrase. There are three sets of demonstratives: proximal (near to the speaker), distal (far from the speaker) and neutral, which is used to refer to an object without specifying its relative location is space, and is often used in anaphoras:
Proximal Distal Neutral singular plural singular plural singular plural Nominative tämä
("this")nämät
("these")too
("that")noo
("those")se
("this, that")neet
("these, those")Accusative tämän nämät toon noo sen neet Genitive tämän näijen toon noijen senen niijen Partitive tätä näitä toota noota sitä niitä Illative tähä näihe tooho noohe siihe niihe Inessive täs näis toos noos siin niis Elative täst näist toost noost siint niist Allative tälle näille toolle noolle sille niille Adessive täl näil tool nool sil niil Ablative tält näilt toolt noolt silt niilt Translative täks näiks tooks nooks siks niiks Essive tämännä näinnä toonna noonna senennä niinnä
The proximal demonstatives can be contracted to tää (< tämä), tään (< tämän) and näät (< nämät). Again, in dialects with mid vowel raising, the distal demonstratives are tuu and nuu rather than too and noo respectively.[3] Furthermore, in the Ala-Laukaa and the extinct Hevaha dialects, as well as among some speakers of the Soikkola dialect, the plural neutral pronoun is ne rather than neet.[3]
The genitive and accusative singular of the neutral demonstrative pronoun are often used interchangeably, counter to the prescriptive usage described in Junus (1936). Furthermore, for most speakers of the modern Soikkola dialect, the functions of the distal demonstrative have been taken over by the neutral pronoun (se/neet).
Interrogative pronouns
Ingrian interrogatives are divided into one that has an animate referent (ken, "who?") and one that has an inanimate referent (mikä, "what?"). Originally, the latter is a combination of the pronoun *mi- and the interrogative clitic -kä, but its inflected forms are still formed on the basis of the free pronoun:
Animate Inanimate Nominative ken mikä Genitive kenen minen Partitive ketä mitä Illative kehe mihe Inessive kes mis Essive kenennä minennä
Other locative cases are formed using the appropriate nominal case endings to the inessive stem.
The interrogatives also have plural forms of the nominative, ket and mit respectively. Other case forms are used in the singular and plural alike. Like in Finnish and Estonian, but also English, the interrogatives are also used as relative pronouns:
- Mikä ono? ("What is it?")
- En tiije, mikä ono. ("I don't know, what it is.")
Verbs
Person and number
Ingrian verbs inflect for three persons, two numbers, and feature a separate impersonal form.
Number Person Suffix Example Translation singular first -n (miä) etsin I search for second -t (siä) etsit you (sg.) search for third -V (hää) etsii he/she/it searches for plural first -mma / -mmä (möö) etsimmä we search for second -tta / -ttä (töö) etsittä you (pl.) search for third -Vt
-vat / -vät(höö) etsiit
etsivätthey search for impersonal -taa / -tää etsitää one searches
The impersonal form may always be used to denote the third person plural.
Mood
Ingrian verbs inflect for four moods: indicative, conditional, imperative and potential.[4] Of these, the potential is very rare.
The indicative mood is the only one to feature a past tense separate from the present tense and not formed by means of modal verbs.
Mood Suffix Example Translation pres. indicative -∅ (hää) tahtoo he/she/it wants impf. indicative -i (hää) tahtoi he/she/it wanted conditional -is(i) (hää) tahtois he/she/it would have wanted potential -ne (hää) tahtonoo he/she/it may want
The paradigm of the impersonal forms is irregular:
Mood Suffix Example Translation pres. indicative -taa/-tää tahotaa one wants impf. indicative -ttii tahottii one wanted conditional -ttais/-ttäis tahottais one would have wanted potential -ttanoo/-ttänöö tahottannoo one may want
In verbs whose stems end in -n, -l, -r, -s, -h the initial -t- of the impersonal forms is dropped, or (in the case of present indicative) assimilated to the preceding consonant:
- männä - män- ("to go") → männää, mäntii etc.
- kuulla - kuul- ("to hear") → kuullaa, kuultii etc.
- purra - pur- ("to bite") → purraa, purtii etc.
- pessä - pes- ("to wash") → pessää, pestii etc.
- nähä - näh- ("to see") → nähhää, nähtii etc.
The imperative paradigm is also highly irregular compared to the other three moods, and occurs only in the second and third person, as well as the impersonal:
Number Person Suffix Example Translation singular second -∅ (siä) taho want! (sg.) third -koo / -köö (hää) tahtokoo he/she/it must want plural second -kaa / -kää (töö) tahtokaa want! (pl.) third -koot
-kööt(höö) tahtokoot they must want impersonal -ttakoo / -ttäköö tahottakkoo one must want
Indicative mood
The indicative mood is used to describe actions that either have happened, are happening at the moment, or will inevitably happen:
- Miä käyn ulitsaa mööt ("I am walking along the road")
- Miä ujuin joes ("I was swimming in the river")
The present forms of the indicatives can always be used to describe a future action:
- Hoomeen, miä mään škouluu ("Tomorrow, I am going to go to school")
Conditional mood
The conditional mood is used to describe actions which would have happened if a certain condition were met; At the same time, it is used to describe that condition:
- Jos miä olisin suur, mänisin škouluu ("If I were big, I would go to school")
When the condition refers to the future, or is a general remark that is true regardless of time, the indicative is used instead:
- Jos oon suur, mään škouluu ("If I am (ever) big, I will go to school")
- Jos katsoa, voip nähä ("If one looks, he will be able to see")
Imperative mood
The imperative mood is used to give commands, either directly (to one's collocutor), or by expressing a wish about a third person:
- Anna sitä miulle! ("Give that to me!")
- Emä olkoo terve! ("May mother be healthy!")
In the first person, there is no imperative, and instead other constructions are used with a similar effect:
- Anna miä laulan ("Let me sing")
- Laa möö määmmä kottii ("Let us go home")
Potential mood
The potential mood is used to describe actions that are likely, but uncertain to happen:
- Miä kirjuttanen kirjan ("I will probably write a letter")
The potential forms of the verb olla ("to be") are irregular, and are used as a separate future tense instead:
- Miä leenen suur ("I will be big")
The potential forms are frequently followed by the clitics -k and -kse.[5]
Stem types
Like nominals, verbs can be divided into a number of inflectional classes, according to which they are inflected, each class associated with a particular form of the stem.
Vowel stems
stem
vowelEnglish Шаблон:Abbr
Шаблон:AbbrШаблон:Abbr
Шаблон:AbbrШаблон:Abbr
Шаблон:AbbrШаблон:Abbr
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Шаблон:AbbrNotes -o/-ö
-u/-yto look katsoa katson katsoo katsoin katsoi katsoisin katsois -a/-ä to sow kylvää kylvän kylvää kylvin kylvi kylväisin kylväis -a/-ä to plough kyntää kynnän kyntää kynsin kynsi kyntäisin kyntäis Followed by verbs whose stem ends on -nta- (-ntä-), -lta- (-ltä-), -rta- (-rtä-), or -Vta- (-Vtä-) -a to pay maksaa maksan maksaa maksoin maskoi maksaisin maksais Followed by bisyllabic verbs whose first stem vowel is either -a-, -e- or -i- -e to lower laskia lasen laskoo lasin laski laskisin laskis In the infinitive, the historical combination *-ea (*-eä) regularly becomes -ia (-iä). In the third person singular present, the historical combination *-ee regularly becomes -oo/-öö. -i to believe sallia sallin sallii sallin salli sallisin sallis -Vi to rain vihmoja vihmoin vihmoi vihmoin vihmoi vihmoisin vihmois Note that the -i- intervocalically becomes -j-: *vihmoi+a > vihmoja -VV to marry naija nain naip nain nai naisin nais Followed by monosyllabic verbs ending in an unrounded vowel. Unlike in other inflections, the infinitive ending is -ja (-jä) instead of -a (-ä) and the third person singular present ending is -p. -VV to eat söövvä söön sööp söin söi söisin söis Followed by monosyllabic verbs ending in a rounded vowel. Unlike in other inflections, the infinitive ending is -vva (-vvä) instead of -a (-ä) and the third person singular present ending is -p.
Consonant stems
Most consonant stem types are inflected in much the same way as laskia, but exhibit an intrusive consonant in moods other than the infinitive:
stem
consonant(s)English Шаблон:Abbr
Шаблон:AbbrШаблон:Abbr
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Шаблон:AbbrШаблон:Abbr
Шаблон:AbbrNotes -s-/-r- to wash pessä pesen pessöö pesin pesi pesisin pesis The infinitive ending goes back to an original *-stak / *-rdak, which then regularly developed into -ssa and -rra, respectively. -l- to fly around lennellä lentelen lentelöö lentelin lenteli lentelisin lenteliis Formally identical to the preceding type, with the exception that the syllable preceding the stem consonant may gradate. -ts- to choose valita valitsen valitsoo valitsin valitsi valitsisin valitsiis -ks- to run joossa jooksen jooksoo jooksin jooksi jooksisin jooksiis -n- to flee paeta pakenen pakenoo pakenin pakeni pakenisin pakeniis
Two other frequent types of consonant stems used to feature the Proto-Finnic consonant *-d-, which was regularly lost in Ingrian:
stem
consonant(s)English Шаблон:Abbr
Шаблон:AbbrШаблон:Abbr
Шаблон:AbbrШаблон:Abbr
Шаблон:AbbrШаблон:Abbr
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Шаблон:AbbrNotes -∅- to borrow lainata lainaan lainajaa lainaisin lainais lainajaisin lainajais The vowel preceding the stem consonant is duplicated after it, resulting in a long vowel in the present indicative. If the preceding vowel is -i-, the imperfect forms keep only one -i- (e.g. hävitä - hävisin - hävijäisin). -∅- to be ashamed hävetä häppiin häpijää häpisin häpis häpijäisin häpijäis Note how the vowel preceding the stem consonant changes from -e- to -i-.
A final type of vowel stems, which are unique to Ingrian, are reflexive conjugations, which are formed with the suffix -issa and its allomorphs:
stem
consonant(s)English Шаблон:Abbr
Шаблон:AbbrШаблон:Abbr
Шаблон:AbbrШаблон:Abbr
Шаблон:AbbrШаблон:Abbr
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Шаблон:AbbrШаблон:Abbr
Шаблон:AbbrШаблон:Abbr
Шаблон:AbbrNotes -∅- to descend laskiissa laskiin laskiijaa laskiisin laskiis laskiijaisin laskiijais Note how unlike the lainata-type conjugations, this verb features a long vowel throughout the paradigm -∅- to throw up oksentaissa oksentaan oksentaijaa oksentaisin oksentais oksentaijaisin oksentaijais Formally identical to the preceding type, with the exception that the verb contains a diphthong instead of a long vowel before the stem consonant. -∅- to separate erahussa erahun erahuu erahuin erahui erahuisin erahuis
Irregular verbs
There are a handful of verbs in Ingrian that do not follow the above mentioned patterns. These will be discussed here in detail.
The most irregular verb in Ingrian is the copulative verb olla ("to be"). Overall, it mostly follows the pattern of l-final consonant stems (like lennellä), but features a completely irregular present indicative, imperative, and potential paradigms (as mentioned above, the potential is used to mark the future tense of this verb):
Number Person Indicative Imperative Potential singular first oon — leenen second oot oo! leenet third ono
onolkoo! leenöö
leeplural first oomma — leenemmä second ootta olkaa! leenettä third ovat olkoot! leenööt impersonal ollaa oltakoo! oltanöö
The rest of the forms are formed regularly, according to the l-final stems.
The verbs tulla ("to come"), männä ("to go") and panna ("to put") also mostly follows the l-final stems in conjugation, except in the indicative and the second-person singular imperative:
Number Person tulla männä panna singular first töön / tyen mään paan third tulloo männöö pannoo plural first töömmä / tyemmä määmmä paamma third tulloot
tulevatmännööt
mänevätpannoot
panevatimpersonal tullaa männää pannaa imperative töö! / tye! mää! paa!
The verbs nähä ("to see") and tehä ("to do") are also conjugated according to the l-final stems, but feature a stem ending in -k- (which gradates regularly with -∅-) in indicative and conditional non-impersonal forms, the second-person singular imperative, the present active participle, and in the 3rd and 4th infintives:
Number Person nähä tehä singular first nään / näen teen third näkköö tekköö plural first näämmä / näemmä teemmä third näkkööt
näkevättekkööt
tekevätimpersonal nähhää tehhää imperative nää! tee! 4th infinitive näkömiin tekömiin active participle näkövä tekövä
The verbs seissa ("to stand") and haissa ("to smell") are conjugated very similarly, featuring the stem seiso- and haiso- (following -o final verbs like katsoa) in indicative and conditional non-impersonal forms, the second-person singular imperative, the present active participle, and in the 3rd and 4th infintives:
Mood Person seissa haissa pres. indicative 1SG seison haison 3SG seisoo haisoo ImSG seissaa haissaa impf. indicative 1SG seisoin haisoin 3SG seisoi haisoi ImSG seistii haistii conditional 1SG seisoisin haisoisin 3SG seisois haisois ImSG seistais haistais 4th infinitive seisomiin haisomiin pres. act. part. seisova haisova pres. pass. part. seissava haissava
The verbs tiitää ("to know") and tuntaa ("to feel"), but feature the weak stems tiije- and tunne- instead of tiijä- and tunna-, respectively:
Mood Person tiitää tuntaa pres. indicative 1SG tiijen tunnen 3SG tiitää tuntaa ImSG tiijetää tunnetaa impf. indicative 1SG tiisin tunsin 3SG tiisi tunsi ImSG tiijettii tunnettii conditional 1SG tiitäisin tuntaisin 3SG tiitäis tuntais ImSG tiijettäis tunnettais 4th infinitive tiitämiin tuntamiin pres. act. part. tiitävä tuntava pres. pass. part. tiijettävä tunnettava
The last two irregular verbs are sannoa and lähtiä. The former shows the weak stem sao-, whereas the latter shows the past stem läksi-.
Mood Person sannoa lähtiä pres. indicative 1SG saon lähen 3SG sannoo lähtöö ImSG saotaa lähetää impf. indicative 1SG saoin läksin 3SG saoi läksi ImSG saottii lähettii conditional 1SG sanoisin lähtisin 3SG sanois lähtis ImSG saottais lähettäis 4th infinitive sanomiin lähtömiin pres. act. part. sanova lähtevä pres. pass. part. saottava lähettävä
Infinitives
Ingrian verbs possess four different infinitive forms, each of which may be inflected in various cases:
Number Case Ending Example Translation 1st nominative -(t)a/-(t)ä tahtoa to want 2nd inessive -(t)es tahtojees when wanting instructive -(t)en tahtoen by wanting 3rd illative -maa/-mää tahtomaa with the intention of wanting inessive -mas/-mäs tahtomaas in the act of wanting elative -mast/-mäst tahtomast from just having been wanting abessive -mata/-mätä tahtomata without wanting 4th nominative -miin tahtomiin the act of wanting
The fourth infinitive is formally a verbal noun but is fully productive and may occur in certain (rare) grammatical constructions.
Participles
Every Ingrian verb has four distinct participles:
Tense Voice Ending Example Translation present active -va/-vä tahtova that wants passive -ttava/-ttävä tahottava that is wanted past active -nt
-nut/-nyttahtont
tahtonutthat wanted passive -ttu/-tty tahottu that was wanted
The formation of the past active participle is not always straightforward. Verb stems ending in the consonants -n, -l, -r and -s, -h assimilate the initial consonant of the ending to the stem consonant:
- männä - män- ("to go") → mänt, männyt
- kuulla - kuul- ("to hear") → kuult, kuullut
- purra - pur- ("to bite") → purt, purrut
- pessä - pes- ("to wash") → pest, pessyt
- nähä - näh- ("to see") → näht, nähnyt
In verbs whose stems end in -n, -l, -r, -s, -h the initial -t- of the passive participles is also lost:
- männä - män- ("to go") → mänty, mäntävä
- kuulla - kuul- ("to hear") → kuultu, kuultava
- purra - pur- ("to bite") → purtu, purtava
- pessä - pes- ("to wash") → pesty, pestävä
- nähä - näh- ("to see") → nähty, nähtävä
Negation
The negative in Ingrian is expressed with the negative verb ei, which is conjugated irregularly:
Number Person Indicative Imperative singular first en — second et elä third ei elköö plural first emmä — second että elkää third evät elkööt
The negative verb is used with various forms of the main verb, called connegatives, to express the negation of that main verb. These connegatives vary by mood, but not by person:
Mood Ending Example Translation Notes pres. indicative -∅ (hää) ei taho he/she/it doesn't want identical in form to the second-person singular imperative impf. indicative -nt
-nut/-nyt(hää) ei tahtont
(hää) ei tahtonuthe/she/it didn't want identical in form to the past active participle conditional -is (hää) ei tahtois he/she/it wouldn't have wanted identical in form to the third-singular conditional potential -ne (hää) ei tahtone he/she/it may not want
In the imperative, there is a separate connegative for the second person singular and all other persons:
Mood Ending Example Translation Notes 2sg imperative -∅ elä taho! do not want! identical in form to the second-person singular imperative non-2sg imperative -ko/-kö elköö tahtoko he/she/it must not want
To express the negation of the impersonal forms of a verb, the third singular form of the negative is used with an impersonal connegative, which also inflects by mood:
Mood Ending Example Translation Notes pres. indicative -ta/-tä ei tahota it is not wanted impf. indicative -ttu/-tty ei tahottu it was not wanted identical in form to the past passive participle conditional -ttais/-ttäis ei tahottais it would not have been wanted identical in form to the impersonal conditional potential -ttane/-ttäne ei tahottane it may not be wanted imperative -ttako/-ttäkö ei tahottako it must not be wanted
To negate any other verbal or non-verbal form the negative verb, inflected to the person of the subject of the main clause, is placed directly before this form:
- Miä en taho siin en olla ("I do not want to not be here")
- Miä en maha en suutia enkä laatia[6] ("I can neither judge nor decree")
Note that in Ingrian, double negatives are obligatory:
- Kenkää sitä ei tiije ("Nobody knows that")
- Miä mittää en teht ("I did nothing / I did not do anything")
Adverbs
Ingrian adverbs are most commonly derived from adjectives by adding the suffix -st:
Ingrian English Ingrian English hyvä "good" → hyväst "well" kerkiä "easy" → kerkiäst "easily" rauhalliin "peaceful" → rauhallisest "peacefully"
Note that the resulting form is always identical to the elative singular of the adjective.
Other frequent methods of forming adverbs include using the illative or adding the suffixes -in, -staa, -ttee and others.
Comparative adverbs are very rare, and are exclusively formed from comparative adjectives:
- tihti ("frequent"), tihimp ("more frequent") → tihtii ("frequently"), tihimpää ("more frequently")
Numerals
Ingrian features morphologically distinct cardinal and ordinal numbers:
Number Cardinal Ordinal 0 nolli — 1 yks ensimäin 2 kaks toin 3 kolt kolmas 4 neljä neljäs 5 viis viijes 6 kuus kuuvves 7 seitsen seitsemäs 8 kaheksan kaheksas 9 yheksän yheksäs 10 kymmen kymmenäs 100 sata sattais 1000 tuhatta tuhattais
Numbers from 11-19 are formed by adding the single cardinal numeral to -toist ("of the second") and -toist kymmenäs for the cardinal and ordinal numbers, respectively:
- 3 kolt → 13 kolttoist
- 3-s kolmas → 13-s kolttoist kymmenäs
Terms for tens are formed by adding the single cardinal numeral to -kymment ("of teen") and -kymmenäs ("tenth") for the cardinal and ordinal numbers, respectively:
- 3 kolt → 30 koltkymment
- 3-s kolmas → 30-s koltkymmenäs
Other terms from 21-99 are formed by simply stacking the single numerals onto the number for a multiple of tens:
- 20 kakskymment → 21 kakskymment yks
- 20-s kakskymmenäs → 21-s kakskymmenäs ensimäin
Sentence structure
Question formation
In Ingrian, questions are formed either by using an interrogative word, or by adding the interrogative clitic -k (or its variants -ka / -kä and -ko / -kö) to the first word (or, in the case of nouns, phrase) in a sentence:
- Mitä siä sööt? ("What are you eating?")
- Suvvaatk siä siun vanhempia? ("Do you love your parents?")
The most frequent interrogative pronouns include ken ("who"), mikä ("what"), kuka ("which (of many)"), kumpa ("which one").
The most frequent interrogative determiners include millain ("what kind"), kumpa ("which") and monta ("how many").
Ingrian interrogative adverbs include kuin ("how"), miks ("why") and kons ("when").
Interrogatives are usually put at the beginning of a sentence.
References
- ↑ 1,0 1,1 Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite journal
- ↑ 3,0 3,1 3,2 3,3 Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book (in Ingrian)
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
Bibliography
- Шаблон:Cite book (in Ingrian)
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite book (in Russian)
